Hortobágy ( Hungarian pronunciation: [ˈhortobaːɟ] ) is an 800 km national park in eastern Hungary , rich with folklore and cultural history . The park, a part of the Alföld (Great Plain), was designated as a national park in 1973 (the first in Hungary), and elected among the World Heritage Sites in 1999. The Hortobágy is Hungary's largest protected area, and the largest semi-natural grassland in Europe.
60-574: Until recently it was believed that this alkaline steppe was formed by the clear cutting of huge forests in the Middle Ages , followed by measures to control the course of the Tisza River, allegedly resulting in the soil's current structure and pH . However, Hortobágy is much older, with alkalinization estimated to have started ten thousand years ago, when the Tisza first found its way through
120-452: A food additive ( European Food Safety Authority number E500) as an acidity regulator, anticaking agent , raising agent , and stabilizer. It is also used in the production of snus to stabilize the pH of the final product. While it is less likely to cause chemical burns than lye, care must still be taken when working with sodium carbonate in the kitchen, as it is corrosive to aluminum cookware, utensils, and foil. Sodium carbonate
180-410: A browning as lye, but is much safer and easier to work with. Sodium carbonate is used in the production of sherbet powder. The cooling and fizzing sensation results from the endothermic reaction between sodium carbonate and a weak acid, commonly citric acid , releasing carbon dioxide gas, which occurs when the sherbet is moistened by saliva. Sodium carbonate also finds use in the food industry as
240-522: A favourable pH as a float conditioner besides CaO and other mildly basic compounds. Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO 3 ) or baking soda, also a component in fire extinguishers, is often generated from sodium carbonate. Although NaHCO 3 is itself an intermediate product of the Solvay process, the heating needed to remove the ammonia that contaminates it decomposes some NaHCO 3 , making it more economical to react finished Na 2 CO 3 with CO 2 : In
300-715: A poor soil structure and a low infiltration capacity. Often they have a hard calcareous layer at 0.5 to 1 metre depth. Alkali soils owe their unfavorable physico-chemical properties mainly to the dominating presence of sodium carbonate , which causes the soil to swell and difficult to clarify/settle. They derive their name from the alkali metal group of elements, to which sodium belongs, and which can induce basicity . Sometimes these soils are also referred to as alkaline sodic soils . Alkaline soils are basic , but not all basic soils are alkaline . The causes of soil alkalinity can be natural or man-made: Alkaline soils are difficult to take into agricultural production. Due to
360-430: A related reaction, sodium carbonate is used to make sodium bisulfite (NaHSO 3 ), which is used for the "sulfite" method of separating lignin from cellulose. This reaction is exploited for removing sulfur dioxide from flue gases in power stations: This application has become more common, especially where stations have to meet stringent emission controls. Sodium carbonate is used by the cotton industry to neutralize
420-663: A solution of alkaline salts used to give Japanese ramen noodles their characteristic flavour and chewy texture; a similar solution is used in Chinese cuisine to make lamian , for similar reasons. Cantonese bakers similarly use sodium carbonate as a substitute for lye-water to give moon cakes their characteristic texture and improve browning. In German cuisine (and Central European cuisine more broadly), breads such as pretzels and lye rolls traditionally treated with lye to improve browning can be treated instead with sodium carbonate; sodium carbonate does not produce quite as strong
480-428: A source of Ca ions to replace the sodium at the exchange complex. Gypsum also reacts with sodium carbonate to convert into sodium sulphate which is a neutral salt and does not contribute to high pH. There must be enough natural drainage to the underground, or else an artificial subsurface drainage system must be present, to permit leaching of the excess sodium by percolation of rain and/or irrigation water through
540-711: Is sodium chloride ), but they do not have a very high pH nor a poor infiltration rate. Upon leaching they are usually not converted into a (sodic) alkali soil as the Na ions are easily removed. Therefore, saline (sodic) soils mostly do not need gypsum applications for their reclamation. Since 1990s, research and experimentation have been conducted in China and elsewhere for remediation and utilization of alkali land via combined agriculture and aquaculture practices, with considerable success and experiences. Aquaculture technology of utilizing inland saline-alkali water for seafood production
