Jewish Babylonian Aramaic ( Aramaic : ארמית Ārāmît ) was the form of Middle Aramaic employed by writers in Lower Mesopotamia between the fourth and eleventh centuries. It is most commonly identified with the language of the Babylonian Talmud (which was completed in the seventh century), the Targum Onqelos , and of post-Talmudic ( Gaonic ) literature, which are the most important cultural products of Babylonian Jews . The most important epigraphic sources for the dialect are the hundreds of inscriptions on incantation bowls .
56-489: Chavrusa , also spelled chavruta or ḥavruta ( Jewish Babylonian Aramaic : חַבְרוּתָא , romanized: ḥāḇruṯā , lit. "fellowship"; pl. : חַבְרָוָותָא , ḥāḇrāwāṯā ), is a traditional rabbinic approach to Talmudic study in which a small group of students (usually 2–5) analyze, discuss, and debate a shared text. It is a primary learning method in yeshivas and kollels , where students often engage regular study partners of similar knowledge and ability, and
112-405: A chavura ( Hebrew : חַבוּרָה , group; also chabura ). It some communities, the idea of chavrusa can include two, three, four or even five individuals studying together. The Reform and Conservative movements have extended the idea of chavura to modern scholarship and poetry (note that a chavura ( Ashkenazic pronunciation: chevra ) can also refer to a group of individuals or families which
168-492: A chavrusa gets stuck on a difficult point or needs further clarification, they can turn to the rabbis, lecturers, or a sho'el u'mashiv (literally, "ask and answer", a rabbi who is intimately familiar with the Talmudic text being studied) who are available to them in the study hall during sedarim . In women's yeshiva programs, teachers are on hand to guide the chavrusas . Chavrusa learning tends to be loud and animated, as
224-533: A kiruv ( Orthodox Judaism outreach ) tool in Israel and as an option for busy homemakers. Yosef Chaim Sonnenfeld , Chief Rabbi of Mandatory Palestine , reportedly had a regular half-hour chavrusa with his wife, during which they studied Orach Chayim . In 1997, Partners in Torah was the first organization to move chavrusa -style learning out of the yeshiva and synagogue and into telephone study sessions. During
280-550: A century after him. In his religious decisions Johanan was comparatively liberal. He blamed the destruction of the Temple by the Romans to the strictness of rabbis when applying religious verdicts. He sided with Judah II in the repeal of the prohibition against using oil made by pagans. He permitted Greek to be studied by men (because it enabled them to defend themselves against informers) and by women (because familiarity with Greek
336-543: A close bond between study partners that has been said to be closer than that of many married couples. Women's yeshivas that include Talmud study on the curriculum often schedule chavrusa study sessions for their students. In Orthodox women's seminaries, students are paired with study partners of equal or greater strength to learn Halakha , Chumash , Jewish philosophy , or any other topic in Judaism. In recent years, telephone study partnerships for women have been promoted as
392-473: A complete calendar covering the intercalations for a period of sixty years; Johanan, however, admitted merely that Samuel was a good mathematician. But when Samuel transmitted to him a mass of disquisitions on the dietary laws, Johanan exclaimed, "I still have a master in Babylonia!" He even resolved to pay him a visit, but rumor made him believe that Samuel had in the meantime died. Johanan was long considered
448-418: A half could not attend his college; but it seems that he finally recovered his health and resumed his labors. It is said that Johanan had an agreeable presence and a pleasing disposition; he was considered kind and considerate to the stranger as well as to his brethren; to the non-observant as to the pious; to the am ha'aretz as to the haver ; for this he was beloved by his teachers and honored by all. He
504-486: A joint of the victim's little finger, which he exhibited to mourners in order to inspire resignation. "This is a bone from the body of my tenth son," he would say. However, he himself was not resigned at the death of his brother-in-law Shimon ben Lakish , his fellow amora, whom he affectionately called "my counterpart". He mourned for him long and deeply, weeping often and crying, "Bar Lakish, where art thou? O Bar Lakish! " At last he became melancholy, and for three years and
560-503: A logical structure, present their viewpoint clearly, and be ready to justify each and every point. The stronger chavrusa helps the student acquire a great deal of information, but the weaker chavrusa helps the student learn how to learn. Yeshiva students are usually advised to have one of each of these three types of chavrusas in order to develop on all three levels. Beth Medrash Govoha in Lakewood Township, New Jersey
616-472: A pension, and soon a lecturer's place was found for him. In Sepphoris, Johanan quickly became popular for his lectures, with crowds flocking to hear him. However, Johanan moved to Tiberias at some point before Hanina's death. The two had disagreed on two points of ritual, and Johanan, not wishing to oppose his master at his home, decided to move. It is doubtful whether they ever met again. However, Johanan maintained close relations with his other teachers to
