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91-456: Haussmann's renovation of Paris was a vast public works programme commissioned by French Emperor Napoleon III and directed by his prefect of the Seine , Georges-Eugène Haussmann , between 1853 and 1870. It included the demolition of medieval neighbourhoods that were deemed overcrowded and unhealthy by officials at the time, the building of wide avenues, new parks and squares, the annexation of

182-467: A national security viewpoint and the impact on the community that the loss of such facilities would entail. Furthermore, the term public works has recently been expanded to include digital public infrastructure projects. For example, in the United States , the first nationwide digital public works project is an effort to create an open source software platform for e-voting (created and managed by

273-655: A broader term. Construction may be undertaken either by directly employed labour or by a private operator. Public works has been encouraged since antiquity. The Roman emperor Nero encouraged the construction of various infrastructure projects during widespread deflation . Public works is a multi-dimensional concept in economics and politics , touching on multiple arenas including: recreation (parks, beaches, trails), aesthetics (trees, green space), economy (goods and people movement, energy), law (police and courts), and neighborhood (community centers, social services buildings). It represents any constructed object that augments

364-553: A cost of 180 million francs. Haussmann's plan called for the following: On the right bank: On the left bank: On the Île de la Cité : The island became an enormous construction site, which completely destroyed most of the old streets and neighborhoods. Two new government buildings, the Tribunal de Commerce and the Prefecture de Police , were built, occupying a large part of the island. Two new streets were also built,

455-537: A cradle of discontent and revolution; between 1830 and 1848, seven armed uprisings and revolts had broken out in the centre of Paris, particularly along the Faubourg Saint-Antoine , around the Hôtel de Ville, and around Montagne Sainte-Geneviève on the left bank. The residents of these neighbourhoods had taken up pavement stones and blocked the narrow streets with barricades, which had to be dislodged by

546-620: A day. The rue de Rivoli was completed, and the new hotel opened in March 1855, in time to welcome guests to the Exposition. The junction was made between the rue de Rivoli and rue Saint-Antoine; in the process, Haussmann restyled the Place du Carrousel , opened up a new square, Place Saint-Germain l'Auxerrois facing the colonnade of the Louvre, and reorganized the space between the Hôtel de Ville and

637-510: A fund, the Caisse des Travaux de Paris , decreed by Napoléon III on 14 November 1858. Ostensibly it was intended to give the city greater freedom in executing the grand projects. Revenue from the sale of materials salvaged from the demolitions and the sale of lots left over from the expropriations went into this fund, amounting to some 365 million francs between 1859 and 1869. The fund expended much more than it took in, some 1.2 billion francs towards

728-447: A government, are characteristic of socialism and other public or collectivist forms of government because of their 'tax and spend' policies to achieve long-term economic improvement. However, in the private sector, entrepreneurs bear their own losses and so private-sector firms are generally unwilling to undertake projects that could result in losses or would not develop a revenue stream. Governments will invest in public works because of

819-543: A great cross in the centre of Paris that would permit easier communication from east to west along the rue de Rivoli and rue Saint-Antoine, and north-south communication along two new Boulevards, Strasbourg and Sébastopol . The grand cross had been proposed by the National Convention during the Revolution, and begun by Napoléon I; Napoléon III was determined to complete it. Completion of the rue de Rivoli

910-512: A greater voice to the parliament and to the opposition. The Emperor had always been less popular in Paris than in the rest of the country, and the republican opposition in parliament focused its attacks on Haussmann. Haussmann ignored the attacks and went ahead with the third phase, which planned the construction of twenty-eight kilometers (17 miles) of new boulevards at an estimated cost of 280 million francs. The third phase included these projects on

1001-547: A legal case entitling them to larger payments, and many property owners found ingenious ways to increase the value of their expropriated properties by inventing non-existent shops and businesses, and charging the city for lost revenue. Haussmann found creative ways to raise more money for the grand projects while circumventing the Legislative Assembly, whose approval was otherwise needed for direct borrowing increases. The City of Paris began paying its contractors on

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1092-517: A nation's physical infrastructure. Municipal infrastructure, urban infrastructure , and rural development usually represent the same concept but imply either large cities or developing nations ' concerns respectively. The terms public infrastructure or critical infrastructure are at times used interchangeably. However, critical infrastructure includes public works (dams, waste water systems, bridges, etc.) as well as facilities like hospitals, banks, and telecommunications systems and views them from

