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88-783: Chavurot usually provide autonomous alternatives to established Jewish institutions and Jewish denominations . Many chavurot emphasize egalitarianism in the broad sense (of which gender egalitarianism is one piece), depending on participation by the entire community rather than top-down direction by clergy. For the Orthodox usage, see: The first chavurah in the United States was formed in September 1960 in Whittier, California . However, most chavurot in America had their origins in

176-734: A Jew, changing them to ethno-cultural markings. Ahad Ha'am repudiated the idea of conversion , which he regarded as invalid. Berdyczewski advocated assimilating the Palestinian Arabs into Jewish society through intermarriage, without conversion. Not a few Yiddishists, like Bundist ideologue A. Litvak (Khayim Yankl Helfand, 1874–1932) ), urged that declaring Yiddish as one's mother tongue was the only measure for determining Jewish nationality. Zionist Jakob Klatzkin declared that those who identified with other nations (as did most Western and Central European "citizens of Mosaic faith"), were committing " national apostasy ", and were therefore outside

264-484: A blend of Ashkenazi and Sephardi liturgies, based on the innovations of the Kabbalist Isaac Luria . Neo-Hasidism is a term which refers to trends of interest in the teachings of Kabbalah and Hasidism which are expressed by members of other existing Jewish movements. In the late 18th century, there was a serious schism between Hasidic and non-Hasidic Jews. European traditionalist Jews who rejected

352-435: A body of divine commandments standing in their own right, but as a set of customs aimed at consolidating the people, which could be adapted or abandoned based on that same consideration (this instrumental view of Jewish law was adopted by many secularist ideologists, and even taught as historically factual). Simon Dubnow , yet another leading intellectual of the cultural-national school, was particularly influential in developing

440-595: A central role in its ideology." Religious Zionists ( datim ) have embraced the Zionist movement, including Religious Kibbutz Movement , as part of the divine plan to bring or speed up the messianic era. Before the creation of the State of Israel or the Holocaust, Zionism was rejected by most ultra-Orthodox and Reform Jews. Ultra-Orthodox Jewish non-Zionists believed that the return to Israel could only happen with

528-478: A deep ethnic heritage and historical relationship with the land. This connection is celebrated and remembered through the observance of holidays and commemorations that reflect on the Jewish people's historical experiences of dispersal and return. Spiritually, Communal Judaism advocates for the integration of tradition into daily life, upholding a heart-centered approach to religious practice. While individual prayer

616-558: A movement in the Kingdom of Hungary and in its territories ceded in 1920 , is similar to the more traditional branch of American Conservative Judaism. Communal Judaism, also referred to as יהדות חברתי ( Yahadut Ḥevrati ) in Hebrew, is a denomination that intertwines the ethnoreligious identity and indigenous tradition within the broader Jewish community. Unlike other movements which may emphasize theological nuances, Communal Judaism places

704-419: A radically new understanding of Jewish identity. The most prominent of these, who is widely considered as the father of Jewish secularism, was Asher Hirsch Ginsberg, known by his nom de plume Ahad Ha'am . Unlike other thinkers exposed to the influences of secularisation, he did not seek to avoid their implications, but to confront them while maintaining full continuity with the Jewish past. He understood that

792-556: A secular Jewish historiography . "Science of Judaism" scholars in Germany, mainly Heinrich Graetz , secularized the rabbinic view of the past, but maintained a religion-based view of it. In Dubnow's work, serving as the basis for all secularist historians, the Jewish people were a "psychological organism", with every individual but "a cell" therein, which was imbued with the primordial instinct to form collective institutions. Dubnow and his supporters espoused national personal autonomy for

880-461: A similar policy in their 1911 Zionist Congress . A new literary canon, authored by writers committed to the secular cause, was to provide the people with a Jewish culture that could compete with the Polish or Russian ones. It was supplemented with burgeoning theatre and press scenes, reaching a vast audience. Intellectuals, dedicated to a secular cultural revival, enlisted to reinterpret and reformulate

968-716: A specified person called a Baal Koreh, who reads from the Torah scroll when congregants are called to the Torah scroll for an aliyah . In the Yemenite tradition, each person called to the Torah scroll for an aliyah reads for himself. The Shas , a religious political party in Israel, represents the interests of the Orthodox/Haredi Sephardim and Mizrahim. A relatively small but influential ethnoreligious group in