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#1732798645145672-442: A result [of the give-and-take] the subject became clear" Rabbi Yochanan on his chavrusa with Reish Lakish ( Bava Metzia 84a) Unlike conventional classroom learning, in which a teacher lectures to the student and the student memorizes and repeats the information back in tests, and unlike an academic seminary, where students do independent research, chavrusa learning challenges the student to analyze and verbally explain
728-432: A sense, once his name is mentioned in a discussion on halachic ruling, it 'kills the discussion', as his ruling are considered final. Johanan is the subject of many stories. He treated his servants with great kindness: "Did not He that made me in the womb make him?" He was blessed with many children, but lost ten sons. The last one is said to have died by falling into a caldron of boiling water. The bereft father preserved
784-669: A special verse so no jealousy or haughtiness would result from this. On his death-bed he ordered that he should be dressed neither in white nor in black, but in scarlet, so that on awaking after death he would not feel out of place in the company either of the pious or of the wicked. Eleazar ben Pedat succeeded Yohanan as head of the Tiberias school. He thoroughly analyzed the Mishnah , discovering many contradictory decisions in it. These he sought to reconcile; but as that could not always be done, he perforce rejected many laws adopted in
840-445: A teacher. With a chavrusa who is equal in knowledge and ability, the student is forced to prove their point with logic rather than by right of seniority, which improves their ability to think logically, analyze other people's opinions objectively, and accept criticism. With a weaker chavrusa , who often worries over and questions each step, the student is forced to understand the material thoroughly, refine and organize their thoughts in
896-455: A vernacular mother tongue, and continued in use for these purposes long after Judeo-Arabic had become the languages of daily life. It has developed a battery of technical logical terms, such as tiyuvta (conclusive refutation) and tiqu (undecidable moot point), which are still used in Jewish legal writings, including those in other languages, and have influenced modern Hebrew . Like
952-443: Is Active Frequentative . The verbal pattern itpa'al is Passive Frequentative . The verbal pattern aphel is Active Causative . The verbal pattern itaphal is Passive Causative . The language has received considerable scholarly attention, as shown in the bibliography below. However, the majority of those who are familiar with it, namely Orthodox Jewish students of Talmud, are given no systematic instruction in
1008-403: Is also practiced by those outside the yeshiva setting, in work, home, and vacation settings. The traditional phrase is to learn b'chavrusa ( בְחַבְרוּתָא bəḥāḇruṯā "in partnership"); the word has come by metonymy to refer to the study partner as an individual, though it would more logically describe the pair. Unlike a teacher-student relationship, in which the student memorizes and repeats
1064-480: Is an Aramaic word meaning "friendship" or "companionship". The Rabbis of the Mishnah and Gemara use the cognate term chaver (חבר, "friend" or "companion" in Hebrew) to refer to the one with whom a person studies Torah . In contemporary usage, chavrusa is defined as a "study partnership". A chavrusa usually refers to two students learning one on one. When three or more students learn together, they are called
1120-410: Is believed to have never left Israel in all his life, a rare feat for rabbis in those days, who frequently visited Babylonia . He was known for being healthy and beautiful, and reportedly lived more than one hundred years. The Talmud relates of him: "He that wishes to see the beauty of Rabbi Johanan, let him bring a silver chalice when it comes out of the silversmith's refinery, and let him fill it with
1176-407: Is causal or merely correlative. Chavrusa learning takes place in the formalized structure of the yeshiva or kollel, as well as in Talmudic study that an individual does at any time of day. Although a man skilled in learning could study certain topics on his own, the chavrusa relationship is preferred to help them crystallize their thoughts. In the yeshiva setting, students prepare for and review
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#17327986451451232-597: Is considered as one waiting on the Divine Presence". Rabbi Johanan was sitting [and] reading in the synagogue of the Babylonians in Sepphoris. There passed in front of him a governor [with the rank of] Minister, but he (R. Johanan) did not stand up before him. They sought to have him beaten. He (the governor) said to them: 'Leave him alone. He was busy in what concerns the law (custom) of his Creator'. In
1288-438: Is considered poor manners to interrupt one's chavrusa . The chavrusa relationship also strengthens the student's personal commitment to his studies, as he is loath to disappoint or cancel on his chavrusa . Some early research has shown that the use of this study modality within a traditional Yeshiva education can aid students later succeed in law school -- although it remains an open question as to whether that relationship
