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49-744: It describes species in the natural world along with their medicinal uses and modes of preparation. It followed the Latin Herbarius moguntinus (1484) and the German Gart der Gesundheit (1485), that Peter Schöffer had published in Mainz. Unlike these earlier works, besides dealing with herbs, the Hortus sanitatis deals with animals, birds, fish and stones too. Moreover the author does not restrict himself to dealing only with real creatures, but also includes accounts of mythical animals such as

98-680: A myograph , and physiological responses are recorded after drug application, allowed analysis of drugs' effects on tissues. The development of the ligand binding assay in 1945 allowed quantification of the binding affinity of drugs at chemical targets. Modern pharmacologists use techniques from genetics , molecular biology , biochemistry , and other advanced tools to transform information about molecular mechanisms and targets into therapies directed against disease, defects or pathogens, and create methods for preventive care, diagnostics, and ultimately personalized medicine . The discipline of pharmacology can be divided into many sub disciplines each with

147-448: A dispensing or clinical care role. In either field, the primary contrast between the two is their distinctions between direct-patient care, pharmacy practice, and the science-oriented research field, driven by pharmacology. The word pharmacology is derived from Greek word φάρμακον , pharmakon , meaning "drug" or " poison ", together with another Greek word -λογία , logia with the meaning of "study of" or "knowledge of" (cf.

196-440: A drug will affect the rate and extent of absorption, extent of distribution, metabolism and elimination. The drug needs to have the appropriate molecular weight, polarity etc. in order to be absorbed, the fraction of a drug the reaches the systemic circulation is termed bioavailability, this is simply a ratio of the peak plasma drug levels after oral administration and the drug concentration after an IV administration(first pass effect

245-503: A full agonist, antagonists have affinity for a receptor but do not produce a biological response. The ability of a ligand to produce a biological response is termed efficacy , in a dose-response profile it is indicated as percentage on the y-axis, where 100% is the maximal efficacy (all receptors are occupied). Binding affinity is the ability of a ligand to form a ligand-receptor complex either through weak attractive forces (reversible) or covalent bond (irreversible), therefore efficacy

294-495: A narrow therapeutic margin: toxic side-effects are almost always encountered at doses used to kill tumors . The effect of drugs can be described with Loewe additivity which is one of several common reference models. Other models include the Hill equation , Cheng-Prusoff equation and Schild regression . Pharmacokinetics is the study of the bodily absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of drugs. When describing

343-402: A river with fish and mermaids. Source: The University of Sydney comments that "The rich variety of the woodcuts makes this a very attractive book. The engraver was a skilled craftsman, but there is some botanical retrogression, since he did not always fully understand the plants he was copying from previous cuts." A copy once owned by the apothecary George Pavius of Aberdeen is held by

392-416: A specific focus. Pharmacology can also focus on specific systems comprising the body. Divisions related to bodily systems study the effects of drugs in different systems of the body. These include neuropharmacology , in the central and peripheral nervous systems ; immunopharmacology in the immune system. Other divisions include cardiovascular , renal and endocrine pharmacology. Psychopharmacology

441-412: Is SPORCalc. A slight alteration to the chemical structure of a medicinal compound could alter its medicinal properties, depending on how the alteration relates to the structure of the substrate or receptor site on which it acts: this is called the structural activity relationship (SAR). When a useful activity has been identified, chemists will make many similar compounds called analogues, to try to maximize

490-637: Is a subfield of pharmacology that combines principles from pharmacology, systems biology, and network analysis to study the complex interactions between drugs and targets (e.g., receptors or enzymes etc.) in biological systems. The topology of a biochemical reaction network determines the shape of drug dose-response curve as well as the type of drug-drug interactions, thus can help designing efficient and safe therapeutic strategies. The topology Network pharmacology utilizes computational tools and network analysis algorithms to identify drug targets, predict drug-drug interactions, elucidate signaling pathways, and explore

539-594: Is a vital concern to medicine , but also has strong economical and political implications. To protect the consumer and prevent abuse, many governments regulate the manufacture, sale, and administration of medication. In the United States , the main body that regulates pharmaceuticals is the Food and Drug Administration ; they enforce standards set by the United States Pharmacopoeia . In

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588-450: Is an act related to drug policy. Prescription drugs are drugs regulated by legislation. The International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology , Federation of European Pharmacological Societies and European Association for Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics are organisations representing standardisation and regulation of clinical and scientific pharmacology. Drug design Too Many Requests If you report this error to

637-399: Is avoided and therefore no amount drug is lost). A drug must be lipophilic (lipid soluble) in order to pass through biological membranes this is true because biological membranes are made up of a lipid bilayer (phospholipids etc.) Once the drug reaches the blood circulation it is then distributed throughout the body and being more concentrated in highly perfused organs. In the United States ,