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1056-449: A substantial focus on the social and communal aspects of Jewish life, alongside personal spiritual practices. Practitioners are diverse, found globally with significant numbers in Israel and the United States, extending to European and Middle Eastern countries. This spread is reflective of the movement's inclusive approach to Jewish identity, welcoming those who align with its core values of maintaining communal traditions and customs without

1144-653: A tradition-based prayer experience. Jewish religious movements Jewish religious movements , sometimes called " denominations ", include diverse groups within Judaism which have developed among Jews from ancient times. Today in the west, the most prominent divisions are between traditionalist Orthodox movements (including Haredi ultratraditionalist and Modern Orthodox branches) and modernist movements such as Reform Judaism originating in late 18th century Europe, Conservative ( Masorti ) originating in 19th century Europe, and other smaller ones, including

1232-692: A viable level of membership. Relationships between Jewish religious movements are varied; they are sometimes marked by interdenominational cooperation outside of the realm of halakha (Jewish law), such as the New York Board of Rabbis , and sometimes not. Some of the movements sometimes cooperate by uniting with one another in community federations and in campus organizations such as the Hillel Foundation . Jewish religious denominations are distinct from, but often linked to, Jewish ethnic divisions and Jewish political movements . Prior to

1320-690: Is a de facto recognition of Israel, but only as a secular non-religious state. A few of the fringe groups of the anti-Zionists, with marginal ideology, does not recognize the legitimacy of the Israeli state. Among them are both the Orthodox (the Satmar Hasidism , Edah HaChareidis , Neturei Karta ) and Reform ( American Council for Judaism ). In addition, according to some contemporary scholars, Religious Zionism stands at least outside of Rabbinic Judaism or ever shoots off Judaism as such. Among

1408-496: Is a spectrum of communities and practices, ranging from ultra-Orthodox Haredi Judaism and Jewish fundamentalism to Modern Orthodox Judaism (with Neo-Orthodoxy , Open Orthodoxy , and Religious Zionism ). Orthodox Jews who opposed the Haskalah became known as Haredi Jews ( Haredim ), including Hardalim , Hasidim , Misnagdim ( Lita'im ), and Sephardim Haredim . Orthodox Jews who were sympathetic to

1496-617: Is encouraged, the emphasis is placed on communal worship and support, reflecting the movement's overarching commitment to a life lived in close connection with one's community and heritage. The particular forms of Judaism which are practiced by the different Jewish denominations have been shaped by the immigration of the Ashkenazi Jewish communities, once concentrated in eastern and central Europe, to western and mostly Anglophone countries (in particular, in North America). In

1584-455: Is the practice of Judaism as observed by the Sephardim (Iberian, Spanish-Portuguese Jews ). The Mizrahi Jews (including Maghrebi ) are all Oriental Jewry. Some definitions of "Sephardic" also include Mizrahi, many of whom follow the same traditions of worship but have different ethno-cultural traditions. So far as it is peculiar to themselves and not shared with other Jewish groups such as

1672-497: The Ashkenazim of Central Europe when affluent court Jews entered Christian society. At the end of the 18th century, communal autonomy was gradually abolished by the rising centralised states of Europe, and with it the authority of rabbis and wardens to criminally sanction transgressors. Acculturation, piecemeal integration and, far less importantly, Enlightenment thought, all rapidly chafed at traditional observance. With

1760-521: The Baal Shem Tov , whose followers had previously called themselves Freylechn ("happy ones") and now they call themselves Hasidim ("pious, holy ones"). His charismatic disciples attracted many followers among Ashkenazi Jews, and they also established numerous Hasidic groups across Europe. The Baal Shem Tov came at a time when the Jewish masses of Eastern Europe were reeling from the bewilderment and disappointment which were engendered in them by

1848-636: The Haymanot branch of Judaism), some of which are nearing extinction as a result of assimilation and intermarriage into surrounding non-Jewish cultures or surrounding Jewish cultures. Additionally, special ethnoreligious divisions are also the Italian rite Jews and the Greek Romaniote Jews . Both groups are considered distinct from Ashkenazim and Sephardim. The Enlightenment had a tremendous effect on Jewish identity and on ideas about

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1936-619: The Jews in Russia . Yet another thinker, whose philosophy was more explicitly concerned only with Eastern European Jews, was Chaim Zhitlowsky , the founder of radical Yiddishism . With the demise of faith, Zhitlowsky advocated that a monolinguistic Yiddish nation and culture were the future of local Jews, with old traditions serving as folklore to be selectively adopted. Neither he nor his followers ever discussed other Jewish ethnic groups. Ahad Ha'am, Berdyczewski, Dubnow and Zhitlowsky were only few of