1344-500: Is evidence that learning in pairs was not always a universal norm in yeshivas, for example in the famous Volozhin Yeshiva of 19th century Lithuania, there is evidence that individual study rather than studying in pairs was the norm. Chavrusa -style learning is particularly suited to Talmud study, as the latter is a text filled with conflicting opinions and seemingly contradictory statements on principles of Jewish law. Besides tracking
1400-592: Is known for its "tumult day" at the beginning of each z'man (semester), when thousands of students mingle outdoors with the goal of choosing a chavrusa for the new term. A similar "tumult day" takes place among the hundreds of students at the main Brisk yeshiva in Jerusalem, and at the Mir in Jerusalem. Chavrusas often develop into lasting friendships. The shared commitment to scholarship and intellectual growth creates
1456-602: Is part study or prayer group, part social club). A (more formal) study group in a Yeshiva is sometimes referred to as a "Kibbutz" – see for example Sunderland Talmudical College § The Kibbutz – especially in older usage, preceding the use of that term for an agricultural community . "Just as a knife can be sharpened only on the side of another, so a disciple of a sage improves only through his chaver " Rabbi Hama b. Hanina "Your chaver will make it [i.e., Torah study] solid in your hand. And do not rely on your own understanding" Rabbi Nehorai Based on statements in
1512-426: The shiur (lecture) with their chavrusas during morning, afternoon, and evening study sessions known as sedarim . On average, a yeshiva student spends ten hours per day learning in chavrusa . Since having the right chavrusa makes all the difference between having a good year and a bad year, class rabbis may switch chavrusas eight or nine times in a class of 20 boys until the partnerships work for both sides. If
1568-466: The British-Jewish educational charity's annual conference. Zionist ideologue A. D. Gordon used the term chavrusa to refer to a communal society , such as the moshav , kibbutz , or worker's association, which acts as a self-educational link to the larger social-educational process. In Zionist thought, the chavrusa is "a central tool in the struggle for the revival of the Jewish people,
1624-609: The Iraqi , Syrian and Egyptian Jews . The value of the Yemenite reading tradition has been challenged by Matthew Morgenstern . (The vocalized Aramaic texts with which Jews are familiar, from the Bible and the prayer book , are of limited usefulness for this purpose, as they are in different dialects.) Talmudic Aramaic bears all the marks of being a specialist language of study and legal argumentation, like Law French , rather than
1680-600: The geonic period in the "Order of the Tannaim and Amoraim" (סדר תנאים ואמוראים; abridged, סתו"א), which is ascribed to Naashon b. Zadok of the ninth century. Later Talmudists, seeing that Johanan's name appears more frequently in the Gemara than anyone else's, ascribed to him the compilation of the Jerusalem Talmud . Modern scholars believe that he began the compilation, which, however, was not completed until over
1736-588: The 2000s, many free Internet services began matching up study partners around the world using videoconferencing and Skype hook-ups. Founded in the United Kingdom in 1996 and launched globally in 2009, the Limmud Chavruta Project produces an annual study guide for chavrusa -style learning. The study guides, which include source texts on topics such as "Responsibility", "Creativity", "Time", and "Money", are issued in conjunction with
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1792-751: The 3rd-century CE, Johanan officiated in the synagogue of Maon and was called to render a decision in the case of a ritual slaughterer ( shochet ) who had improperly slaughtered a chicken and whether or not he was to be held liable on that account. Johanan opened an academy in Tiberias, and let anybody in if they wanted to learn, a controversial move at the time. The academy soon drew large numbers of gifted students, native and foreign, among them Abbahu , Rabbi Ammi , Rabbi Assi , Eleazar ben Pedat , Hiyya bar Abba , Jose bar Hanina , Shimon bar Abba , and Rabbi Isaac Nappaha . As many of his disciples accepted and taught his decisions, and as he himself visited and lectured at other places, his fame spread far and wide. In
1848-637: The Diaspora, whither his teachings were carried by his students, his authority was almost as great as in his native land, and few contemporary scholars in Babylonia opposed him. Johanan himself recognized no foreign authority except that of Rav , his senior schoolmate under Judah haNasi . Johanan kept up a correspondence with Rav, and addressed him as "our master in Babylonia." After Rav's death Johanan wrote to Rav's colleague Samuel of Nehardea , but addressed him as "our colleague in Babylonia." Samuel sent him
1904-632: The Mishnah and Gemara, chavrusa learning was a key feature of yeshivas in the eras of the Tannaim (Rabbis of the Mishnaic period, 10-220 CE) and Amoraim (Rabbis of the Talmudic period, 200 to 500 CE). The Rabbis repeatedly urged their students to acquire a study partner; for example, Rabbi Yehoshua Ben Perachia enjoined students to "Make for yourself a Rav and acquire for yourself a chaver ", and Rabbi Yose ben Chalafta told his son Rabbi Abba that he