1183-400: A new investment bank, Crédit Mobilier . The Péreire brothers organised a new company which raised 24 million francs to finance the construction of the street, in exchange for the rights to develop real estate along the route. This became a model for the building of all of Haussmann's future boulevards. To meet the deadline, three thousand workers laboured on the new boulevard twenty-four hours

1274-538: A park. The parks and squares were an immediate success with all classes of Parisians. Napoleon III and Haussmann commissioned a wide variety of architecture, some of it traditional, some of it very innovative, like the glass and iron pavilions of Les Halles ; and some of it, such as the Opéra Garnier , commissioned by Napoleon III, designed by Charles Garnier but not finished until 1875, is difficult to classify, coming to be known as Second Empire style . Many of

1365-551: A plan for four major parks at the cardinal points of the compass around the city. Thousands of workers and gardeners began to dig lakes, build cascades, plant lawns, flowerbeds and trees. construct chalets and grottoes. Haussmann and Alphand created the Bois de Boulogne (1852–1858) to the west of Paris: the Bois de Vincennes (1860–1865) to the east; the Parc des Buttes-Chaumont (1865–1867) to

1456-430: A provision for unexpected expenses (cost overruns), which typically amount to 10% of the value of the contract. This money is spent during the course of the project only if the construction managers judge that it is necessary, and the expenditure must typically be justified in writing. [REDACTED] The dictionary definition of public works at Wiktionary Pierre-Louis Moreau-Desproux Though he did not gain

1547-483: A public speech declaring: "Paris is the heart of France. Let us apply our efforts to embellishing this great city. Let us open new streets, make the working class quarters, which lack air and light, more healthy, and let the beneficial sunlight reach everywhere within our walls". As soon as he was President, he supported the building of the first subsidized housing project for workers in Paris, the Cité-Napoléon, on

1638-573: A short time. Under Louis Philippe, a single public square had been created, at the tip of the Ile-de-la-Cité. Haussmann wrote in his memoirs that Napoleon III instructed him: "do not miss an opportunity to build, in all the arrondissements of Paris, the greatest possible number of squares, in order to offer the Parisians, as they have done in London, places for relaxation and recreation for all

1729-444: A short-term period of employment, has come to dominate practice, particularly in regions such as Sub-Saharan Africa . Applied in the short term, this is appropriate as a response to transient shocks and acute labour market crises. Investing in public works projects in order to stimulate the general economy has been a popular policy measure since the economic crisis of the 1930s. Spearheaded by U.S. Secretary of Labor Frances Perkins ,

1820-403: A stream for the new park, but forgot to take into account the difference of elevation between the two lakes. If they had been built, the one lake would have immediately emptied itself into the other. At the end of 1851, shortly before Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte's term expired, neither the rue de Rivoli nor the park had progressed very far. He wanted to run for re-election in 1852, but was blocked by

1911-416: A unified urban landscape. In 18th-century Paris, buildings were usually narrow (often only six meters wide [20 feet]); deep (sometimes forty meters; 130 feet) and tall—as many as five or six stories. The ground floor usually contained a shop, and the shopkeeper lived in the rooms above the shop. The upper floors were occupied by families; the top floor, under the roof, was originally a storage place, but under

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2002-683: A wide new street (today's rue Rambuteau ) and began work on the Boulevard Malesherbes . On the Left Bank, he built a new street, rue Soufflot , which cleared space around the Panthéon , and began work on the rue des Écoles, between the École Polytechnique and the Collège de France . Rambuteau wanted to do more, but his budget and powers were limited. He did not have the power to easily expropriate property to build new streets, and

2093-399: Is the provision of employment by the creation of predominantly public goods at a prescribed wage for those unable to find alternative employment. This functions as a form of social safety net . Public works programmes are activities which entail the payment of a wage (in cash or in kind) by the state, or by an Agent (or cash-for work/CFW). One particular form of public works, that of offering

2184-434: The boulevard Saint-Michel . The Medici Fountain had to be moved further into the park, and was reconstructed with the addition of statuary and a long basin of water. Haussmann was also criticized for the growing cost of his projects; the estimated cost for the 26,290 metres (86,250 ft) of new avenues had been 180 million francs, but grew to 410 million francs; property owners whose buildings had been expropriated won