2024-762: The Oral Torah as a divine authority nor the rabbinic procedures used to interpret Jewish scripture. The tradition of the Qara'im survives in Karaite Judaism , started in the early 9th century when non-rabbinic sages like Benjamin Nahawandi and their followers took the rejection of the Oral Torah by Anan ben David to the new level of seeking the plain meaning of the Tanakh's text. Karaite Jews accept only

2112-839: The Reconstructionist and Renewal movements which emerged later in the 20th century in the United States. In Israel , variation is moderately similar, differing from the west in having roots in the Old Yishuv and pre-to-early-state Yemenite infusion, among other influences. For statistical and practical purposes, the distinctions there are based upon a person's attitude to religion. Most Jewish Israelis classify themselves as " secular " ( hiloni ), "traditional" ( masortim ), "religious" ( dati ) or ultra-religious ( haredi ). The western and Israeli movements differ in their views on various issues (as do those of other Jewish communities). These issues include

2200-557: The Russian alphabet . Hebrew remained the language of letters, and traditional education was the norm; out of 5.2 million Jews, only 21,308 attended state schools in 1880. Suffering severe discrimination, they remained a distinct corporate and ethnic group. Secularisation processes were slow: Radical enlighteners, preaching civic integration and modernisation, had to contend with a well-entrenched rabbinic leadership which enjoyed little-questioned prestige. Unlike their emancipated brethren in

2288-774: The Talmud , further attest these ancient schisms. The main internal struggles during this era were between the Pharisees and the Sadducees, as well as the early Christians, and also the Essenes and Zealots. The Pharisees wanted to maintain the authority and traditions of classical Torah teachings and began the early teachings of the Mishna , maintaining the authority of the Sanhedrin , the supreme Jewish court. According to Josephus,

2376-519: The interwar period . The Marranos in Spain, who retained some sense of Jewish identity and alienation while formally Catholic, anticipated the European secularisation process to some degree. Their diaspora outside Iberia united believing Catholics, returnees to Judaism (on both accounts, rarely fully at comfort in their religions) and deists in one "Marrano nation." Baruch Spinoza , the herald of

2464-537: The "Centrist" Orthodoxy was represented by American rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik affiliated with the Orthodox Union . In Israel, Orthodox Judaism occupies a privileged position: solely an Orthodox rabbi may become the Chief rabbi and Chief military rabbi ; and only Orthodox synagogues have the right to conduct Jewish marriages . Reform Judaism, also known as Liberal (the "Liberal" label can refer only to

2552-660: The 1820s there was the Sephardic congregation Beth Elohim in Charleston, South Carolina . A part of the European Sephardim were also linked with the Judaic modernization. Unlike the predominantly Ashkenazic Reform, and Reconstructionist denominations, Sephardic and Mizrahi Jews who are not observant generally believe that Orthodox Judaism's interpretation and legislation of halakha is appropriate, and true to

2640-641: The Ashkenazim (German rite). Sephardim are primarily the descendants of Jews from the Iberian Peninsula , such as most Jews from France and the Netherlands . They may be divided into the families that left in the Expulsion of 1492 and those that remained as crypto-Jews , Marranos and those who left in the following few centuries. In religious parlance, and by many in modern Israel,

2728-738: The Boston-area Havurat Shalom , attempted to function as full-fledged rural communes after the model of their secular counterparts. Others formed as communities within the urban or suburban Jewish establishment. Although the leadership and ritual privileges were initially men-only, as in Orthodox Jewish practice, second-wave feminism soon led to the full integration of women in these communities. Most Havurah communities today are egalitarian. Apart from some tentative articles in Response and other Jewish student magazines,

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2816-467: The British branch) or Progressive Judaism, originally began in Germany, the Netherlands and the United States c.  1820 as a reaction to modernity, stresses assimilation and integration with society and a personal interpretation of the Torah. The German rabbi and scholar Abraham Geiger with principles of Judaism as religion and not ethnicity, progressive revelation, historical-critical approach,

2904-590: The Enlightenment. These movements promoted scientific thinking, free thought, and allowed people to question previously unshaken religious dogmas. The emancipation of the Jews in many European communities, and the Haskalah movement started by Moses Mendelssohn , brought the Enlightenment to the Jewish community. In response to the challenges of integrating Jewish life with Enlightenment values, German Jews in