686-434: Is dependent on binding affinity. Potency of drug is the measure of its effectiveness, EC 50 is the drug concentration of a drug that produces an efficacy of 50% and the lower the concentration the higher the potency of the drug therefore EC 50 can be used to compare potencies of drugs. Medication is said to have a narrow or wide therapeutic index , certain safety factor or therapeutic window . This describes

735-493: Is intended to fall within a range in which the drug produces a therapeutic effect or desired outcome. The safety and effectiveness of prescription drugs in the U.S. are regulated by the federal Prescription Drug Marketing Act of 1987 . The Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) has a similar role in the UK. Medicare Part D is a prescription drug plan in the U.S. The Prescription Drug Marketing Act (PDMA)

784-508: Is the application of genomic technologies to drug discovery and further characterization of drugs related to an organism's entire genome. For pharmacology regarding individual genes, pharmacogenetics studies how genetic variation gives rise to differing responses to drugs. Pharmacoepigenetics studies the underlying epigenetic marking patterns that lead to variation in an individual's response to medical treatment. Pharmacology can be applied within clinical sciences. Clinical pharmacology

833-493: Is the application of pharmacological methods and principles in the study of drugs in humans. An example of this is posology, which is the study of dosage of medicines. Pharmacology is closely related to toxicology . Both pharmacology and toxicology are scientific disciplines that focus on understanding the properties and actions of chemicals. However, pharmacology emphasizes the therapeutic effects of chemicals, usually drugs or compounds that could become drugs, whereas toxicology

882-399: Is the study of chemical's adverse effects and risk assessment. Pharmacological knowledge is used to advise pharmacotherapy in medicine and pharmacy . Drug discovery is the field of study concerned with creating new drugs. It encompasses the subfields of drug design and development . Drug discovery starts with drug design, which is the inventive process of finding new drugs. In

931-414: Is the study of the effects of used pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) on the environment after their elimination from the body. Human health and ecology are intimately related so environmental pharmacology studies the environmental effect of drugs and pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the environment . Drugs may also have ethnocultural importance, so ethnopharmacology studies

980-419: Is the study of the use of drugs that affect the psyche , mind and behavior (e.g. antidepressants) in treating mental disorders (e.g. depression). It incorporates approaches and techniques from neuropharmacology, animal behavior and behavioral neuroscience, and is interested in the behavioral and neurobiological mechanisms of action of psychoactive drugs. The related field of neuropsychopharmacology focuses on

1029-523: The Speculum natural of Vincent of Beauvais (13th century). The text of uroscopy at the end of the Hortus sanitatis was borrowed from a text that circulated in numerous manuscripts under the names of »Zacharias de Feltris« or »Bartholomew of Montagna«. A Latin manuscript, dated 1477, which already contains the textual core of Hortus sanitatis , was initially regarded as a possible template for

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1078-608: The European Union , the main body that regulates pharmaceuticals is the EMA , and they enforce standards set by the European Pharmacopoeia . The metabolic stability and the reactivity of a library of candidate drug compounds have to be assessed for drug metabolism and toxicological studies. Many methods have been proposed for quantitative predictions in drug metabolism; one example of a recent computational method

1127-426: The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is responsible for creating guidelines for the approval and use of drugs. The FDA requires that all approved drugs fulfill two requirements: Gaining FDA approval usually takes several years. Testing done on animals must be extensive and must include several species to help in the evaluation of both the effectiveness and toxicity of the drug. The dosage of any drug approved for use

1176-568: The Middle Ages , with pharmacognosy and Avicenna 's The Canon of Medicine , Peter of Spain 's Commentary on Isaac , and John of St Amand 's Commentary on the Antedotary of Nicholas . Early pharmacology focused on herbalism and natural substances, mainly plant extracts. Medicines were compiled in books called pharmacopoeias . Crude drugs have been used since prehistory as a preparation of substances from natural sources. However,

1225-982: The University of Aberdeen . Pharmacology Pharmacology is the science of drugs and medications, including a substance's origin, composition, pharmacokinetics , pharmacodynamics , therapeutic use, and toxicology . More specifically, it is the study of the interactions that occur between a living organism and chemicals that affect normal or abnormal biochemical function. If substances have medicinal properties, they are considered pharmaceuticals . The field encompasses drug composition and properties, functions, sources, synthesis and drug design , molecular and cellular mechanisms , organ/systems mechanisms, signal transduction/cellular communication, molecular diagnostics , interactions , chemical biology , therapy, and medical applications and antipathogenic capabilities. The two main areas of pharmacology are pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics . Pharmacodynamics studies