600-489: Is a stronger base than baking soda ( sodium bicarbonate ) but weaker than lye (which may refer to sodium hydroxide or, less commonly, potassium hydroxide ). Alkalinity affects gluten production in kneaded doughs, and also improves browning by reducing the temperature at which the Maillard reaction occurs. To take advantage of the former effect, sodium carbonate is therefore one of the components of kansui ( かん水 ) ,
660-591: Is able to reduce/leach the soil salts to comfortable levels if proper rainwater harvesting methods are followed. In some agricultural areas, the use of subsurface "tile lines" are used to facilitate drainage and leach salts. Continuous drip irrigation would lead to alkali soils formation in the absence of leaching / drainage water from the field. It is also possible to reclaim alkaline soils by adding acidifying minerals like pyrite or cheaper alum or aluminium sulfate . Alternatively, gypsum ( calcium sulfate , CaSO 4 · 2 H 2 O ) can also be applied as
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#1732772395986720-401: Is also a common additive in swimming pools and aquarium water to maintain a desired pH and carbonate hardness (KH). In dyeing with fiber-reactive dyes, sodium carbonate (often under a name such as soda ash fixative or soda ash activator) is used as mordant to ensure proper chemical bonding of the dye with cellulose (plant) fiber. It is also used in the froth flotation process to maintain
780-526: Is also a key input for tableware glass manufacturing. Hard water usually contains calcium or magnesium ions. Sodium carbonate is used for removing these ions and replacing them with sodium ions. Sodium carbonate is a water-soluble source of carbonate. The calcium and magnesium ions form insoluble solid precipitates upon treatment with carbonate ions: The water is softened because it no longer contains dissolved calcium ions and magnesium ions. Sodium carbonate has several uses in cuisine, largely because it
840-435: Is also used as a relatively strong base in various fields. As a common alkali, it is preferred in many chemical processes because it is cheaper than sodium hydroxide and far safer to handle. Its mildness especially recommends its use in domestic applications. For example, it is used as a pH regulator to maintain stable alkaline conditions necessary for the action of the majority of photographic film developing agents. It
900-474: Is also used to reduce the soil alkalinity / salinity primarily. The ammonium ( NH 4 ) cation produced by urea hydrolysis which is a strongly sorbing cation exchanges with the weakly sorbing Na cation from the soil structure and Na is released into water. Thus alkali soils adsorb / consume more urea compared to other soils. To reclaim the soils completely one needs prohibitively high doses of amendments. Most efforts are therefore directed to improving
960-448: Is an important stopover site for migrating common cranes , dotterels , and lesser white-fronted geese . Hortobágy is also a center for the breeding of Taurus cattle, one of several attempts to re-create the extinct aurochs . 47°36′N 21°06′E / 47.600°N 21.100°E / 47.600; 21.100 Alkaline soil Alkali , or alkaline , soils are clay soils with high pH (greater than 8.5),
1020-482: Is becoming mature, covering wide-range of seafood species including shrimps, crabs, shellfish and fish such as sea bass and grouper. In recent years, aquaculture (or salt-alkali land aquaculture ) has been recommended by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of China as a successful model for the transformation and utilization of saline-alkali land. FAO noted in a recent newsletter that alkaline land
1080-487: Is called black ash . The soda ash is extracted from the black ash with water. Evaporation of this extract yields solid sodium carbonate. This extraction process was termed lixiviating . The hydrochloric acid produced by the Leblanc process was a major source of air pollution, and the calcium sulfide byproduct also presented waste disposal issues. However, it remained the major production method for sodium carbonate until
1140-518: Is increased as illustrated in the same figure. Na is more mobile and has a smaller electric charge than Ca so that the thickness of the DDL increases as more sodium ions occupy it. The DDL thickness is also influenced by the total concentration of ions in the soil moisture in the sense that higher concentrations cause the DDL zone to shrink. Clay particles with considerable ESP (> 16), in contact with non-saline soil moisture have an expanded DDL zone and