2992-613: The Hasidic Jewish groups have been theologically subsumed into mainstream Orthodox Judaism, particularly, Haredi Judaism , but cultural differences persist. In the 19th century, the Lithuanian spirituality was mainly incorporated into the Musar movement . Late-18th-century Europe, and then the rest of the world, was swept by a group of intellectual, social and political movements that taken together were referred to as

3080-671: The Hasidic movement were dubbed Mitnagdim ("opponents") by the followers of the Baal Shem Tov. Lithuania became the centre of this opposition under the leadership of Vilna Gaon (Elijah ben Solomon Zalman), which adopted the epithets Litvishe (Yiddish word), Litvaks (in Slavic) or Lita'im (in Hebrew) those epithets refer to Haredi Jews who are not Hasidim (and not Hardalim or Sephardic Haredim ). Since then, all of

3168-532: The Haskalah formed what became known as modern/neo-Orthodox Jews. The German rabbi Azriel Hildesheimer is regarded as a Modern Orthodoxy founder, while the father of neo-Orthodoxy was German rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch , who proclaimed principle Torah im Derech Eretz —the strict observance of the Jewish Law in an active social life—in 1851, he become the rabbi of first Orthodox separatist group from Reform community of Frankfurt am Main . In addition,

3256-569: The Havurah movement expanded in the 1970s, these groups blended religious rituals with secular activities, meeting outside of traditional temple settings and without the formal guidance of rabbis. Denominational lines were often blurred and emphasis was on community and spirituality over formal synagogue elements. However, some of these groups were welcomed into synagogues with the blessing of the rabbi. Members were often young professionals and families with children. Initially some of these groups, like

3344-581: The North American Jewish counter-cultural trends of the late 1960s and early 1970s . During this period, groups of young rabbis, academics, and political activists founded experimental chavurot for prayer and study, in reaction to what they perceived as an over-institutionalized and unspiritual North American Jewish establishment. Initially the main inspiration was the pietistic fellowships of the Pharisees and other ancient Jewish sects. As

3432-541: The Orthodox tradition, even though many of the congregants may not keep a level of observance on par with traditional Orthodox belief. For example, many congregants will drive to the synagogue on the Shabbat , in violation of halakha , while discreetly entering the synagogue so as not to offend more observant congregants. However, not all Sephardim are Orthodox; among the pioneers of the Reform Judaism movement in

3520-856: The Pharisaic movement, which became known as Rabbinic Judaism (in Hebrew Yahadut Rabanit — יהדות רבנית) with the compilation of the Oral Torah into the Mishna . After the Bar Kokhba revolt and the destruction of the Second Temple the other movements disappeared from the historical record, yet the Sadducees probably kept on existing in a non-organized form for at least several more decades. Non-Rabbinic Judaism— Sadducees , Nazarenes , Karaite Judaism , and Haymanot —contrasts with Rabbinic Judaism and does not recognize

3608-434: The Sadducees differed from the Pharisees on a number of doctrinal grounds, notably rejecting ideas of life after death. They appear to have dominated the aristocracy and the temple, but their influence over the wider Jewish population was limited. The Essenes preached an ascetic way of life. The Zealots advocated armed rebellion against any foreign power such as Rome . All were at violent logger-heads with each other, leading to

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3696-645: The Tanakh as divinely inspired, not recognizing the authority that Rabbinites ascribe to basic rabbinic works like the Talmud and the Midrashim . Although there are numerous Jewish ethnic communities, there are several that are large enough to be considered predominant. Generally, they do not constitute separate religious branches within Judaism, but rather separate cultural traditions ( nuschaot ) and rites of prayer ( minhagim ). Ashkenazi Jews compose about 75% of

3784-527: The United States, at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, the Reform movement became the first in terms of numbers, ahead of Conservative Judaism. In contrast, Israeli Reform is smaller one. Conservative or Masorti Judaism, originated in Germany in the 19th century on the ideological foundation of the Historical School studies, but became institutionalized in the United States, where it

3872-590: The West, their Jewishness was self-evident and unreflective. On that "thick" layer of ethnicity, with virtually no alternative high culture to assimilate into, the slow disintegration of community life and exposure to modern notions allowed an adaptation, rather than marginalisation. In the 1870s and 1880s, several Jewish national movements coalesced in Eastern Europe, coupled with a literary renaissance of Hebrew and Yiddish. In tandem, young intellectuals advanced

