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33-522: Hawikuh (also spelled Hawikku , meaning "gum leaves" in Zuni ), was one of the largest of the Zuni pueblos at the time of the Spanish entrada . It was founded around 1400 AD. It was the first pueblo to be visited and conquered by Spanish explorers . The Spanish chroniclers referred to it as Cevola , Tzibola , or Cibola . The pueblo site is located 12 miles (19 km) southwest of Zuni Pueblo , on

66-603: A phonemic distinction in duration : all vowels can be long or short. Additionally, short vowels can also be voiceless. The vowel chart below contains the vowel phonemes and allophones from the information of the Keresan languages combined from The Language of Santa Ana Pueblo (1964), The Phonemes of Keresan (1946), and Kansas Working Papers in Linguistics (1987). Notes: All Keresan short vowels may be devoiced in certain positions. The phonemic status of these vowels

99-560: A CV(V) shape. The maximal syllable structure is CCVVC and the minimal syllable is CV. In native Keresan words, only a glottal stop /ʔ/ ⟨ʼ⟩ can close a syllable, but some loanwords from Spanish have syllables that end in a consonant, mostly a nasal (i.e. /m n/ but words containing these sequences are rare in the language. Due to extensive vowel devoicing, several Keresan words may be perceived as ending in consonants or even containing consonant clusters. The only sequence of consonants (i.e. consonant cluster ) that occurs in native Keresan words

132-770: A Keresan-Zuni grouping. J. P. Harrington wrote one unpublished paper with the title "Zuñi Discovered to be Hokan" (Campbell 1997). As Zuni is a language in the Pueblo linguistic area , it shares a number of features with Hopi , Keresan, and Tanoan (and to a lesser extent Navajo ) that are probably due to language contact . The development of ejective consonants in Zuni may be due to contact with Keresan and Tanoan languages which have complete series of ejectives. Likewise, aspirated consonants may have diffused into Zuni. Other shared traits include: final devoicing of vowels and sonorant consonants, dual number , ceremonial vocabulary, and

165-575: A dot below (see table). Tone may or may not be represented in the orthography of Keresan. When represented, four diacritics may be used above the vowel. Unlike the system used for Navajo , diacritics for tone are not repeated in long vowels. Although Keresan is not normally written, there exists one dictionary of the language in which words are listed in any given order. In this dictionary of Western Keres, digraphs count as single letters, although ejective consonants are not listed separately; occurring after their non-ejective counterparts. The symbol for

198-434: A doubled initial letter instead of Newman's doubling of the digraphs – ⟨chch⟩ , ⟨lhlh⟩ , ⟨shsh⟩ – and ⟨kkw⟩ and ⟨tts⟩ are used instead of Newman's ⟨qq⟩ and ⟨zz⟩ . Keresan languages Keres ( / ˈ k eɪ r eɪ s / ), also Keresan ( / ˈ k ɛ r ə s ən / ), is a Native American language , spoken by

231-411: Is a sacred language that must exist only in its spoken form. The language's religious connotation and years of persecution of Pueblo religion by European colonizers may also explain why no unified orthographic convention exists for Keresan. However, a practical spelling system has been developed for Laguna (Kʼawaika) and more recently for Acoma (Áakʼu) Keres, both of which are remarkably consistent. In

264-834: Is a sequence of a fricative /ʃ ʂ/ and a stop or affricate. Clusters are restricted to beginnings of syllables (i.e. the syllable onset ). When the alveolo-palatal consonant /ʃ/ occurs as C 1 , it combines with alveolar and palatal C 2 , whereas the retroflex alveolar /ʂ/ precedes bilabial and velar C 2 s, which suggest a complementary distribution. Consonant clusters may occur both word-initially and word-medially. shd áurákụ 'frog, toad' sht érashtʼígá 'cricket' shtʼ idyàatịshị 'plot of land' shj v 'upward' shch úmúmá 'wasp' shchʼ ísạ 'six' srb úuná 'water jug' srp àat'i 'mockingbird' srpʼ eruru 'it's full' srg ásrgáukʼa 'quail' srk v́dútsị 'mound, hill' srkʼ abíhí 'female in-law' Traditional Keresan beliefs postulate that Keres