1960-580: The Mishnah, preferring the authority of baraitas taught by his former masters Hiyya and Hoshaiah . He established broad rules that apply in many cases; for example, he held that the halakha always follows a s'tam mishnah (an undisputed anonymous mishnah ), and he had rules for which tanna ("Mishnah teacher") to follow in cases of dispute. Some such rules had been formulated by others, but had proved insufficient. Johanan therefore elaborated and supplemented them, and most of his rules are to this day considered authoritative. All of them were collected in
2016-530: The back-and-forth debates, a student of Talmud must be able to analyze each opinion and present hypotheses to reconcile it in light of the others. The chavrusa relationship gives each student a platform to clarify and explain their position to a partner; then the two go on to question, defend, convince, amend, fine-tune, and even arrive at new conclusions through rigorous intellectual collaboration. "With bar Lakisha, whenever I would say something, he would pose 24 difficulties and I would give him 24 solutions, and as
2072-439: The boy under his wing and taught him Torah . Due to the disparity in ages, though—Johanan was only fifteen years old when Judah died—Johanan was not one of Judah's prime students; rather, he studied more under Judah's students. It is said that initially he sat seventeen rows behind Abba Arikha in the school taught by Judah, and could not comprehend the discussions. In later life, Johanan recalled teachings that he had gleaned from
2128-411: The early Sages who moved to Usha . Hanina bar Hama taught him homiletic Bible interpretation—except of the books of Proverbs and Ecclesiastes —and probably medicine, in which he became skilled. He studied Torah diligently all his life, even selling a field house and an olive shed that he had inherited from his parents in order to be able to devote his time to study. As he expressed it, he exchanged
2184-693: The early era of the Talmud . He belonged to the second generation of amoraim . Johanan's opinion is quoted thousands of times across the Jerusalem and Babylonian Talmuds . The compilation of the Jerusalem Talmud is generally ascribed to him. He is generally cited as "Johanan," but sometimes by his cognomen only, which he himself uses once; but he is never cited by both together. Opinions vary on whether "bar Nappaha" (literally "son [of the] blacksmith") derives from his father's profession, from
2240-429: The end of their days. This was particularly the case with Hoshaiah Rabbah . He, too, moved from Sepphoris to Caesarea , where he opened a college and whither Johanan often went from Tiberias to consult him on difficult problems. Johanan continued these visits during the last 13 years of Hoshaiah's life, but they were merely social visits, Johanan no longer needing Hoshaiah's help: "He that pays his respects to his teacher
2296-442: The expense of their study time, they are advised to find different study partners. In the yeshiva world, the brightest students are highly desirable as chavrusas . However, there are pros and cons to learning with chavrusas who are stronger, weaker, or equal in knowledge and ability to the student. A stronger chavrusa will correct and fill in the student's knowledge and help them improve their learning techniques, acting more like
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2352-498: The form Pa'el (פַּעֵל) “like to do”, are all in the active voice. But the form Itpe'el (אִתְפְּעֵל), the form Itaph'al (אִתַפְעַל) and the form Itpa'al (אִתְפַּעַל) are essentially reflexive and usually function in a passive sense. The Aramaic verb has two participles : an active participle with suffix and a passive participle with suffix : |} The verbal pattern (binyan) pa‘el are frequentative verbs showing repeated or intense action. The verbal pattern pa'el
2408-680: The greatest rabbi in the Land of Israel , and after the deaths of Rav and Samuel, the greatest authority recognized by Babylonian Jews as well. Because of the principle of halacha k'battra'i (the halachic ruling being according to the rabbi with the latest ordination from the Land of Israel in those days, felt to be uninterrupted from the direct line from the Sanhedrin ), he is quoted so many times and one will notice that every 'participant' in that discussion attempts to align themselves with his opinion. In
2464-417: The language, and are expected to "sink or swim" in the course of their Talmudic studies, with the help of some informal pointers showing similarities and differences with Hebrew. Johanan bar Nappaha Johanan bar Nappaha ( Hebrew : יוחנן בר נפחא Yoḥanan bar Nafḥa ; alt. sp. Napaḥa ) (also known simply as Rabbi Yochanan , or as Johanan bar Nafcha ) (lived 180-279 CE ) was a leading rabbi in
2520-551: The late 1950s. Havruta magazine is a publication of the Pardes Institute of Jewish Studies . Jewish Babylonian Aramaic language The language was closely related to other Eastern Aramaic dialects such as Mandaic . Its original pronunciation is uncertain, and has to be reconstructed with the help of these kindred dialects and of the reading tradition of the Yemenite Jews , and where available those of