2275-458: The boulevard du Palais and the rue de Lutèce . Two bridges, the pont Saint-Michel and the pont au Change were completely rebuilt, along with the embankments near them. The Palais de Justice and Place Dauphine were extensively modified. At the same time, Haussmann preserved and restored the jewels of the island; the square in front of the Cathedral of Notre Dame

2366-474: The Octroi , a tax on goods and materials paid at entry points into Paris. With the annexation, these facilities now had to pay tax on the raw materials and fuel they used. This was a deliberate way of discouraging the development of heavy industry in the environs of Paris, which neither Haussmann nor the city council wished to take root. With the annexation Paris was enlarged from twelve to twenty arrondissements,

2457-542: The 2008 European Union stimulus plan , and the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 . While it is argued that capital investment in public works can be used to reduce unemployment, opponents of internal improvement programs argue that such projects should be undertaken by the private sector , not the public sector , because public works projects are often inefficient and costly to taxpayers. Further, some argue that public works, when used excessively by

2548-594: The French Revolution , a Commission of Artists drafted an ambitious plan to build wide avenues, including a street in a straight line from the Place de la Nation to the Louvre, where the Avenue Victoria is today, and squares with avenues radiating in different directions, largely making use of land confiscated from the church during the Revolution, but all of these projects remained on paper. Napoleon Bonaparte also had ambitious plans for rebuilding

2639-554: The Prix de Rome that was the dependable gateway to a prominent French career in architecture, his fellow-student Charles de Wailly invited him to share his prize. In Rome, from September 1754 to December 1756, half the customary three years, they were exposed to the ferment of the new neoclassical style and took part, with Marie-Joseph Peyre , in the archaeological excavations of the Baths of Diocletian ; their speculative reconstructions of

2730-489: The place du Châtelet . Between the Hôtel de Ville and the Bastille square , he widened the rue Saint-Antoine; he was careful to save the historic Hôtel de Sully and Hôtel de Mayenne, but many other buildings, both medieval and modern, were knocked down to make room for the wider street, and several ancient, dark and narrow streets, rue de l'Arche-Marion, rue du Chevalier-le-Guet and rue des Mauvaises-Paroles, disappeared from

2821-425: The rue Rochechouart . He proposed the completion of the rue de Rivoli from the Louvre to the Hôtel de Ville, completing the project begun by his uncle Napoléon Bonaparte, and he began a project which would transform the Bois de Boulogne (Boulogne Forest) into a large new public park, modelled after Hyde Park in London but much larger, on the west side of the city. He wanted both these projects to be completed before

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2912-517: The Île de la Cité and in the neighbourhood called the "quartier des Arcis", between the Louvre and the " Hôtel de Ville " (City Hall), had changed little since the Middle Ages . The population density in these neighbourhoods was extremely high, compared with the rest of Paris; in the neighbourhood of Champs-Élysées , population density was estimated at 5,380 per square kilometre (22 per acre); in

3003-537: The " Les Contes d'Hoffman " Offenbach operetta popular at the time. In the autumn of 1867, the voucher program was ruled as official debt by the Court of Accounts , rather than as the "deferred payments" which Haussmann argued they were. This made the voucher scheme illegal, since the City of Paris had not obtained the permission of the Legislative Assembly before borrowing. The City was forced to enter into renegotiations with

3094-489: The City of Paris's governing structure. The result was a new law, passed on April 18, 1868, which gave the Legislative Assembly oversight of the city's finances. In the parliamentary elections of May 1869, the government candidates won 4.43 million votes, while the opposition republicans won 3.35 million votes. In Paris, the republican candidates won 234,000 votes to 77,000 for the Bonapartist candidates, and took eight of

3185-479: The Crédit Foncier to convert the vouchers into regular debt. Two separate agreements were made with the Crédit Foncier; the city agreed to repay 465 million francs in total over 40 years and 39 years respectively. The debates in the Legislative Assembly surrounding the authorization of these new agreements lasted 11 sessions, with critics attacking Haussmann's borrowing, his questionable funding mechanisms, and