1200-804: Is mined in several areas of the US and provides nearly all the US consumption of sodium carbonate. Large natural deposits found in 1938, such as the one near Green River, Wyoming , have made mining more economical than industrial production in North America. There are important reserves of trona in Turkey; two million tons of soda ash have been extracted from the reserves near Ankara. Several " halophyte " (salt-tolerant) plant species and seaweed species can be processed to yield an impure form of sodium carbonate, and these sources predominated in Europe and elsewhere until
1260-399: Is one area that there are innovative ways and opportunities for aquaculture to expand. Sodium carbonate Sodium carbonate (also known as washing soda , soda ash and soda crystals ) is the inorganic compound with the formula Na 2 CO 3 and its various hydrates . All forms are white, odourless, water-soluble salts that yield alkaline solutions in water. Historically, it
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#17327723959861320-411: Is one of the few metal carbonates that is soluble in water. Some common applications of sodium carbonate include: Sodium carbonate serves as a flux for silica (SiO 2 , melting point 1,713 °C), lowering the melting point of the mixture to something achievable without special materials. This "soda glass" is mildly water-soluble, so some calcium carbonate is added to the melt mixture to make
1380-409: Is that the former types of clay have larger specific surface areas ( i.e. the surface area of the soil particles divided by their volume) and higher cation exchange capacity (CEC). The quality of the irrigation water in relation to the alkalinity hazard is expressed by the following two indexes: which must not be much higher than 1 and preferably less than 0.5. The above expression recognizes
1440-769: Is the Nine-holed Bridge . Traditional T-shaped sweep wells dot the landscape, as well as the occasional mirage of trees shimmering in the reflected heat of the puszta (steppe). Part of the national park is a dark sky preserve . Hortobágy has also had more negative connotations, as a site of forced labor under the communist regime . Hortobágy is a steppe , a grassy plain with Hungarian Grey cattle , racka , water buffalo , and horses tended by mounted herdsmen called Csikós . It provides habitat for various species including 342 species of birds. The red-footed falcon , stone curlew , great bustard and European roller are represented by breeding populations. The area
1500-467: Is the most common hydrate of sodium carbonate containing 10 molecules of water of crystallization . Soda ash is dissolved in water and crystallized to get washing soda. Na 2 CO 3 + 10 H 2 O ⟶ Na 2 CO 3 ⋅ 10 H 2 O {\displaystyle {\ce {Na2CO3 + 10H2O -> Na2CO3.10H2O}}} It
1560-423: Is then lowered to below 10 °C. Solubility of ammonium chloride is higher than that of sodium chloride at 30 °C and lower at 10 °C. Due to this temperature-dependent solubility difference and the common-ion effect , ammonium chloride is precipitated in a sodium chloride solution. The Chinese name of Hou's process, lianhe zhijian fa ( 联合制碱法 ), means "coupled manufacturing alkali method": Hou's process
1620-597: Is to cultivate glasswort or saltwort or barilla plants. These plants sequester the sodium carbonate they absorb from alkali soil into their tissues. The ash of these plants contains good quantity of sodium carbonate which can be commercially extracted and used in place of sodium carbonate derived from common salt which is highly energy intensive process. Thus alkali lands deterioration can be checked by cultivating barilla plants which can serve as food source, biomass fuel and raw material for soda ash and potash , etc. Saline soils are mostly also sodic (the predominant salt
1680-541: Is used in toothpastes, where it acts as a foaming agent and an abrasive, and to temporarily increase mouth pH. Sodium carbonate is also used in the processing and tanning of animal hides. The integral enthalpy of solution of sodium carbonate is −28.1 kJ/mol for a 10% w/w aqueous solution. The Mohs hardness of sodium carbonate monohydrate is 1.3. Sodium carbonate is soluble in water, and can occur naturally in arid regions, especially in mineral deposits ( evaporites ) formed when seasonal lakes evaporate. Deposits of
1740-747: The Great Hungarian Plain , cutting off many streams from their sources in the Northern Mountains. The formation was finished by grazing animals and wild horses during the Ice Age , followed by domesticated animals. The site was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1999 because of its long cultural history (stretching back more than four millennia), its scenery, and its testimony to traditional methods of pastoralism . One of its most iconic sites
