Habakkuk , or Habacuc , who was active around 612 BC, was a prophet whose oracles and prayer are recorded in the Book of Habakkuk , the eighth of the collected twelve minor prophets in the Hebrew Bible . He is revered by Jews, Christians, and Muslims.
110-609: Almost all information about Habakkuk is drawn from the book of the Bible bearing his name, with no biographical details provided other than his title, "the prophet". He is mentioned in the deuterocanonical Additions to Daniel , and outside the Bible, he is mentioned over the centuries in the forms of Christian and Rabbinic tradition . The name Habakkuk, or Habacuc, appears in the Hebrew Bible only in Habakkuk 1:1 and 3:1 . In
220-538: A certain goal. However, other theories of psychology present contradicting ideas such as the idea that humans sometimes seek out suffering. Many existentialists believe suffering is necessary in order to find meaning in our lives. Existential Positive Psychology is a theory dedicated to exploring the relationship between suffering and happiness and the belief that true authentic happiness can only come from experiencing pain and hardships. Hedonistic psychology, affective science , and affective neuroscience are some of
330-510: A consequence, this doctrine has become identified with stern self-control in regard to suffering. Jeremy Bentham developed hedonistic utilitarianism , a popular doctrine in ethics, politics, and economics. Bentham argued that the right act or policy was that which would cause "the greatest happiness of the greatest number". He suggested a procedure called hedonic or felicific calculus , for determining how much pleasure and pain would result from any action. John Stuart Mill improved and promoted
440-681: A descendant of Muhammad and chief Islamic scholar in the time of the Abbasid Caliphs , was asked by the Exilarch to prove that Muhammad was a prophet through the Torah . Imam Ridha asks "Do you know the prophet Habakkuk?" He said, "Yes. I know of him." al-Ridha said, "and this is narrated in your book, 'Allah brought down speech on Mount Faran, and the heavens were filled with the glorification of Muhammad and his community. His horse carries him over water as it carries him over land. He will bring
550-432: A direct moral appeal for help, while there is no similar call to increase the happiness of a man who is doing well anyway." David Pearce , for his part, advocates a utilitarianism that aims straightforwardly at the abolition of suffering through the use of biotechnology (see more details below in section Biology, neurology, psychology ). Another aspect worthy of mention here is that many utilitarians since Bentham hold that
660-410: A distinction is that it uses physical pain in a sense that normally includes not only the 'typical sensory experience of physical pain' but also other unpleasant bodily experiences including air hunger , hunger , vestibular suffering , nausea , sleep deprivation , and itching . A second caveat is that the terms physical or mental should not be taken too literally: physical pain or suffering, as
770-577: A list of the canon of the Old Testament and the New Testament, including the deuterocanonical books as canonical: Now the whole canon of Scripture on which we say this judgment is to be exercised, is contained in the following books: – Five books of Moses, that is, Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy; one book of Joshua the son of Nun; one of Judges; one short book called Ruth; next, four books of Kings [the two Books of Samuel and
880-418: A matter of fact, happens through conscious minds and involves emotional aspects, while mental pain or suffering happens through physical brains and, being an emotion, involves important physiological aspects. The word unpleasantness , which some people use as a synonym of suffering or pain in the broad sense, may refer to the basic affective dimension of pain (its suffering aspect), usually in contrast with
990-615: A new book to us after the ruin of the holy house [the temple in Jerusalem].' What is meant by this book is the Qur'an. Do you know this and believe in it?" The Exilarch said, "Habakkuk the prophet has said this and we do not deny what he said." Although the Quran only mentions around twenty-five prophets by name, and alludes to a few others, it has been a cardinal doctrine of Islam that many more prophets were sent by God who are not mentioned in
1100-462: A prophet in their works, and followed the pronunciation of his name with the traditional salutations of peace bestowed by Muslims onto prophets after the utterance of their names. Some medieval Muslim scholars even provided commentaries on the biblical Book of Habakkuk, with the primary purpose of showing that the prophet had predicted the coming of Muhammad in Habakkuk 3:2–6, in a manner akin to