3276-590: The Dauphin was engraved by Jean-Michel Moreau le Jeune . Among his private commissions was the distinctly Neo-Palladian pavilion erected for M. Nicholas Carré de Baudouin on the heights of Ménilmontant (now in the rue de Menilmontant) in 1770. He also designed and built the Hôtel Gontaut in rue Louis-le-Grand, 1772 and was commissioned to remodel the Hôtel de Luynes (c. 1770-75, demolished in 1901 with

3367-608: The Eglise Saint-Vincent de Paul , the Eglise de la Trinité . He bought six churches which had been purchased by private individuals during the French Revolution. Haussmann built or renovated five temples and built two new synagogues, on rue des Tournelles and rue de la Victoire . Besides building churches, theaters and other public buildings, Haussmann paid attention to the details of the architecture along

3458-642: The Emperor reluctantly dismissed him on 5 January 1870. Eight months later, during the Franco-Prussian War , Napoleon III was captured by the Germans, and the Empire was overthrown. In his memoirs, written many years later, Haussmann had this comment on his dismissal: "In the eyes of the Parisians, who like routine in things but are changeable when it comes to people, I committed two great wrongs: Over

3549-600: The French Senate had simplified the laws on expropriation, giving him the authority to expropriate all the land on either side of a new street; and he did not have to report to the Parliament, only to the Emperor. The French parliament , controlled by Napoléon III, provided fifty million francs, but this was not nearly enough. Napoléon III appealed to the Péreire brothers , Émile and Isaac, two bankers who had created

3640-690: The Open Source Digital Voting Foundation). Reflecting increased concern with sustainability , urban ecology and quality of life , efforts to move towards sustainable municipal infrastructure are common in developed nations , especially in the European Union and Canada (where the FCM InfraGuide provides an officially mandated best practice exchange to move municipalities in that direction). A public employment programme or public works programme

3731-523: The Palais-Royal could be extended eastward to match the width of the garden court. A corresponding westward extension of the Place du Palais-Royal allowed the principal street entrance of the Palais-Royal for the first time to be centered on the square, as well as the corps de logis . For the auditorium of the theatre he used an oval plan and introduced structural iron. He also designed new façades for

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3822-404: The Palais-Royal on the rue Saint-Honoré, work that was paid for by the city of Paris. The novel entrance screen incorporated arcades which recapitulated those of the opera house facade. Pierre Contant d'Ivry , who worked on the reconstruction of the Palais-Royal at the same time, designed a new facade for the corps de logis on the side facing the garden court, as well as interiors that included

3913-471: The Seine on 22 June 1853, and on 29 June, the Emperor showed him the map of Paris and instructed Haussmann to aérer, unifier, et embellir Paris: to give it air and open space, to connect and unify the different parts of the city into one whole, and to make it more beautiful. Haussmann went to work immediately on the first phase of the renovation desired by Napoléon III: completing the grande croisée de Paris ,

4004-494: The Seine, and a better water supply system. He constructed 180 kilometres of sidewalks, a new street, rue Lobau; a new bridge over the Seine, the Pont Louis-Philippe ; and cleared an open space around the Hôtel de Ville. He built a new street the length of the Île de la Cité and three additional streets across it: rue d'Arcole, rue de la Cité and rue Constantine. To access the central market at Les Halles , he built

4095-533: The army. The urban problems of Paris had been recognized in the 18th century; Voltaire complained about the markets "established in narrow streets, showing off their filthiness, spreading infection and causing continuing disorders." He wrote that the façade of the Louvre was admirable, "but it was hidden behind buildings worthy of the Goths and Vandals ." He protested that the government "invested in futilities rather than investing in public works." In 1739 he wrote to

4186-656: The basic concepts of his plan. Despite their intense criticism of Napoleon III and Haussmann during the Second Empire, the leaders of the new Third Republic continued and finished his renovation projects. Prior to Haussmann, Paris had only four public parks: the Jardin des Tuileries , the Jardin du Luxembourg , and the Palais Royal , all in the center of the city, and the Parc Monceau , the former property of

4277-524: The buildings were designed by the city architect, Gabriel Davioud , who designed everything from city halls and theaters to park benches and kiosks. His architectural projects included: Since 1801, under Napoleon I, the French government was responsible for the building and maintenance of churches. Haussmann built, renovated or purchased nineteen churches. New churches included the Saint-Augustin ,