1800-507: The Mannheim process . This reaction produces sodium sulfate ( salt cake ) and hydrogen chloride : The salt cake and crushed limestone ( calcium carbonate ) was reduced by heating with coal . This conversion entails two parts. First is the carbothermic reaction whereby the coal, a source of carbon , reduces the sulfate to sulfide : The second stage is the reaction to produce sodium carbonate and calcium sulfide : This mixture
1860-605: The chloralkali process . Sodium carbonate is obtained as three hydrates and as the anhydrous salt: The decahydrate is formed from water solutions crystallizing in the temperature range −2.1 to +32.0 °C, the heptahydrate in the narrow range 32.0 to 35.4 °C and above this temperature the monohydrate forms. In dry air the decahydrate and heptahydrate lose water to give the monohydrate. Other hydrates have been reported, e.g. with 2.5 units of water per sodium carbonate unit ("Penta hemihydrate"). Sodium carbonate decahydrate (Na 2 CO 3 ·10H 2 O), also known as washing soda,
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1920-428: The soil profile . Calcium chloride is also used to reclaim alkali soils. CaCl 2 converts Na 2 CO 3 into NaCl precipitating CaCO 3 . NaCl is drained off by leaching water. Calcium nitrate has a similar effect, with NaNO 3 in the leachate. Spent acid (HCl, H 2 SO 4 , etc.) can also be used to reduce the excess Na 2 CO 3 in the soil/water. Where urea is made available cheaply to farmers, it
1980-502: The above chemical reaction. The remaining sodium carbonate, and hence the presence of CO 3 ions, causes CaCO 3 (which is only slightly soluble) to precipitate as solid calcium carbonate (limestone), because the product of the CO 3 concentration and the Ca concentration exceeds the allowable limit. Hence, the calcium ions Ca are immobilized. The presence of abundant Na ions in
2040-441: The adjusted SAR for calculating water sodicity. Alkaline soils with solid CaCO 3 can be reclaimed with grass cultures , organic compost, waste hair / feathers, organic garbage, waste paper, rejected lemons/oranges, etc. ensuring the incorporation of much acidifying material (inorganic or organic material ) into the soil, and enhancing dissolved Ca in the field water by releasing CO 2 gas. Deep ploughing and incorporating
2100-401: The calcareous subsoil into the top soil also helps. Many times salts' migration to the top soil takes place from the underground water sources rather than surface sources. Where the underground water table is high and the land is subjected to high solar radiation, ground water oozes to the land surface due to capillary action and gets evaporated leaving the dissolved salts in the top layer of
2160-481: The early 19th century. The land plants (typically glassworts or saltworts ) or the seaweed (typically Fucus species) were harvested, dried, and burned. The ashes were then " lixivated " (washed with water) to form an alkali solution. This solution was boiled dry to create the final product, which was termed "soda ash"; this very old name derives from the Arabic word soda , in turn applied to Salsola soda , one of
2220-439: The equilibrium between calcium carbonate and dissolved carbon dioxide are in equilibrium in soil solution. H 2 CO 3 ( carbonic acid ) is unstable and produces H 2 O (water) and CO 2 ( carbon dioxide gas, escaping into the atmosphere). This explains the remaining alkalinity (or rather basicity ) in the form of soluble sodium hydroxide and the high pH or low pOH . Not all the dissolved sodium carbonate undergoes
2280-409: The equilibrium of carbonate-bicarbonate-carbon dioxide. The above reactions are similar to the dissolution of calcium carbonate , the solubility of the two salts being the only difference. Na 2 CO 3 is about 78 000 times more soluble than CaCO 3 , so it can dissolve far larger amounts of CO 3 , thus rising the pH to values higher than 8.5, which is above the maximum attainable pH when
2340-403: The field soon after cutting the crop is also advised to prevent salt migration to the top soil and conserve the soil moisture during the intense summer months. This is done to break the capillary pores in the soil to prevent water reaching the surface of the soil. Clay soils in high annual rain fall (more than 100 cm) areas do not generally suffer from high alkalinity as the rain water runoff
2400-432: The glass insoluble. Bottle and window glass (" soda–lime glass " with transition temperature ~570 °C) is made by melting such mixtures of sodium carbonate, calcium carbonate, and silica sand ( silicon dioxide (SiO 2 )). When these materials are heated, the carbonates release carbon dioxide. In this way, sodium carbonate is a source of sodium oxide. Soda–lime glass has been the most common form of glass for centuries. It