1210-654: A sculpture of the prophet for the bell tower of Florence. This statue, nicknamed Zuccone ("Big Head") because of the shape of the head, now resides in the Museo dell'Opera del Duomo . The Basilica of Santa Maria del Popolo in Rome contains a Baroque sculpture of Habakkuk by the 17th-century artist Bernini . Between 1800 and 1805, the Brazilian sculptor Aleijadinho completed a soapstone sculpture of Habakkuk as part of his Twelve Prophets . The figures are arranged around
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#17327837283981320-547: A test of a person's faith, like the Book of Job illustrates. For Christianity, redemptive suffering is the belief that human suffering, when accepted and offered up in union with the "passion" (flogging and crucifixion) of Jesus, can remit the just punishment for sins, and allow oneself to grow in the love of The Trinity, other people, and oneself. In Islam, the faithful must endure suffering with hope and faith, not resist or ask why, accept it as Allah's will and submit to it as
1430-399: A test of faith. Allah never asks more than can be endured. One must also work to alleviate the suffering of others, as well as one's own. Suffering is also seen as a blessing. Through that gift, the sufferer remembers Allah and connects with him. Suffering expunges the sins of human beings and cleanses their soul for the immense reward of the afterlife, and the avoidance of hell. According to
1540-556: Is a work by the Union of International Associations . Its main databases are about world problems (56,564 profiles), global strategies and solutions (32,547 profiles), human values (3,257 profiles), and human development (4,817 profiles). It states that "the most fundamental entry common to the core parts is that of pain (or suffering)" and "common to the core parts is the learning dimension of new understanding or insight in response to suffering". Ralph Siu , an American author, urged in 1988
1650-698: Is alleviated by achieving mental clarity or lucidity (ἁτυφια: atyphia), developing self-sufficiency (αὐτάρκεια: autarky ), equanimity , arete , love of humanity , parrhesia , and indifference to the vicissitudes of life ( adiaphora ). For Pyrrhonism , suffering comes from dogmas (i.e. beliefs regarding non-evident matters), most particularly beliefs that certain things are either good or bad by nature. Suffering can be removed by developing epoche (suspension of judgment) regarding beliefs, which leads to ataraxia (mental tranquility). Epicurus (contrary to common misperceptions of his doctrine) advocated that we should first seek to avoid suffering ( aponia ) and that
1760-505: Is given, such as the name of the prophet's hometown, his occupation, or information concerning his parentage or tribe. For Habakkuk, however, there is no reliable account of any of these. Although his home is not identified, scholars conclude that Habakkuk lived in Jerusalem at the time he wrote his prophecy. Further analysis has provided an approximate date for his prophecy and possibilities concerning his activities and background. Beyond
1870-559: Is physical, suffering is mental", or "pain is inevitable, suffering is optional". Or they may be used to define each other, as in "pain is physical suffering", or "suffering is severe physical or mental pain". Qualifiers, such as physical , mental , emotional , and psychological , are often used to refer to certain types of pain or suffering. In particular, mental pain (or suffering) may be used in relationship with physical pain (or suffering) for distinguishing between two wide categories of pain or suffering. A first caveat concerning such
1980-498: Is regarded as avoidable or unavoidable, useful or useless, deserved or undeserved. Suffering occurs in the lives of sentient beings in numerous manners, often dramatically. As a result, many fields of human activity are concerned with some aspects of suffering. These aspects may include the nature of suffering, its processes, its origin and causes, its meaning and significance, its related personal, social, and cultural behaviors, its remedies, management, and uses. The word suffering
2090-532: Is sometimes used in the narrow sense of physical pain , but more often it refers to psychological pain , or more often yet it refers to pain in the broad sense, i.e. to any unpleasant feeling , emotion or sensation . The word pain usually refers to physical pain, but it is also a common synonym of suffering . The words pain and suffering are often used both together in different ways. For instance, they may be used as interchangeable synonyms. Or they may be used in 'contradistinction' to one another, as in "pain