3960-585: The appropriate interpretation of halakha for Jews of Sephardic and Mizrachi descent. The Yemenite Jews —the Dor Daim and other movements—use a separate Baladi-rite . The Yemenite and the Aramaic speaking Kurdish Jews are the only communities who maintain the tradition of reading the Torah in the synagogue in both Hebrew and the Aramaic Targum ("translation"). Most non-Yemenite synagogues have

4048-404: The believer only sees a higher power intervening from without. Ahad Ha'am was not the only one, and far from the most radical, to promulgate a cultural-national conception of Jewishness. His harsh critic Micha Josef Berdyczewski , strongly influenced by Nietzsche , sought a transvaluation of values and preached for a rupture with the past. Ginsberg greatly valued tradition, regarding it not as

4136-588: The best-selling books in American Jewish history to that date and spawned two sequels. A much more widespread chavurah movement soon emerged, including self-governing chavurot within Reform, Conservative and Reconstructionist synagogues. In 1989, Riv-Ellen Prell published Prayer & Community: The Havurah in American Judaism to unpack why otherwise fully secularized Jews in the 1970s while rejecting their parents' Judaism nonetheless sought

4224-418: The centrality of the Prophetic books, and superiority of ethical aspects to the ceremonial ones has become the main ideologist of the "Classical" Reform. Unlike traditional Judaism, the Reform rejects the concept of the Jews as the chosen people . There are transformations from the purism of "Classical" European to the "New Reform" in America with reincorporation some traditional Jewish elements. In

4312-431: The coming of the Messiah , and that a political attempt to re-establish a Jewish state through human means alone was contrary to God's plan. Non-Zionists believed that Jews should integrate into the countries in which they lived, rather than moving to the Land of Israel . The original founders of Reform Judaism in Germany rejected traditional prayers for the restoration of Jerusalem. The view among Reform Jews that Judaism

4400-462: The concept of divine revelation , aiming to restore the religion to an ancient, "pure" version, before God's commandments were supposedly corrupted by irrational additions. Eventually, the constraints of emancipation in Central and Western Europe, willing to tolerate the Jews as a Christian-like denomination and rejecting any vestige of corporate autonomy, ensured that modernisation and secularisation were expressed in confessionalising Judaism. It

4488-487: The confusion and disunity that ended with the destruction of the Second Temple and the sacking of Jerusalem by Rome. The Jewish Christians were the original Jewish followers of Jesus . The radical interpretation of Moses' Law by Jesus' disciples and their belief he is the Son of God , along with the development of the New Testament , ensured that Christianity and Judaism would become distinctively different religions . Most streams of modern Judaism developed from

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4576-469: The destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, Jews of the Roman province of Judaea were divided into several movements, sometimes warring among themselves: Pharisees , Sadducees , Essenes , Zealots , and ultimately early Christians . Many historic sources such as Flavius Josephus , the New Testament and the recovered fragments of the Dead Sea Scrolls , attest to the divisions among Jews at this time. Rabbinical writings from later periods, including

4664-400: The early 19th century began to develop the concept of Reform Judaism , adapting Jewish practice to the new conditions of an increasingly urbanized and secular community. Staunch opponents of the Reform movement became known as Orthodox Jews . Later, members of the Reform movement who felt that it was moving away from tradition too quickly formed the Conservative movement . At the same time,

4752-542: The early chavurot attracted little attention in the wider North American Jewish community. Then, in 1973, Michael and Sharon Strassfeld released The Jewish Catalog : A Do-It-Yourself Kit. Patterned after the recently published counter-culture Whole Earth Catalog , the book served both as a basic reference on Judaism and American Jewish life, as well as a playful compendium of Jewish crafts, recipes, meditational practices, and political action ideas, all aimed at disaffected young Jewish adults. The Jewish Catalog became one of

4840-441: The end of the 19th and early 20th centuries, and being recognised as a national minority with autonomous rights in the interwar period , Jewish secularism thrived. From the socialist Bund to the bourgeois Folkspartei , Jewish political parties declared their commitment to propagating the new views among the public. Even the Zionists , who were more keen to cooperate with the Orthodox, lost many traditional members when they adopted