4368-407: The city in 1832 and 1848. In the epidemic of 1848, five percent of the inhabitants of these two neighbourhoods died. Traffic circulation was another major problem. The widest streets in these two neighborhoods were only 5 metres (16 ft) wide; the narrowest were one or two meters (3–7 feet) wide. Wagons, carriages and carts could barely move through the streets. The centre of the city was also

4459-539: The city. He began work on a canal to bring fresh water to the city and began work on the Rue de Rivoli , beginning at the Place de la Concorde , but was able to extend it only to the Louvre before his downfall. "If only the heavens had given me twenty more years of rule and a little leisure," he wrote while in exile on Saint Helena , "one would vainly search today for the old Paris; nothing would remain of it but vestiges." The medieval core and plan of Paris changed little during

4550-616: The complex attracted the attention of Piranesi . On his return to Paris, Moreau-Desproux’s first commission was the fully neoclassical Hôtel de Chavannes near the Porte du Temple, at that time on the outskirts of the city; the house was completed by May 1758 and was demolished in 1846 (Eriksen); it earned a critical analysis from the Abbé Laugier , theoretician of neoclassicism, in his Observations sur l'architecture 1765. A colossal order of Ionic pilasters distinguished its façade, where

4641-467: The course of seventeen years, I disturbed their daily habits by turning Paris upside down, and they had to look at the same face of the Prefect in the Hôtel de Ville. These were two unforgivable complaints." Haussmann's successor as prefect of the Seine appointed Jean-Charles Adolphe Alphand , the head of Haussmann's department of parks and plantations, as the director of works of Paris. Alphand respected

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4732-493: The end of his term in 1852, but became frustrated by the slow progress made by his prefect of the Seine, Jean-Jacques Berger . The prefect was unable to move the work forward on the rue de Rivoli quickly enough, and the original design for the Bois de Boulogne turned out to be a disaster; the architect, Jacques Ignace Hittorff , who had designed the Place de la Concorde for Louis-Philippe, followed Louis-Napoléon's instructions to imitate Hyde Park and designed two lakes connected by

4823-431: The families and all the children, rich and poor." In response Haussmann created twenty-four new squares; seventeen in the older part of the city, eleven in the new arrondissements, adding 15 hectares (37 acres) of green space. Alphand termed these small parks "green and flowering salons." Haussmann's goal was to have one park in each of the eighty neighborhoods of Paris, so that no one was more than ten minutes' walk from such

4914-415: The family of King Louis Philippe, in addition to the Jardin des Plantes , the city's botanical garden and oldest park. Napoleon III had already begun construction of the Bois de Boulogne , and wanted to build more new parks and gardens for the recreation and relaxation of the Parisians, particularly those in the new neighborhoods of the expanding city. Napoleon III's new parks were inspired by his memories of

5005-726: The first female Cabinet member in the United States, the New Deal resulted in the creation of programs such as the Civilian Conservation Corps , Public Works Administration , and the Works Progress Administration , among others, all of which created public goods through labor and infrastructure investments. More recent examples are the 2008–2009 Chinese economic stimulus program , India's National Infrastructure Pipeline of 2020,

5096-656: The first law which required minimum health standards for Paris residential buildings was not passed until April 1850, under Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, then president of the French Second Republic . King Louis-Philippe was overthrown in the February Revolution of 1848 . On 10 December 1848, Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte , the nephew of Napoléon Bonaparte, won the first direct presidential elections ever held in France with an overwhelming 74.2 percent of

5187-443: The first phase of his renovation Haussmann constructed 9,467 metres (6 miles) of new boulevards, at a net cost of 278 million francs. The official parliamentary report of 1859 found that it had "brought air, light and healthiness and procured easier circulation in a labyrinth that was constantly blocked and impenetrable, where streets were winding, narrow, and dark." It had employed thousands of workers, and most Parisians were pleased by

5278-444: The grand projects during the ten years it existed. To offset some of the deficit, which the City of Paris was responsible for, Haussmann issued 100 million francs in securities from the fund guaranteed by the city. He only needed the approval of the city council to raise this new sum, and, like the voucher scheme, the securities were not included in the city's official debt obligations. On 1 January 1860 Napoleon III officially annexed