2460-458: The late 1880s. In 1861, the Belgian industrial chemist Ernest Solvay developed a method to make sodium carbonate by first reacting sodium chloride , ammonia , water, and carbon dioxide to generate sodium bicarbonate and ammonium chloride : The resulting sodium bicarbonate was then converted to sodium carbonate by heating it, releasing water and carbon dioxide: Meanwhile, the ammonia
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2520-424: The low infiltration capacity , rain water stagnates on the soil easily and, in dry periods, cultivation is hardly possible without copious irrigated water and good drainage. Agriculture is limited to crops tolerant to surface waterlogging (e.g. rice , grass) and the productivity is lower. Soil alkalinity is associated with the presence of sodium carbonate (Na 2 CO 3 ) or sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO 3 ) in
2580-482: The many species of seashore plants harvested for production. "Barilla" is a commercial term applied to an impure form of potash obtained from coastal plants or kelp . The sodium carbonate concentration in soda ash varied very widely, from 2–3 percent for the seaweed-derived form (" kelp "), to 30 percent for the best barilla produced from saltwort plants in Spain. Plant and seaweed sources for soda ash, and also for
2640-455: The mineral natron have been mined from dry lake bottoms in Egypt since ancient times, when natron was used in the preparation of mummies and in the early manufacture of glass. The anhydrous mineral form of sodium carbonate is quite rare and called nitrite. Sodium carbonate also erupts from Ol Doinyo Lengai , Tanzania's unique volcano, and it is presumed to have erupted from other volcanoes in
2700-579: The past, but due to these minerals' instability at the Earth's surface, are likely to be eroded. All three mineralogical forms of sodium carbonate, as well as trona , trisodium hydrogendi carbonate dihydrate, are also known from ultra-alkaline pegmatitic rocks , that occur for example in the Kola Peninsula in Russia. Extra terrestrially, known sodium carbonate is rare. Deposits have been identified as
2760-408: The plants from water stress and leaf burns. Where the ground water quality is not alkaline / saline and ground water table is high, salts build up in the soil can be averted by using the land throughout the year for growing plantation trees / permanent crops with the help of lift irrigation. When the ground water is used at required leaching factor , the salts in the soil would not build up. Plowing
2820-425: The presence of bicarbonates ( HCO 3 ), the form in which most carbonates are dissolved. While calculating SAR and RSC, the water quality present at the root zone of the crop should be considered which would take into account the leaching factor in the field. The partial pressure of dissolved CO 2 at the plants root zone also decides the calcium present in dissolved form in the field water. USDA follows
2880-480: The related alkali " potash ", became increasingly inadequate by the end of the 18th century, and the search for commercially viable routes to synthesizing soda ash from salt and other chemicals intensified. In 1792, the French chemist Nicolas Leblanc patented a process for producing sodium carbonate from salt, sulfuric acid , limestone , and coal. In the first step, sodium chloride is treated with sulfuric acid in
2940-446: The soil solution and the precipitation of Ca ions as a solid mineral causes the clay particles, which have negative electric charges along their surfaces, to adsorb more Na in the diffuse adsorption zone (DAZ, also more commonly called diffuse double layer (DDL), or electrical double layer (EDL), see the corresponding figure) and, in exchange, release previously adsorbed Ca , by which their exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP)
3000-645: The soil swells ( dispersion ). The phenomenon results in deterioration of the soil structure , and especially crust formation and compaction of the top layer. Hence the infiltration capacity of the soil and the water availability in the soil is reduced, whereas the surface-water-logging or surface runoff is increased. Seedling emergence and crop production are badly affected. Alkalinity problems are more pronounced in clay soils than in loamy, silty or sandy soils. The clay soils containing montmorillonite or smectite (swelling clays) are more subject to alkalinity problems than illite or kaolinite clay soils. The reason