2576-482: The material back in tests, chavrusa-style learning puts each student in the position of analyzing the text, organizing their thoughts into logical arguments, explaining their reasoning to their partner, hearing out their partner's reasoning, and questioning and sharpening each other's ideas, often arriving at entirely new insights into the meaning of the text. O chevra o mituta "Either friend or death". (In printings, "either chavruta or death.") Rava Chavrusa
2632-573: The material, point out the errors in his partner's reasoning, and question and sharpen each other's ideas, often arriving at entirely new insights into the meaning of the text. A chavrusa helps the student stay awake, keep his mind focused on the learning, sharpen his reasoning powers, develop his thoughts into words, and organize his thoughts into logical arguments. This type of learning also imparts precision and clarity into ideas that would otherwise remain vague. Having to listen to, analyze and respond to another's opinion inculcates respect for others. It
2688-546: The name of his ancestral region, or perhaps represents a physical or psychological quality. Johanan's early years were spent in Sepphoris in the Roman-ruled Galilee (then part of Syria Palaestina province). He traced his descent from the tribe of Joseph. His father, a blacksmith, died prior to his birth, and his mother died soon after; he was raised by his grandfather in Sepphoris. Judah ha-Nasi took
2744-551: The other Judeo-Aramaic languages , it was written in the Hebrew alphabet . May his great name shall be blessed (Kaddish Shalem, 8th century) ַ ני נַטְרַנִי he supervised me נֵיעָרְבִינְהוּ וְנִכְתְּבִינְהוּ There are six major verb stems or verbal patterns (binyanim) in Jewish Babylonian Aramaic. The form pe‘al (פְּעַל) “to do”, the form Aph'el (אַפְעֵל) “let do”, and
2800-480: The red kernels of a pomegranate, and then let him adorn the chalice around its brim with red roses, and then place it between the sunlight and the shade. The emanating radiance would be somewhat similar to the beauty of Rabbi Johanan." He was accustomed to sit outside the mikveh in the evening, saying: "Let the daughters of Israel look at me when they come up from the mikveh and their children will be as handsome as I am and they will learn Torah like I do." He then said
2856-613: The revival of the individual, and the centrality of the idea of 'labor'. It is the highest expression of the Jewish person's extraordinary effort to recreate him or herself through 'labor', to be reconnected to nature, and to plant the many-branched tree of his or her nation in the land from which it was uprooted". Chavrusa is the name of the magazine of the Rabbinic Alumni of the Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary , published since
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#17327986451452912-462: The skills of chavrusa learning is the ability to block out all other discussions in the study hall and focus on one's study partner alone. Pairing up study partners has been compared to making a shidduch (marriage match), as the skills, interests, temperament and schedule of each person must be taken into consideration. Good friends do not necessarily make good chavrusas . If the chavrusas spend too much time chatting or joking with each other at
2968-425: The study partners read the Talmudic text and the commentaries aloud to each other and then analyze, question, debate, and defend their points of view to arrive at a mutual understanding of the text. In the heat of discussion, they may wave their hands or even shout at each other. Depending on the size of the yeshiva, dozens or even hundreds of chavrusas can be heard discussing and debating each other's opinions. One of
3024-410: The things that God created in six days for the things the delivery of which required forty days. After that was spent, he lived a life of poverty. For some time, he was compelled to work to support himself. But soon he felt impelled to return to his school, where he earned, not without a struggle, the encomiums of his masters. At last, owing to the universal homage paid to him, the patriarch accorded him
3080-643: Was considered attractive in women). He allowed the painting of decorative figures on the walls. Under certain circumstances he permitted emigration from Palestine: "If you are mentioned [nominated by the Romans] for office, make the Jordan your boundary friend [escape over the Jordan], even on a semiholiday". He was one of the most prolific aggadists. Midrash Tehillim has, erroneously, been ascribed to him. [REDACTED] This article incorporates text from
3136-511: Was ignorant because he did not study with someone else. The choice of chavrusas seems to have been based on friendship or social proximity; thus, chavrusas fulfilled a social as well as an educational need. While an individual may choose to study Talmud alone, it is strongly discouraged. In the Talmud, Jose bar Hanina is quoted as saying that "scholars who sit alone to study the Torah . . . become stupid" ( Berakhot , 63b). Nevertheless, there
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