5369-770: The greater community . They include public buildings ( municipal buildings , schools , and hospitals ), transport infrastructure ( roads , railroads , bridges , pipelines , canals , ports , and airports ), public spaces ( public squares , parks , and beaches ), public services ( water supply and treatment , sewage treatment , electrical grid , and dams ), environmental protection ( drinking water protection , soil erosion reduction, wildlife habitat preservation , preservation and restoration of forests and wetlands) and other, usually long-term, physical assets and facilities . Though often interchangeable with public infrastructure and public capital , public works does not necessarily carry an economic component, thereby being

5460-401: The higher taxes, and wanted to keep their independence, but they had no choice; Napoleon III was Emperor, and he could arrange boundaries as he wished. Haussmann was keen to expand the boundaries as well, since the enlarged tax base would provide vital funding for the public works then underway. Numerous factories and workshops had been established in the suburbs, some to specifically avoid paying

5551-454: The map. In 1855, work began on the north-south axis, beginning with Boulevard de Strasbourg and Boulevard Sébastopol, which cut through the center of some of the most crowded neighborhoods in Paris, where the cholera epidemic had been the worst, between the rue Saint-Martin and rue Saint-Denis . "It was the gutting of old Paris," Haussmann wrote with satisfaction in his Memoires , "of the neighborhood of riots, and of barricades, from one end to

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5642-431: The neighbourhoods of Arcis and Saint-Avoye, located in the present Third Arrondissement , there was one inhabitant for every three square metres (32 sq ft). In 1840, a doctor described one building in the Île de la Cité where a single 5-square-metre room (54 sq ft) on the fourth floor was occupied by twenty-three people, both adults and children. In these conditions, disease spread very quickly. Cholera epidemics ravaged

5733-469: The new Constitution, which limited him to one term. A majority of members of parliament voted to change the Constitution, but not the two-thirds majority required. Prevented from running again, Napoléon, with the help of the army, staged a coup d'état on 2 December 1851 and seized power. His opponents were arrested or exiled. The following year, on 2 December 1852, he declared himself Emperor, adopting

5824-404: The new works projects with vouchers instead of money; the vouchers were then purchased from the contractors by the city's lenders, mainly the mortgage bank Crédit Foncier . In this way Haussmann indirectly raised 463 million francs by 1867; 86% of this debt was owned by Crédit Foncier. This debt conveniently did not have to be included on the city's balance sheets. Another method was the creation of

5915-550: The nine seats of Paris deputies. At the same time Napoleon III was increasingly ill, suffering from gallstones which were to cause his death in 1873, and preoccupied by the political crisis that would lead to the Franco-Prussian War . In December 1869 Napoleon III named an opposition leader and fierce critic of Haussmann, Emile Ollivier , as his new prime minister. Napoleon gave in to the opposition demands in January 1870 and asked Haussmann to resign. Haussmann refused to resign, and

6006-436: The north, and Parc Montsouris (1865–1878) to the south. In addition to building the four large parks, Haussmann and Alphand redesigned and replanted the city's older parks, including Parc Monceau , and the Jardin du Luxembourg . Altogether, in seventeen years, they planted six hundred thousand trees and added two thousand hectares of parks and green space to Paris. Never before had a city built so many parks and gardens in such

6097-460: The number today. The annexation more than doubled the area of the city from 3,300 hectares to 7,100 hectares, and the population of Paris instantly grew by 400,000 to 1,600,000 people. The annexation made it necessary for Haussmann to enlarge his plans, and to construct new boulevards to connect the new arrondissements with the center. In order to connect Auteuil and Passy to the center of Paris, he built rues Michel-Ange, Molitor and Mirabeau. To connect

6188-598: The other." The Boulevard Sébastopol ended at the new Place du Châtelet ; a new bridge, the Pont-au-Change , was constructed across the Seine, and crossed the island on a newly built street. On the left bank, the north-south axis was continued by the Boulevard Saint-Michel , which was cut in a straight line from the Seine to the Observatory , and then, as the rue d'Enfer, extended all the way to

6279-479: The overall benefit to society when there is a lack of private sector benefit (a project that does generate revenue) or the risk is too great for a private company to accept on its own. According to research conducted at the Aalborg University , 86% of public works projects end up with cost overruns. Some findings of the research were the following: Generally, contracts awarded by public tenders include