4928-628: The greater number of non-Orthodox Jews adhering to other movements (or to none), such that the non-Orthodox are sometimes referred to collectively as the "liberal" or "progressive streams". Other divisions of Judaism in the world reflect being more ethnically and geographically rooted, e.g., Beta Israel ( Ethiopian Jews ), and Bene Israel (among the ancient Jewish communities of India ). Normatively, Judaism excludes from its composition certain groups that may name or consider themselves ethnic Jews but hold key beliefs in sharp contradiction, for example, modern or ancient Messianic Jews . Some Jews reject

5016-418: The holidays and other aspects of Jewish tradition: New children's songs, for example, served to remove the old religious narratives and impart new ones, centered on the family or the nation. The secular messages were spread by the modern Jewish schools and youth movements, which catered to hundreds of thousands of pupils. The logic of redefining the Jews as a modern nation was extended to the criteria for being

5104-421: The importance and role of Jewish observance. Due to the geographical distribution and the geopolitical entities affected by the Enlightenment, this philosophical revolution essentially affected only the Ashkenazi community; however, because of the predominance of the Ashkenazi community in Israeli politics and in Jewish leadership worldwide, the effects have been significant for all Jews. Sephardic Judaism

5192-438: The intellectual circles of Israel are Italian rite Jews ( Italkim ) who are neither Ashkenazi nor Sephardi. These are exclusively descendants of the ancient Roman Jewish community, not including later Ashkenazic and Sephardic migrants to Italy. They practice traditional Orthodox Judaism. The liturgy is served according to a special Italian Nusach ( Nusach ʾItalqi , a.k.a. Minhag B'nei Romì ) and it has similarities with

5280-452: The level of observance, the methodology for interpreting and understanding Jewish law , biblical authorship , textual criticism , and the nature or role of the messiah (or messianic age ). Across these movements, there are marked differences in liturgy , especially in the language in which services are conducted, with the more traditional movements emphasizing Hebrew. The sharpest theological division occurs between traditional Orthodox and

5368-467: The main body, and this separation usually becomes irreparable over time. Within Judaism, individuals and families often switch affiliation, and individuals are free to marry one another, although the major denominations disagree on who is a Jew . It is not unusual for clergy and Jewish educators trained in one of the liberal denominations to serve in another, and left with no choice, many small Jewish communities combine elements of several movements to achieve

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5456-537: The middle of the 20th century, the institutional division of North American Jewry between Reform, Conservative, and Orthodox movements still reflected immigrant origins. Reform Jews at that time were predominantly of German or western European origin, while both Conservative and Orthodox Judaism came primarily from eastern European countries. The issue of Zionism was once very divisive in the Jewish community. Religious Zionism , a.k.a. "Nationalist Orthodoxy" ( Dati-leumi ) combines Zionism and Orthodox Judaism, based on

5544-484: The most prominent Jewish secularist ideologues of their age. Hundreds of others, influenced by the major thinkers and supporting the various national movements, were active among the millions in the Pale of Settlement , Poland and the adjacent regions. The new understanding of Jewishness swiftly spread from the intellectuals to the rest of society, into the spheres of popular culture and daily life. As Eastern European Jews were undergoing secularisation and acculturation, in

5632-517: The most striking differences between the Jewish movements in the 21st century is their response to pressures of assimilation, such as intermarriage between Jews and non-Jews. Reform and Reconstructionist rabbis have been most accepting of intermarried couples, with some rabbis willing to officiate in mixed religious ceremonies, although most insist that children in such families be raised strictly Jewish. Conservative rabbis are not permitted to officiate in such marriages, but are supportive of couples when

5720-416: The non-Jewish partner wishes to convert to Judaism and raise children as Jewish. Jewish secularism Jewish secularism (Hebrew: יהדות חילונית) refers to secularism in a Jewish context, denoting the definition of Jewish identity with little or no attention given to its religious aspects. The concept of Jewish secularism first arose in the late 19th century, with its influence peaking during

5808-403: The notion "traditional Judaism" includes the Orthodox with Conservative or solely the Orthodox Jews or exclusively pre-Hasidic pre-modern forms of Orthodoxy. Over time, three main movements emerged (Orthodox, Reform and Conservative Judaism). Orthodox Jews generally see themselves as practicing normative Judaism, rather than belonging to a particular movement. Within Orthodox Judaism, there