1274-465: The active ingredient of crude drugs are not purified and the substance is adulterated with other substances. Traditional medicine varies between cultures and may be specific to a particular culture, such as in traditional Chinese , Mongolian , Tibetan and Korean medicine . However much of this has since been regarded as pseudoscience . Pharmacological substances known as entheogens may have spiritual and religious use and historical context. In

1323-459: The dragon , harpy , hydra , myrmecoleon , phoenix , and zitiron . The author is unknown. Occasionally the Frankfurt physician Johann Wonnecke von Kaub is incorrectly named as the author. Set in two columns, the work contains five sections describing simple drugs used for therapy: Set in two columns, each chapter is headed by a picture. The following text gives a general description of

1372-603: The etymology of pharmacy ). Pharmakon is related to pharmakos , the ritualistic sacrifice or exile of a human scapegoat or victim in Ancient Greek religion . The modern term pharmacon is used more broadly than the term drug because it includes endogenous substances, and biologically active substances which are not used as drugs. Typically it includes pharmacological agonists and antagonists , but also enzyme inhibitors (such as monoamine oxidase inhibitors). The origins of clinical pharmacology date back to

1421-475: The 17th century, the English physician Nicholas Culpeper translated and used pharmacological texts. Culpeper detailed plants and the conditions they could treat. In the 18th century, much of clinical pharmacology was established by the work of William Withering . Pharmacology as a scientific discipline did not further advance until the mid-19th century amid the great biomedical resurgence of that period. Before

1470-404: The biological approach of finding targets and physiological effects. Pharmacology can be studied in relation to wider contexts than the physiology of individuals. For example, pharmacoepidemiology concerns the variations of the effects of drugs in or between populations, it is the bridge between clinical pharmacology and epidemiology . Pharmacoenvironmentology or environmental pharmacology

1519-405: The cost and benefits of drugs in order to guide optimal healthcare resource allocation. The techniques used for the discovery , formulation , manufacturing and quality control of drugs discovery is studied by pharmaceutical engineering , a branch of engineering . Safety pharmacology specialises in detecting and investigating potential undesirable effects of drugs. Development of medication

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1568-533: The desired medicinal effect(s). This can take anywhere from a few years to a decade or more, and is very expensive. One must also determine how safe the medicine is to consume, its stability in the human body and the best form for delivery to the desired organ system, such as tablet or aerosol. After extensive testing, which can take up to six years, the new medicine is ready for marketing and selling. Because of these long timescales, and because out of every 5000 potential new medicines typically only one will ever reach

1617-898: The effect of the body on the chemical (e.g. half-life and volume of distribution ), and pharmacodynamics describes the chemical's effect on the body (desired or toxic ). Pharmacology is typically studied with respect to particular systems, for example endogenous neurotransmitter systems . The major systems studied in pharmacology can be categorised by their ligands and include acetylcholine , adrenaline , glutamate , GABA , dopamine , histamine , serotonin , cannabinoid and opioid . Molecular targets in pharmacology include receptors , enzymes and membrane transport proteins . Enzymes can be targeted with enzyme inhibitors . Receptors are typically categorised based on structure and function. Major receptor types studied in pharmacology include G protein coupled receptors , ligand gated ion channels and receptor tyrosine kinases . Network pharmacology

1666-399: The effects of a drug on biological systems, and pharmacokinetics studies the effects of biological systems on a drug. In broad terms, pharmacodynamics discusses the chemicals with biological receptors , and pharmacokinetics discusses the absorption , distribution, metabolism , and excretion (ADME) of chemicals from the biological systems. Pharmacology is not synonymous with pharmacy and

1715-449: The effects of drugs at the overlap between the nervous system and the psyche. Pharmacometabolomics , also known as pharmacometabonomics, is a field which stems from metabolomics , the quantification and analysis of metabolites produced by the body. It refers to the direct measurement of metabolites in an individual's bodily fluids, in order to predict or evaluate the metabolism of pharmaceutical compounds, and to better understand

1764-626: The environment. The study of chemicals requires intimate knowledge of the biological system affected. With the knowledge of cell biology and biochemistry increasing, the field of pharmacology has also changed substantially. It has become possible, through molecular analysis of receptors , to design chemicals that act on specific cellular signaling or metabolic pathways by affecting sites directly on cell-surface receptors (which modulate and mediate cellular signaling pathways controlling cellular function). Chemicals can have pharmacologically relevant properties and effects. Pharmacokinetics describes

1813-452: The ethnic and cultural aspects of pharmacology. Photopharmacology is an emerging approach in medicine in which drugs are activated and deactivated with light . The energy of light is used to change for shape and chemical properties of the drug, resulting in different biological activity. This is done to ultimately achieve control when and where drugs are active in a reversible manner, to prevent side effects and pollution of drugs into