6370-425: The parks in London, especially Hyde Park , where he had strolled and promenaded in a carriage while in exile; but he wanted to build on a much larger scale. Working with Haussmann, Jean-Charles Adolphe Alphand , the engineer who headed the new Service of Promenades and Plantations, whom Haussmann brought with him from Bordeaux , and his new chief gardener, Jean-Pierre Barillet-Deschamps , also from Bordeaux, laid out

6461-481: The piercing of the Boulevard Raspail and the rue de Luynes) Behind Gabriel's facades on Place Louis XV , west of rue Royale, he constructed in 1772 two residences, one for himself, the other for his friend Rouillé de l'Estang. From 1764 to 1770, after a fire, he rebuilt the theatre of the Palais-Royal on a site slightly further to the east, so that the cour d'entrée (now the "Cour de l'Horloge") of

6552-465: The plain of Monceau, he built avenues Villers, Wagram, and boulevard Malesherbes. To reach the northern arrondissements he extended boulevard Magenta with boulevard d'Ornano as far as the Porte de la Chapelle, and in the east extended the rue des Pyrénées. The third phase of renovations was proposed in 1867 and approved in 1869, but it faced much more opposition than the earlier phases. Napoleon III had decided to liberalize his empire in 1860, and to give

6643-410: The pressure of the growing population, was usually turned into a low-cost residence. In the early 19th century, before Haussmann, the height of buildings was strictly limited to 22.41 meters (73 ft 6 in), or four floors above the ground floor. The city also began to see a demographic shift; wealthier families began moving to the western neighborhoods, partly because there was more space, and partly because

6734-439: The prevailing winds carried the smoke from the new factories in Paris toward the east. In Haussmann's Paris, the streets became much wider, growing from an average of twelve meters (39 ft) wide to twenty-four meters (79 ft), and in the new arrondissements, often to eighteen meters (59 ft) wide. The interiors of the buildings were left to the owners of the buildings, but the façades were strictly regulated, to ensure that they were

6825-462: The restoration of the monarchy through the reign of King Louis-Philippe (1830–1848). It was the Paris of the narrow and winding streets and foul sewers described in the novels of Balzac and Victor Hugo . In 1833, the new prefect of the Seine under Louis-Philippe , Claude-Philibert Barthelot, comte de Rambuteau , made modest improvements to the sanitation and circulation of the city. He constructed new sewers, though they still emptied directly into

6916-456: The results. His second phase, approved by the Emperor and parliament in 1858 and begun in 1859, was much more ambitious. He intended to build a network of wide boulevards to connect the interior of Paris with the ring of grand boulevards built by Louis XVIII during the restoration, and to the new railroad stations which Napoleon III considered the real gates of the city. He planned to construct 26,294 metres (16 miles) of new avenues and streets, at

7007-418: The right bank: On the left bank: Haussmann did not have time to finish the third phase, as he soon came under intense attack from the opponents of Napoleon III. In 1867, one of the leaders of the parliamentary opposition to Napoleon, Jules Ferry , ridiculed the accounting practices of Haussmann as Les Comptes fantastiques d'Haussmann ("The fantastic (bank) accounts of Haussmann"), a play-on-words based on

7098-666: The rue d'Orléans. The north-south axis was completed in 1859. The two axes crossed at the Place du Châtelet, making it the center of Haussmann's Paris. Haussmann widened the square, moved the Fontaine du Palmier , built by Napoléon I, to the center and built two new theaters, facing each other across the square; the Cirque Impérial (now the Théâtre du Châtelet ) and the Théâtre Lyrique (now Théâtre de la Ville ). In

7189-451: The same height, color, material, and general design, and were harmonious when all seen together. The reconstruction of the rue de Rivoli was the model for the rest of the Paris boulevards. The new apartment buildings followed the same general plan: Public works Public works are a broad category of infrastructure projects, financed and procured by a government body for recreational, employment, and health and safety uses in

7280-469: The severely neoclassical plinth-like free-standing Fontaine des Haudriettes at the juncture of the rue des Archives and the rue des Vieilles-Haudriettes, Paris IIIe. His official position required that he design and see constructed numerous temporary decorations erected for festive occasions: his designs for the masked ball given for the King and Queen, 23 January 1782, on the occasion of the birth of Monseigneur