297-649: Is based on a split-intransitive pattern, in which subjects are marked differently if they are perceived as actors than from when they are perceived as undergoers of the action being described. The morphology of Keresan is mostly prefixing , although suffixes and reduplication also occur. Keresan distinguishes nouns , verbs, numerals and particles as word classes. Nouns in Keresan do not normally distinguish case or number , but they can be inflected for possession , with distinct constructions for alienable and inalienable possession. Other than possession, Keresan nouns show no comprehensive noun classes . Keresan

330-481: Is considered a language isolate . The Zuni have, however, borrowed a number of words from Keres , Hopi , and O’odham pertaining to religion and religious observances. A number of possible relationships of Zuni to other languages have been proposed by various researchers, although none of these have gained general acceptance. The main hypothetical proposals have been connections with Penutian (and Penutioid and Macro-Penutian), Tanoan , and Hokan phyla , and also

363-603: Is controversial. Maring (1967) considers them to be phonemes of Áákʼu Keres, whereas other authors disagree. There are phonetic grounds for vowel devoicing based on the environment they occur, for instance word-finally, but there are also exceptions. Vowels in final position are nearly always voiceless and medial vowels occurring between voiced consonants, after nasals and ejectives are nearly always voiced. Acoma Keres has four lexical tones : high, low, falling and rising. Falling and rising tones only occur in long vowels and voiceless vowels bear no tones: Most Keresan syllables take

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396-478: Is used to avoid using adult names, which have religious meanings and are very personal. There are twenty letters in the Zuni alphabet. This orthography was largely worked out by Curtis Cook. Linguists and anthropologists have created and used their own writing system for Zuni before the alphabet was standardized. One was developed for Zuni by linguist Stanley Newman (Newman 1954). This practical orthography essentially followed Americanist phonetic notation with

429-638: The Dowa Yalanne mesa top to escape the attackers of the Coronado expedition. The 14 structures at Dowa Yalanne, which were used as a refuge from the Spaniards between 1540 and 1680, were called Heshoda Ayahltona ("ancient buildings above"). In 1628 the Spanish established Mission La Purísima Concepción de Hawikuh at this pueblo. The Spanish attempted to suppress the Zuni religion, and introduced

462-767: The encomienda forced-labor system. In 1632, the Hawikuh Zuni rebelled, burned the church, and killed the priest. In 1672, Apache raiders burned the church. In 1680 it was burned again during the Great Pueblo Revolt , when all the Nuevo México pueblos rose against the Spanish. After this revolt, the Zuni permanently abandoned Hawikuh. Hawikuh is located within the boundaries of the Zuni Indian Reservation near Zuni, New Mexico . The ruins of Hawikuh were excavated during 1917-23 by

495-773: The Heye Foundation under the leadership of Frederick Webb Hodge , who was assistant director of the Museum of the American Indian, New York . The records and artifacts from this excavation are held by the National Museum of the American Indian, Washington, D.C . It acquired Heye's museum collection in 1989. Hawikuh was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1961 by the Department of Interior. Zuni language Unlike most indigenous languages in

528-628: The Keres Pueblo people in New Mexico . Depending on the analysis, Keres is considered a small language family or a language isolate with several dialects . If it is considered a language isolate, it would be the most widely spoken language isolate within the borders of the United States . The varieties of each of the seven Keres pueblos are mutually intelligible with its closest neighbors. There are significant differences between