2200-625: Is such a universal motivating experience, people, when asked, can relate their activities to its relief and prevention. Farmers, for instance, may claim that they prevent famine, artists may say that they take our minds off our worries, and teachers may hold that they hand down tools for coping with life hazards. In certain aspects of collective life, however, suffering is more readily an explicit concern by itself. Such aspects may include public health , human rights , humanitarian aid , disaster relief , philanthropy , economic aid , social services , insurance , and animal welfare . To these can be added
2310-436: Is the avoidable result of Darwinian evolution . Pearce promotes replacing the biology of suffering with a robot-like response to noxious stimuli or with information-sensitive gradients of bliss, through genetic engineering and other technical scientific advances. Different theories of psychology view suffering differently. Sigmund Freud viewed suffering as something humans are hardwired to avoid, while they are always in
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#17327837283982420-626: Is therefore determined not by the threat itself but, rather, by its meaning to the individual and the threat to their personhood. Suffering and pleasure are respectively the negative and positive affects, or hedonic tones, or valences that psychologists often identify as basic in our emotional lives. The evolutionary role of physical and mental suffering, through natural selection, is primordial: it warns of threats, motivates coping ( fight or flight , escapism ), and reinforces negatively certain behaviors (see punishment , aversives ). Despite its initial disrupting nature, suffering contributes to
2530-751: Is unaware of either the den or Babylon, the angel transports Habakkuk to the lion's den. Habakkuk gives Daniel the food to sustain him, and he is immediately taken back to "his place" or "his own country". Habakkuk is also mentioned in the Lives of the Prophets , which also mentions his time in Babylon. According to the Zohar (Volume 1, page 8b), Habakkuk is the boy born to the Shunamite woman through Elisha 's blessing: And he said, About this season, according to
2640-555: The Akkadian khambbaququ ( Akkadian : 𒄩𒄠𒁀𒄣𒄣 , ḫâmbaququ ), the name of a fragrant plant, or the Hebrew root Hebrew : חבק , meaning "embrace". Almost nothing is known about Habakkuk, aside from what is stated within the book of the Bible bearing his name, or those inferences that may be drawn from that book. No biographical details are provided other than his title "the prophet". For almost every other prophet, more information
2750-710: The Benedictus , the Nunc dimittis from Luke's birth narrative, and the conclusion of the hymn that begins with the "Gloria in Excelsis". Beckwith states that manuscripts of anything like the capacity of Codex Alexandrinus were not used in the first centuries of the Christian era, and believes that the comprehensive codices of the Septuagint, which start appearing in the 4th century AD, are all of Christian origin. In
2860-584: The Council of Carthage confirmed the canon issued at Hippo; the recurrence of the Old Testament part is stated: Genesis , Exodus , Leviticus , Numbers , Deuteronomy , Joshua the son of Nun , Judges , Ruth , four books of Kings [1 Samuel, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 2 Kings], two books of Paraleipomena [1 Chronicles, 2 Chronicles], Job , the Psalter , five books of Solomon [ Proverbs , Ecclesiastes , Song of Songs , Wisdom of Solomon , and Ecclesiasticus ],
2970-564: The Council of Laodicea , Athanasius , Cyril of Jerusalem , and Epiphanius of Salamis , the Book of Jeremiah forms a single book together with Baruch, Lamentations and the Letter of Jeremiah, also called the Epistle of Jeremiah.) The Synod of Hippo (in 393 AD), followed by the Council of Carthage (397) and the Council of Carthage (419) , may be the first councils that explicitly accepted
3080-604: The Councils of Rome (382 AD), Hippo (393 AD), Carthage (397 AD and 419 AD), Florence (1442 AD) and Trent (1546 AD), but which were not in the Hebrew canon. Forms of the term “deuterocanonical” were adopted after the 16th century by the Eastern Orthodox Church to denote canonical books of the Septuagint not in the Hebrew Bible, a wider selection than that adopted by the Council of Trent, and also by
3190-781: The Epistle of Jeremiah and the Maccabees . The twenty-two books of the Hebrews are the following: That which is called by us Genesis; Exodus; Leviticus; Numbers; Jesus, the son of Nave (Joshua book); Judges and Ruth in one book; the First and Second of Kings (1 Samuel and 2 Samuel) in one; the Third and Fourth of Kings (1 Kings and 2 Kings) in one; of the Chronicles, the First and Second in one; Esdras, First and Second (Ezra–Nehemiah) in one;
3300-626: The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church to apply to works believed to be of Jewish origin translated in the Old Testament of the Ethiopic Bible , a wider selection still. The acceptance of some of these books among early Christians was widespread, though not universal, and surviving Bibles from the early Church always include, with varying degrees of recognition, books now called deuterocanonical . Some say that their canonicity seems not to have been doubted in