1862-513: The first pharmacology department in England was set up in 1905 at University College London . Pharmacology developed in the 19th century as a biomedical science that applied the principles of scientific experimentation to therapeutic contexts. The advancement of research techniques propelled pharmacological research and understanding. The development of the organ bath preparation, where tissue samples are connected to recording devices, such as

1911-431: The most basic sense, this involves the design of molecules that are complementary in shape and charge to a given biomolecular target. After a lead compound has been identified through drug discovery, drug development involves bringing the drug to the market. Drug discovery is related to pharmacoeconomics , which is the sub-discipline of health economics that considers the value of drugs Pharmacoeconomics evaluates

1960-500: The open market, this is an expensive way of doing things, often costing over 1 billion dollars. To recoup this outlay pharmaceutical companies may do a number of things: The inverse benefit law describes the relationship between a drugs therapeutic benefits and its marketing. When designing drugs, the placebo effect must be considered to assess the drug's true therapeutic value. Drug development uses techniques from medicinal chemistry to chemically design drugs. This overlaps with

2009-438: The pharmacokinetic profile of a drug. Pharmacometabolomics can be applied to measure metabolite levels following the administration of a drug, in order to monitor the effects of the drug on metabolic pathways. Pharmacomicrobiomics studies the effect of microbiome variations on drug disposition, action, and toxicity. Pharmacomicrobiomics is concerned with the interaction between drugs and the gut microbiome . Pharmacogenomics

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2058-481: The pharmacokinetic properties of the chemical that is the active ingredient or active pharmaceutical ingredient (API), pharmacologists are often interested in L-ADME : Drug metabolism is assessed in pharmacokinetics and is important in drug research and prescribing. Pharmacokinetics is the movement of the drug in the body, it is usually described as 'what the body does to the drug' the physico-chemical properties of

2107-422: The polypharmacology of drugs. Pharmacodynamics is defined as how the body reacts to the drugs. Pharmacodynamics theory often investigates the binding affinity of ligands to their receptors. Ligands can be agonists , partial agonists or antagonists at specific receptors in the body. Agonists bind to receptors and produce a biological response, a partial agonist produces a biological response lower than that of

2156-551: The printing, but is now held for an independent copy of a Latin »circa-instans-manuscript«. Incunabule 16th century Sections two to five of the Hortus sanitatis (section one – herbs – lacking). Latin Sections two to five of the Hortus sanitatis (section one – herbs – lacking). German An English version of extracts from the Hortus , the Noble lyfe & natures of man, of bestes, serpentys, fowles & fisshes ,

2205-524: The ratio of desired effect to toxic effect. A compound with a narrow therapeutic index (close to one) exerts its desired effect at a dose close to its toxic dose. A compound with a wide therapeutic index (greater than five) exerts its desired effect at a dose substantially below its toxic dose. Those with a narrow margin are more difficult to dose and administer, and may require therapeutic drug monitoring (examples are warfarin , some antiepileptics , aminoglycoside antibiotics ). Most anti- cancer drugs have

2254-509: The related simple drug and under the title of »oparetiones« a list of its effects on the human body. The plants of the section "De Herbis" were determined by B. and H. Baumann (2010, pp. 205-222) according to current binominal nomenclature. The author has composed the Hortus sanitatis out of well-known medieval encyclopaedias, such as the Liber pandectarum medicinae omnia medicine simplicia continens of Matthaeus Silvaticus (14th c.) and

2303-485: The second half of the nineteenth century, the remarkable potency and specificity of the actions of drugs such as morphine , quinine and digitalis were explained vaguely and with reference to extraordinary chemical powers and affinities to certain organs or tissues. The first pharmacology department was set up by Rudolf Buchheim in 1847, at University of Tartu, in recognition of the need to understand how therapeutic drugs and poisons produced their effects. Subsequently,

2352-438: The two terms are frequently confused. Pharmacology, a biomedical science , deals with the research, discovery, and characterization of chemicals which show biological effects and the elucidation of cellular and organismal function in relation to these chemicals. In contrast, pharmacy, a health services profession, is concerned with the application of the principles learned from pharmacology in its clinical settings; whether it be in

2401-488: Was produced in 1491 by Laurence Andrew (fl. 1510–1537). A facsimile edition of this was published in London in 1954 by B. Quaritch. The woodcut illustrations are stylised but often easily recognizable, and many were re-used in other works. In addition to the representations of simples, pictures show their use by humans, and scenes in which figures are surrounded by the subjects in their natural environment, such as standing by

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