7371-416: The squares in front the Cathedral of Nôtre Dame and the church of Saint Gervais , and building a wide street to connect the Louvre with the Hôtel de Ville, the new city hall. Pierre-Louis Moreau-Desproux , the architect in chief of Paris, suggested paving and developing the embankments of the Seine , building monumental squares, clearing the space around landmarks, and cutting new streets. In 1794, during

7462-529: The street; his city architect, Gabriel Davioud, designed garden fences, kiosks, shelters for visitors to the parks, public toilets, and dozens of other small but important structures. The most famous and recognizable feature of Haussmann's renovation of Paris are the Haussmann apartment buildings which line the boulevards of Paris. Street blocks were designed as homogeneous architectural wholes. He treated buildings not as independent structures, but as pieces of

7553-400: The suburbs of Paris out to the ring of fortifications around the city. The annexation included eleven communes; Auteuil , Batignolles -Monceau, Montmartre , La Chapelle , Passy , La Villette , Belleville , Charonne , Bercy , Grenelle and Vaugirard , along with pieces of other outlying towns. The residents of these suburbs were not entirely happy to be annexed; they did not want to pay

7644-410: The suburbs surrounding Paris , and the construction of new sewers, fountains and aqueducts. Haussmann's work was met with fierce opposition, and he was dismissed by Napoleon III in 1870. Work on his projects continued until 1927. The street plan and distinctive appearance of the centre of Paris today are largely the result of Haussmann's renovation. In the middle of the 19th century, the centre of Paris

7735-487: The throne name Napoléon III. Napoléon III dismissed Berger as the Prefect of the Seine and sought a more effective manager. His minister of the interior, Victor de Persigny , interviewed several candidates, and selected Georges-Eugène Haussmann, a native of Alsace and Prefect of the Gironde , who impressed Persigny with his energy, audacity, and ability to overcome or get around problems and obstacles. He became Prefect of

7826-532: The two floors were articulated by a plain banding of Greek key fret. Officially Moreau-Desproux was appointed architect-in-charge ( maître des bâtiments ) to the city of Paris in 1763 and held the appointment until 1783. His great-uncle Jean-Baptiste-Augustin Beausire had formerly held the position. His position enabled him to influence the appointment of Jean Chalgrin to a place in the city's office of works. Probably in 1763-64 Moreau-Desproux designed and built

7917-591: The votes cast. He was elected largely because of his famous name, but also because of his promise to try to end poverty and improve the lives of ordinary people. Though he had been born in Paris, he had lived very little in the city; from the age of seven, he had lived in exile in Switzerland, England, and the United States, and for six years in prison in France for attempting to overthrow King Louis-Philippe. He had been especially impressed by London , with its wide streets, squares and large public parks. In 1852 he gave

8008-490: The young Frederick the Great : "I saw the fireworks which they fired off with such management; would rather they started to have a Hôtel de Ville, beautiful squares, magnificent and convenient markets, beautiful fountains, before having fireworks." The 18th century architectural theorist and historian Quatremere de Quincy had proposed establishing or widening public squares in each of the neighbourhoods, expanding and developing

8099-618: Was given an even higher priority, because the Emperor wanted it finished before the opening of the Paris Universal Exposition of 1855 , only two years away, and he wanted the project to include a new hotel, the Grand Hôtel du Louvre , the first large luxury hotel in the city, to house the Imperial guests at the Exposition. Under the Emperor, Haussmann had greater power than any of his predecessors. In February 1851,

8190-428: Was viewed as overcrowded, dark, dangerous, and unhealthy. In 1845, the French social reformer Victor Considerant wrote: "Paris is an immense workshop of putrefaction , where misery, pestilence and sickness work in concert, where sunlight and air rarely penetrate. Paris is a terrible place where plants shrivel and perish, and where, of seven small infants, four die during the course of the year." The street plan on

8281-561: Was widened, the spire of the Cathedral, pulled down during the Revolution, was restored, whilst Sainte-Chapelle and the ancient Conciergerie were saved and restored. The grand projects of the second phase were mostly welcomed, but also caused criticism. Haussmann was especially criticized for his taking large parts of the Jardin du Luxembourg to make room for the present-day boulevard Raspail , and for its connection with

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