3410-820: The Gelasian Decree , the Council of Rome (382 AD) defined a list of books of scripture as canonical. It included most of the deuterocanonical books. Patristic and synodal lists from the 200s, 300s and 400s usually include selections of the deuterocanonical books. Canonical for the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Oriental Orthodox Church, and the Church of the East: Canonical only for
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3520-470: The Hebrew Bible contained 22 canonical books. The same number of 22 books was reported also by the Christian bishop Athanasius , but they might differ on the exact content (see below for Athanasius), as Josephus did not provide a detailed list. Origen of Alexandria ( c. 240 AD ), cited by Eusebius , described the Hebrew Bible as containing 22 canonical books. Among these books he listed
3630-573: The Masoretic Text , it is written in Hebrew : חֲבַקּוּק ( Standard Ḥavaqquq Tiberian Ḥăḇaqqûq ). This name does not occur elsewhere. The Septuagint transcribes his name into Greek as Ἀμβακοὺμ ( Ambakoum ), and the Vulgate transcribes it into Latin as Abacuc . The etymology of the name is not clear, and its form has no parallel in Hebrew. The name is possibly related to
3740-597: The New Testament are taken from the Koine Greek Septuagint (LXX), editions of which include the deuterocanonical books, as well as apocrypha – both of which are called collectively anagignoskomena ("readable, worthy of reading"). No two Septuagint codices contain the same apocrypha. Greek Psalm manuscripts from the fifth century contain three New Testament "psalms": the Magnificat ,
3850-548: The Noble Eightfold Path . Buddhism considers liberation from dukkha and the practice of compassion ( karuna ) as basic for leading a holy life and attaining nirvana . Hinduism holds that suffering follows naturally from personal negative behaviors in one's current life or in a past life (see karma in Hinduism ). One must accept suffering as a just consequence and as an opportunity for spiritual progress. Thus
3960-698: The Oriental Orthodox Church include other books in their canons . The deuterocanonical books are included in the Septuagint , the earliest extant Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible. They date from 300 BC to 100 AD, before the separation of the Christian church from Judaism , and they are regularly found in old manuscripts and cited frequently by the Church Fathers , such as Clement of Rome , Clement of Alexandria , Origen , Irenaeus , Tertullian , among others. According to
4070-627: The Oriental Orthodox Church , and the Church of the East . In contrast, modern Rabbinic Judaism and Protestants regard the DC as Apocrypha . Seven books are accepted as deuterocanonical by all the ancient churches: Tobit , Judith , Baruch , Ecclesiasticus , Wisdom , First and Second Maccabees and also the Greek additions to Esther and Daniel . In addition to these, the Eastern Orthodox Church and
4180-467: The pain overlap theory takes note, thanks to neuroimaging studies, that the cingulate cortex fires up when the brain feels suffering from experimentally induced social distress, as well as physical pain. The theory proposes therefore that physical pain and social pain (i.e. two radically differing kinds of suffering) share a common phenomenological and neurological basis. According to David Pearce 's online manifesto "The Hedonistic Imperative", suffering
4290-416: The "creation of a new and vigorous academic discipline, called panetics, to be devoted to the study of the infliction of suffering", The International Society for Panetics was founded in 1991 to study and develop ways to reduce the infliction of human suffering by individuals acting through professions, corporations, governments, and other social groups. In economics, the following notions relate not only to
4400-510: The 20th century, protects the tomb. Tradition dating as early as the 12th century AD holds that Habakkuk's tomb is at this location, but the tomb may also be of a local sheikh of Yaquq , a name related to the biblical place named "Hukkok", whose pronunciation and spelling in Hebrew are close to "Habakkuk". Archaeological findings in this location include several burial places dated to the Second Temple period . A mausoleum southeast of
4510-649: The Bahá'í Faith, all suffering is a brief and temporary manifestation of physical life, whose source is the material aspects of physical existence, and often attachment to them, whereas only joy exists in the spiritual worlds. Artistic and literary works often engage with suffering, sometimes at great cost to their creators or performers. Be it in the tragic, comic or other genres, art and literature offer means to alleviate (and perhaps also exacerbate) suffering, as argued for instance in Harold Schweizer's Suffering and