5896-467: The nusach of the Greek Romaniote Jews . The Romaniote Jews or the Romaniotes ( Romanyotim ) native to the Eastern Mediterranean is the oldest Jewish community in Europe, whom name is refers to the Eastern Roman Empire . They are also distinct from the Ashkenazim and Sephardim. But, nowadays, few synagogues still use the Romaniote nusach and minhag . Hasidic Judaism —a revivalist movement—was founded by Israel ben Eliezer (1700–1760), also known as

5984-456: The only venues in which Jewishness could be expressed. The nascent Reform movement radically altered the religion so it could be adapted to modern circumstances. The traditionalists, coalescing into self-aware Orthodoxy , silently tolerated change while turning a blind eye to unprincipled laxity. In modernist Orthodox circles , acculturation was even lauded. The scholars of the " Science of Judaism ", who introduced critical academic methods in

6072-467: The original philosophy of Judaism. That being said, Sephardic and Mizrachi rabbis tend to hold different, and generally more lenient, positions on halakha than their Ashkenazi counterparts, but since these positions are based on rulings of Talmudic scholars as well as well-documented traditions that can be linked back to well-known codifiers of Jewish law, Ashkenazic and Hasidic Rabbis do not believe that these positions are incorrect, but rather that they are

6160-449: The pale of Jewishness. Among the millions of Eastern Europeans who immigrated to the United States and other western countries, the new Jewish secularism imported from home continued to prosper. A group of radical intellectuals coalesced in 1915 to found The Menorah Journal , advocating a "secular Hebrew" identity and deriding religion and the rabbis. Socialist Yiddishists, organised in the Arbeter Ring and other trade unions, furthered

6248-418: The people arose by itself, not by God's intervention; the driving, enlivening force of Jewish history was not the transmission of God's teachings through the generations, but the creative instincts and " national spirit " of the Jews. He described himself and his like-minded in 1898: The free-thinking Jew, who loves his own people, is a pantheist . He sees the creativity of the national spirit from within, where

6336-509: The secular age, advocated the demise of religious control over society and the delegation of faith to the private sphere. Yet his notions lacked anything specifically Jewish: He believed that without the ceremonial law to define the Jews, their collective existence would eventually cease, an outcome he regarded as welcome. There is no evidence he retained a sense of Jewishness after being anathemised in 1656. Religious laxity and acculturation, widespread among Spanish exiles, began to appear among

6424-642: The secular reformulation of Jewish life: traditional texts, like the Passover Haggadah , were supplanted with Yiddish or English editions, emphasising Jewish class consciousness and anti- rabbinism . The dense immigrants' neighbourhoods in New York provided a strong sense of Jewish ethnicity, and an audience for the intellectuals and cultural activists. In the Zionist settlement in the Land of Israel , Cultural Zionism , strongly influenced by Ahad Ha'am,

6512-406: The stringent adherence to rabbinical interpretations that some other denominations might require. In terms of religious observance, adherents commonly engage in the lighting of Shabbat candles, recitation of Kiddush, and the enjoyment of communal meals replete with traditional zemirot . This practice is designed to foster a sense of community and spiritual reflection, particularly on Shabbat where

6600-399: The study of Jewish history, rebutted traditional interpretation, but were rarely interested in alternatives for the secularised, modern crowd. They even scorned the efforts of religious reform, whether radical or conservative, and many were convinced that Judaism was destined to dissipate; Moritz Steinschneider once commented that their aim was to "duly bury its corpse." Utter religious apathy

6688-494: The teachings of rabbis Zvi Hirsch Kalischer and Abraham Isaac Kook . The name Hardalim or Haredi-leumi ("Nationalist Haredim") refers to the Haredi-oriented variety of Religious Zionism. Another mode is Reform Zionism as Zionist arm of Reform Judaism. Non-Orthodox Conservative leaders joined Zionist mission. Reconstructionist Judaism also supports Zionism and "the modern state of Israel plays

6776-960: The term denomination as a label for different groups and ideologies within Judaism, arguing that the notion of denomination has a specifically Christian resonance that does not translate easily into the Jewish context. However, in recent years the American Jewish Year Book has adopted "denomination", as have many scholars and theologians. Commonly used terms are movements , as well as denominations , varieties , traditions , groupings , streams , branches , sectors and sects (for some groups), trends , and such. Sometimes, as an option, only three main currents of Judaism (Orthodox, Conservative and Reform) are named traditions, and divisions within them are called movements. The Jewish groups themselves reject characterization as sects . Sects are traditionally defined as religious subgroups that have broken off from