3060-435: The soil, either as a result of natural weathering of the soil particles or brought in by irrigation and/or flood water. This salt is extremely soluble, when it undergoes hydration , it dissociates in: The carbonate anion CO 3 , is a weak base accepting a proton, so it hydrolyses in water to give the bicarbonate ion and a hydroxyl ion : which in turn gives carbonic acid and hydroxyl: See carbonate for
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#17327723959863120-399: The soil. Where the underground water contains high salts, it leads to acute salinity problem. This problem can be reduced by applying mulch to the land. Using poly-houses or shade netting during summer for cultivating vegetables/crops is also advised to mitigate soil salinity and conserve water / soil moisture. Poly-houses filter the intense summer solar radiation in tropical countries to save
3180-604: The source of bright spots on Ceres , interior material that has been brought to the surface. While there are carbonates on Mars , and these are expected to include sodium carbonate, deposits have yet to be confirmed, this absence is explained by some as being due to a global dominance of low pH in previously aqueous Martian soil . The initial large-scale chemical procedure was established in England in 1823 to manufacture soda ash. Trona , also known as trisodium hydrogendicarbonate dihydrate (Na 3 HCO 3 CO 3 ·2H 2 O),
3240-432: The sulfuric acid needed for acid delinting of fuzzy cottonseed. It is also used to form carbonates of other metals by ion exchange, often with the other metals' sulphates. Sodium carbonate is used by the brick industry as a wetting agent to reduce the amount of water needed to extrude the clay. In casting, it is referred to as "bonding agent" and is used to allow wet alginate to adhere to gelled alginate. Sodium carbonate
3300-459: The temperatures required (250 °F (121 °C) to 300 °F (149 °C)) to convert baking soda to sodium carbonate are readily achieved in conventional kitchen ovens . This process was developed by Chinese chemist Hou Debang in the 1930s. The earlier steam reforming by-product carbon dioxide was pumped through a saturated solution of sodium chloride and ammonia to produce sodium bicarbonate by these reactions: The sodium bicarbonate
3360-732: The top layer only (say the first 10 cm of the soils), as the top layer is most sensitive to deterioration of the soil structure . The treatments, however, need to be repeated in a few (say 5) years' time. Trees / plants follow gravitropism . It is difficult to survive in alkali soils for the trees with deeper rooting system which can be more than 60 meters deep in good non-alkali soils. It will be important to refrain from irrigation (ground water or surface water) with poor quality water. In viticulture, adding naturally occurring chelating agents such as tartaric acid to irrigation water has been suggested, to solubilize calcium and magnesium carbonates in sodic soils. One way of reducing sodium carbonate
3420-399: Was collected as a precipitate due to its low solubility and then heated up to approximately 80 °C (176 °F) or 95 °C (203 °F) to yield pure sodium carbonate similar to last step of the Solvay process. More sodium chloride is added to the remaining solution of ammonium and sodium chlorides; also, more ammonia is pumped at 30-40 °C to this solution. The solution temperature
3480-454: Was extracted from the ashes of plants grown in sodium-rich soils, and because the ashes of these sodium-rich plants were noticeably different from ashes of wood (once used to produce potash ), sodium carbonate became known as "soda ash". It is produced in large quantities from sodium chloride and limestone by the Solvay process , as well as by carbonating sodium hydroxide which is made using
3540-417: Was produced by the Solvay process, and the last Leblanc process plant closed in the early 1920s. The second step of the Solvay process, heating sodium bicarbonate, is used on a small scale by home cooks and in restaurants to make sodium carbonate for culinary purposes (including pretzels and alkali noodles ). The method is appealing to such users because sodium bicarbonate is widely sold as baking soda, and
3600-593: Was regenerated from the ammonium chloride byproduct by treating it with the lime ( calcium oxide ) left over from carbon dioxide generation: The Solvay process recycles its ammonia. It consumes only brine and limestone, and calcium chloride is its only waste product. The process is substantially more economical than the Leblanc process, which generates two waste products, calcium sulfide and hydrogen chloride . The Solvay process quickly came to dominate sodium carbonate production worldwide. By 1900, 90% of sodium carbonate
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