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4620-548: The Bible, considerable conjecture has been put forward over the centuries in the form of Christian and Rabbinic tradition, but such accounts are dismissed by modern scholars as speculative and apocryphal. The Septuagint translation of Daniel in the Codex Chisianus refers to him as "the son of Jesus of the tribe of Levi". Because the book of Habakkuk consists of five oracles about the Chaldeans ( Babylonians ), and
4730-759: The Center on Reducing Suffering, has a similar focus, with a stress on clarifying what priorities there should be at a practical level to attain the goal of reducing intense suffering in the future. Philosopher Leonard Katz wrote: "But Nature, as we now know, regards ultimately only fitness and not our happiness ... and does not scruple to use hate, fear, punishment and even war alongside affection in ordering social groups and selecting among them, just as she uses pain as well as pleasure to get us to feed, water and protect our bodies and also in forging our social bonds." People make use of suffering for specific social or personal purposes in many areas of human life, as can be seen in
4840-463: The Chaldean rise to power is dated circa 612 BC, it is assumed he was active about that time, making him an early contemporary of Jeremiah and Zephaniah . Jewish sources, however, do not group him with those two prophets, who are often placed together, so it is possible that he was slightly earlier than these prophets. Because the final chapter of his book is a song, it is sometimes assumed that he
4950-542: The Church until it was challenged by Jews after 100 AD, sometimes postulating a hypothetical Council of Jamnia . Regional councils in the West published official canons that included these books as early as the 4th and 5th centuries. The Catholic Encyclopedia states: The official attitude of the Latin Church, always favourable to them, kept the majestic tenor of its way. Two documents of capital importance in
5060-487: The Eastern Orthodox Church and the Oriental Orthodox Church: c. 100 BC – AD 100 (3:39–5:9) (3:39–5:9) Koine Greek, possibly originally Hebrew or Aramaic Deuterocanonical is a term coined in 1566 by the theologian Sixtus of Siena , who had converted to Catholicism from Judaism , to describe scriptural texts considered canonical by the Catholic Church, but which recognition
5170-834: The Epistle (of Jeremiah)". In Athanasius 's canonical books list (367 AD) the Book of Baruch and the Letter of Jeremiah are included while Esther is omitted. At the same time, he mentioned that the Wisdom of Solomon, the Wisdom of Sirach, Judith and Tobit, the book of Esther and also the Didache and The Shepherd of Hermas , while not being part of the Canon, "were appointed by the Fathers to be read". He excluded what he called "apocryphal writings" entirely. Epiphanius of Salamis ( c. 385 AD ) mentions that "there are 27 books given
5280-571: The Great , he went to Ecbatana and remained there until he died, and was buried somewhere nearby, in what is today Tuyserkan. Habakkuk is called both Habaghugh and Hayaghugh by the Muslim locals. The surrounding shrine may date to the period of the Seljuq Empire (11–12th century); it consists of an octagonal wall and conical dome. Underneath the shrine is a hidden basement with three floors. In
5390-571: The Jews by God, but they are counted as 22, however, like the letters of their Hebrew alphabet, because ten books are doubled and reckoned as five". He wrote in his Panarion that Jews had in their books the deuterocanonical Epistle of Jeremiah and Baruch, both combined with Jeremiah and Lamentations in only one book. While Wisdom of Sirach and the Wisdom of Solomon were books of disputed canonicity. Augustine of Hippo ( c. 397 AD ), in his book On Christian Doctrine (Book II Chapter 8) , cites
5500-659: The Maccabees . (According to the Council of Laodicea , Athanasius , Cyril of Jerusalem , and Epiphanius of Salamis , the Book of Jeremiah forms a single book together with Baruch, Lamentations and the Letter of Jeremiah, also called the Epistle of Jeremiah.) The Apostolic Canons approved by the Eastern Council in Trullo in 692 AD (not recognized by the Catholic Church) states as venerable and sacred
5610-492: The New Testament, Hebrews 11:35 is understood by some as referring to an event that was recorded in one of the deuterocanonical books, 2 Maccabees . For instance, the author of Hebrews references oral tradition which spoke of an Old Testament prophet who was sawn in half in Hebrews 11:37, two verses after the 2nd Maccabees reference. Other New Testament authors such as Paul also reference or quote period literature. The Jewish historian Josephus ( c. 94 AD ) wrote that