561-714: The Keresan languages . The most clearly articulated hypothesis is Newman's (1964) connection to Penutian, but even this was considered by Newman (according to Michael Silverstein ) to be a tongue-in-cheek work due to the inherently problematic nature of the methodology used in Penutian studies (Goddard 1996). Newman's cognate sets suffered from common problems in comparative linguistics , such as comparing commonly borrowed forms (e.g. "tobacco"), forms with large semantic differences (e.g. "bad" and "garbage", "horse" and "hoof"), nursery forms, and onomatopoetic forms (Campbell 1997). Zuni

594-737: The Zuni Indian Reservation in Cibola County, New Mexico . In 1960 the site was designated as a National Historic Landmark known as the Hawikuh Ruins . It is included as a contributing part of the Zuni-Cibola Complex of archaeological sites, a larger National Historic Landmark District designated by the United States Department of Interior in 1974. In 1539, Estevanico became the first non-native to visit Hawikuh. Rumors and legends revolving around

627-532: The Keres spelling system, each symbol represents a single phoneme. The letters ⟨c q z f⟩ and sometimes also ⟨v⟩ are not used. Digraphs represent both palatal consonants (written using a sequence of C and ⟨y⟩), and retroflex consonants, which are represented using a sequence of C and the letter ⟨r⟩. These graphemes used for writing Western Keres are shown between ⟨...⟩ below. Signs at Acoma Pueblo sometimes use special diacritics for ejective consonants that differ from

660-818: The Southwest, Zuni employs switch-reference . Newman (1965, 1996) classifies Zuni words according to their structural morphological properties (namely the presence and type of inflectional suffixes), not according to their associated syntactic frames. His terms, noun and substantive , are therefore not synonymous. Zuni uses overt pronouns for first and second persons. There are no third person pronouns. The pronouns distinguish three numbers (singular, dual and plural) and three cases (subject, object and possessive). In addition, some subject and possessive pronouns have different forms depending on whether they appear utterance-medially or utterance-finally (object pronouns do not occur utterance-medially). All pronoun forms are shown in

693-607: The United States, Zuni is still spoken by a significant number of children and, thus, is comparatively less threatened with language endangerment . Edmund Ladd reported in 1994 that Zuni is still the main language of communication in the pueblo and is used in the home (Newman 1996). The Zuni name for their own language, Shiwiʼma ( shiwi "Zuni" + -ʼma "vernacular"; pronounced [ˈʃiwiʔma] ) can be translated as "Zuni way", whereas its speakers are collectively known as ʼA꞉shiwi ( ʼa꞉(w)- "plural" + shiwi "Zuni"). Zuni

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726-532: The Western and Eastern groups, which are sometimes counted as separate languages. Keres is now considered a language isolate . In the past, Edward Sapir grouped it together with a Hokan –Siouan stock. Morris Swadesh suggested a connection with Wichita . Joseph Greenberg grouped Keres with Siouan , Yuchi , Caddoan , and Iroquoian in a superstock called Keresiouan. None of these proposals has been validated by subsequent linguistic research. In 2007, there

759-569: The beginning of words where it is not written. Additionally, in Tedlock's system, long vowels are written doubled instead of with a length mark ⟨꞉⟩ as in Newman's system (e.g. ⟨aa⟩ instead of ⟨a꞉⟩ ) and ⟨h⟩ and ⟨kw⟩ are used instead of ⟨j⟩ and ⟨q⟩ . Finally, Tedlock writes the following long consonants – ⟨cch, llh, ssh, tts⟩ – with

792-654: The disappearance of Estevanico in the region eventually led to the Tiguex War . The war occurred during a later expedition by Francisco Vásquez de Coronado , as he searched for the legendary " Seven Cities of Gold ". He wrote about the pueblo: Although they are not decorated with turquoises, nor made of lime or good bricks, nevertheless they are very good houses, with three, four, and five stories, where there are very good apartments ... and some very good rooms underground Kivas , paved, which are made for winter and have something like hot baths. Some Hawikuu residents fled to