6864-412: The term is used in a broader sense to include all Jews of Ottoman or other Asian or African backgrounds (Mizrahi Jews), whether or not they have any historic link to Spain, although some prefer to distinguish between Sephardim proper and Mizraḥi Jews. Sephardic and Mizrachi Jewish synagogues are generally considered Orthodox or Sephardic Haredim by non-Sephardic Jews, and are primarily run according to

6952-452: The theological discourse which defined the Jews was about to lose relevance, first for the young and educated and later for most. While others ignored the subject, Ginsberg delineated a revolutionary solution, borrowing especially from the social Darwinism of Herbert Spencer . He utterly disposed of the question of revelation, which so concerned the Orthodox and Reform in the west, and that of divine election . In his secular, agnostic view,

7040-438: The two notorious Jewish false messiahs , Sabbatai Zevi (1626–1676) and Jacob Frank (1726–1791), and their respective followers . Hasidic Judaism eventually became the way of life for many Jews in Eastern Europe. The Hasidim are organized into independent "courts" or dynasties , each dynasty is headed by its own hereditary spiritual leader- rebbe . Unlike other Ashkenazim, most Hasidim use some variation of Nusach Sefard ,

7128-493: The use of technology is often set aside to maintain a contemplative state. Dietary laws within Communal Judaism adhere to kashrut , the set of Jewish dietary laws, with a focus on traditional observance. This includes abstaining from pork and shellfish and not mixing meat with dairy products, as outlined in the Torah. The connection to the Land of Israel stands as a central tenet of Communal Judaism, emphasizing

7216-533: The weakening of Catholic Church, the Jews' traditional role as humiliated witnesses to its truth was no longer a political maxim, and the absolutist rulers pondered how to turn them into useful subjects. Jewish intellectuals, members of a new non-rabbinic secularised elite, likewise attempted to solve the modern problems. Radical Jewish enlighteners like Saul Ascher , Lazarus Bendavid and Perez Peter Beer (1758-1838) suggested that Judaism be reduced to little more than deism . Yet even their arguments were predicated on

7304-545: The world's Jewish population. Sephardi Jews and Mizrahi Jews compose the greatest part of the rest, with about 20% of the world's Jewish population. Israel has two Chief Rabbi —one for the Ashkenazic, another for the Sephardic with Mizrahi Jews. The remaining 5% of Jews are divided among a wide array of small groups (such as various groups of African Jews , most prominently the Beta Israel from Ethiopia who follow

7392-436: Was common among 19th-century Jews, but it was not accompanied by any positive identity. The children of such people often converted to Christianity. Only in late-19th century Eastern Europe did a new, positive and secular definition of Jewish existence arise. Eastern European Jews, more than 90% of world Jewry at the time, were decidedly unacculturated: In 1897, 97% declared Yiddish their mother tongue and only 26% could read

7480-453: Was limited to the private sphere, while its adherents were expected to conform to civil norms in the public one, and identify with the nation-state in the political, often as "citizens of the Mosaic faith ". The synagogue, family life and strictly religious questions – the differentiation between "secular" and "religious" spheres, imported from Christianity, was alien to Jewish tradition – were

7568-517: Was strictly a religion rather than a nation with cultural identity, and that Jews should be assimilated, loyal citizens of their host nations, led to a non-Zionist, and sometimes anti-Zionist , stance. After events of the 20th century, most importantly the Holocaust and the establishment of the modern State of Israel , opposition to Zionism largely disappeared within Reform Judaism. Among most religious non-Zionists, such as Chabad , there

7656-444: Was the dominant philosophy . The highly centralised and ideologically-driven Zionist enterprise in the land, allowed its leaders to rapidly disseminate the intellectual products of their philosophers and thinkers, committed to create a new Jewish culture . The old holidays were radically refashioned: Hanukkah 's religious aspects, centering on the miracle of the oil, were repressed and replaced with an emphasis on national sovereignty and

7744-620: Was to become the largest Jewish movement (however, in 1990 Reform Judaism already outpaced Conservatism by 3 percent). After the division between Reform and Orthodox Judaism, the Conservative movement tried to provide Jews seeking liberalization of Orthodox theology and practice, such as female rabbi ordination, with a more traditional and halakhically-based alternative to Reform Judaism. It has spread to Ashkenazi communities in Anglophone countries and Israel. Neolog Judaism ,

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