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#17327837283985720-538: The Old Testament and that it was considered canonical by Jews and Christians. On the other hand, the contrary claim has been made: "In the catalogue of Melito, presented by Eusebius, after Proverbs, the word Wisdom occurs, which nearly all commentators have been of opinion is only another name for the same book, and not the name of the book now called 'The Wisdom of Solomon'." Cyril of Jerusalem ( c. 350 AD ) in his Catechetical Lectures cites as canonical books "Jeremiah one, including Baruch and Lamentations and
5830-534: The Psalms. Also of the historical books, one book of Job, one of Tobit, one of Esther, one of Judith, two of Maccabees, two of Ezra [Ezra, Nehemiah], two of Chronicles. In the 7th century Latin document the Muratorian fragment , which some scholars actually believe to be a copy of an earlier 170 AD Greek original, the book of the Wisdom of Solomon is counted by the church. Moreover, the epistle of Jude and two of
5940-610: The Qumran library of approximately 1,100 manuscripts found in the eleven caves at Qumran was not entirely produced at Qumran, but may have included part of the library of the Jerusalem Temple, that may have been hidden in the caves for safekeeping at the time the Temple was destroyed by Romans in 70 AD. Deuterocanonical and Apocryphal books included in the Septuagint are: The large majority of Old Testament references in
6050-562: The Son of Nun; The Judges; Ruth; The Kings, iv. books [1 Samuel, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 2 Kings]; The Chronicles, ii. books; Job; The Psalter; The Five books of Solomon [Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Wisdom of Solomon, and Ecclesiasticus]; The Twelve Books of the Prophets [Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi]; Isaiah; Jeremiah; Ezechiel; Daniel; Tobit; Judith; Esther; Ezra, ii. books [Ezra, Nehemiah]; Maccabees, ii. books. On 28 August 397,
6160-537: The Western world these are typically made by juries in a discretionary fashion and are regarded as subjective, variable, and difficult to predict, for instance in the US, UK, Australia and New Zealand. See also, in US law, Negligent infliction of emotional distress and Intentional infliction of emotional distress . In management and organization studies, drawing on the work of Eric Cassell , suffering has been defined as
6270-601: The Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach, Judith, Tobit and two books of Maccabees. Baruch is not specified by name in Rufinus's list, but it is in Cyril's, as though a part of Jeremiah, "Jeremiah, with Baruch, and the Lamentations and the Epistle." (Catech. 4, §36.) Pope Innocent I (405 AD) sent a letter to the bishop of Toulouse citing deuterocanonical books as a part of the Old Testament canon. Which books really are received in
6380-452: The above-mentioned (or, bearing the name of) John are counted (or, used) in the catholic [Church]; and [the book of] Wisdom, written by the friends of Solomon in his honour. In later copyings of the canons of the Council of Laodicea (from 364 AD) a canon list became appended to Canon 59, likely before the mid fifth century, which affirmed that Jeremiah, and Baruch, the Lamentations, and the Epistle (of Jeremiah) were canonical, while excluding
6490-538: The aspects of security and safety , which relate to precautionary measures taken by individuals or families, to interventions by the military, the police, the firefighters, and to notions or fields like social security , environmental security , and human security . The nongovernmental research organization Center on Long-Term Risk, formerly known as the Foundational Research Institute, focuses on reducing risks of astronomical suffering (s-risks) from emerging technologies. Another organization also focused on research,
6600-703: The book has been praised by many scholars, suggesting that its author was a man of great literary talent. The entire book follows the structure of a chiasmus in which parallelism of thought is used to bracket sections of the text. Habakkuk is unusual among the prophets in that he openly questions the working of God. In the first part of the first chapter, the prophet sees the injustice among his people and asks why God does not take action: "O LORD, how long shall I cry for help, and you will not hear? Or cry to you "Violence!" and you will not save?" The final resting place of Habakkuk has been claimed at multiple locations. The fifth-century Christian historian Sozomen claimed that
6710-407: The book of Psalms; the Proverbs of Solomon; Ecclesiastes; the Song of Songs; Isaiah; Jeremiah, with Lamentations and the epistle (of Jeremiah) in one; Daniel; Ezekiel; Job; Esther. And besides these there are the Maccabees. Eusebius wrote in his Church History ( c. 324 AD ) that Bishop Melito of Sardis in the 2nd century AD considered the deuterocanonical Wisdom of Solomon as part of