825-419: The following table: There is syncretism between dual and plural non-possessive forms in the first and second persons. Utterances with these pronouns are typically disambiguated by the fact that plural pronouns agree with plural-marked verb forms. Zuni adults are often known after the relationship between that adult and a child. For example, a person might be called "father of so-and-so", etc. The circumlocution

858-443: The glottal stop ⟨ʼ⟩, for long vowels (e.g. ⟨aa ee ii⟩ etc.) are not treated as separate letters. Letters〈f q x z〉are not used to write Keres, whereas the letters ⟨ɨ o v⟩ are only used in some dialects. Keresan is a split-ergative language in which verbs denoting states (i.e. stative verbs ) behave differently from those indexing actions, especially in terms of the person affixes they take. This system of argument marking

891-496: The language. The chart below contains the consonants of the proto -Keresan (or pre-Keresan) from Miller & Davis (1963) based on a comparison of Acoma, Santa Ana, and Santo Domingo, as well as other features of the dialects compiled from The Language of Santa Ana Pueblo (1964), Kansas Working Papers in Linguistics (1987), and The Phonemes of Keresan (1946), and the Grammar of Laguna Keres (2005). Keresan vowels have

924-467: The larger than average number of fricatives (i.e. /s sʼ ʂ ʂʼ ʃ ʃʼ h/) and affricates , the latter also showing the three-way distinction found in stops . The large number of vowels derives from a distinction made between long and short vowels (e.g. /e eː/), as well as from the presence of tones and voicelessness. Thus, a single vowel quality may occur with seven distinct realizations: /é è e̥ éː èː êː ěː/, all of which are used to distinguish words in

957-446: The presence of a labialized velar [kʷ] (Campbell 1997). The 16 consonants of Zuni (with IPA phonetic symbol when different from the orthography) are the following: The vowels are the following: Zuni syllables have the following specification: Word order in Zuni is fairly free with a tendency toward SOV. There is no case-marking on nouns. Verbs are complex, compared to nouns, with loose incorporation. Like other languages in

990-658: The substitution of some uncommon letters with other letters or digraphs (two-letter combinations). A further revised orthography is used in Dennis Tedlock's transcriptions of oral narratives . See the table below for a comparison of the systems. In Newman's orthography (used in his dictionary, Newman 1958), the symbols, ⟨ch, j, lh, q, sh, z, /, :⟩ replaced Americanist ⟨č, h, ł, kʷ, š, c, ʔ, ˑ ⟩ (used in Newman's grammar, Newman 1965). Tedlock's orthography uses ⟨ʼ⟩ instead of Newman's ⟨/⟩ except at

1023-614: The symbols above, as shown in the table: Vowel sounds are represented straightforwardly in the existing spellings for Keresan. Each vowel sound is written using a unique letter or digraph (for long vowels and diphthongs ). However, there are two competing representations for the vowel /ɨ/. Some versions simply use the IPA ⟨ɨ⟩ whereas others use the letter ⟨v⟩ (the sound /v/ as in veal does not occur in Keresan). Voiceless vowels have also been represented in two ways; either underlined or with

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1056-608: Was also included under Morris Swadesh 's Penutioid proposal and Joseph Greenberg 's very inclusive Penutian sub-grouping – both without convincing arguments (Campbell 1997). Zuni was included as being part of the Aztec-Tanoan language family within Edward Sapir 's heuristic 1929 classification (without supporting evidence). Later discussions of the Aztec-Tanoan hypothesis usually excluded Zuni (Foster 1996). Karl-Heinz Gursky published problematic unconvincing evidence for

1089-559: Was an estimate total of 10,670 speakers. Keresan has between 42 and 45 consonant sounds, and around 40 vowel sounds, adding up to a total of about 85 phonemes , depending on the analysis and the language variety. Based on the classification in the World Atlas of Language Structures , Keres is a language with a large consonant inventory. The great number of consonants relates to the three-way distinction between voiceless , aspirated and ejective consonants (e.g. /t tʰ tʼ/), and to

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