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#17327837283986820-401: The books of the twelve prophets , Isaiah , Jeremiah , Ezechiel , Daniel , Tobit , Judith , Esther , two books of Esdras [Ezra, Nehemiah], two Books of the Maccabees . In 419 AD, the Council of Carthage in its canon 24 lists the deuterocanonical books as canonical scripture: The Canonical Scriptures are as follows: Genesis , Exodus , Leviticus , Numbers , Deuteronomy , Joshua
6930-467: The canon, this brief addition shows. These therefore are the things of which you desired to be informed. Five books of Moses, that is, Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, and Joshua the son of Nun, and Judges, and the four books of Kings [the two Books of Samuel and the two books of Kings] together with Ruth, sixteen books of the Prophets, five books of Solomon [Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Wisdom of Solomon, and Ecclesiasticus], and
7040-446: The catalogue of Trent. The African Church, always a staunch supporter of the contested books, found itself in entire accord with Rome on this question. Its ancient version, the Vetus Latina, had admitted all the Old Testament Scriptures. St. Augustine seems to theoretically recognize degrees of inspiration; in practice he employs protos and deuteros without any discrimination whatsoever. Moreover in his "De Doctrinâ Christianâ" he enumerates
7150-399: The center of the shrine's courtyard is the grave where Habakkuk is said to be buried. A stone upon the grave is inscribed in both Hebrew and Persian stating that the prophet's father was Shioua Lovit, and his mother was Lesho Namit. Both Muslims and Jews visit it to pay their respects. On the Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar , his feast day is December 2. In the Roman Catholic Church ,
7260-419: The city of Tuyserkan in the west of Iran is also believed to be Habakkuk's burial place. It is protected by Iran's Cultural Heritage, Handcrafts and Tourism Organization . The Organization's guide to the Hamadan Province states that Habakkuk was believed to be a guardian to Solomon's Temple , and that he was captured by the Babylonians and remained in their prison for some years. After being freed by Cyrus
7370-422: The components of the complete Old Testament. The Synod of Hippo (393) and the three of Carthage (393, 397, and 419), in which, doubtless, Augustine was the leading spirit, found it necessary to deal explicitly with the question of the Canon, and drew up identical lists from which no sacred books are excluded. These councils base their canon on tradition and liturgical usage. The Book of Sirach , whose Hebrew text
7480-511: The concept of 'total pain' ('total suffering' say now the textbooks), which encompasses the whole set of physical and mental distress, discomfort, symptoms, problems, or needs that a patient may experience hurtfully. Gary Greenberg, in The Book of Woe , writes that mental illness might best be viewed as medicalization or labeling/naming suffering (i.e. that all mental illnesses might not necessarily be of dysfunction or biological-etiology, but might be social or cultural/societal). Since suffering
7590-415: The days of Daniel , Habakkuk says: 'God came from Teman , and the holy one from the mountains of Paran and the earth was filled with the sanctification of the praiseworthy one ( aḥmad , which is a name of Muhammad in Islam), and with his right hand he exercised power over the earth and the necks of the nations, ' " which has been interpreted by scholars to be a clear allusion to Habakkuk 3:3-4. Elsewhere,
7700-455: The disaster; (...) Social suffering , according to Arthur Kleinman and others, describes "collective and individual human suffering associated with life conditions shaped by powerful social forces". Such suffering is an increasing concern in medical anthropology, ethnography, mass media analysis, and Holocaust studies, says Iain Wilkinson, who is developing a sociology of suffering. The Encyclopedia of World Problems and Human Potential
7810-420: The distress a person experiences when they perceive a threat to any aspect of their continued existence, whether physical, psychological, or social. Other researchers have noted that suffering results from an inability to control actions that usually define one's view of one's self and that the characteristics of suffering include the loss of autonomy, or the loss of valued relationships or sense of self. Suffering
7920-465: The doctrine of hedonistic utilitarianism. Karl Popper , in The Open Society and Its Enemies , proposed a negative utilitarianism , which prioritizes the reduction of suffering over the enhancement of happiness when speaking of utility: "I believe that there is, from the ethical point of view, no symmetry between suffering and happiness, or between pain and pleasure. ... human suffering makes
8030-467: The earlier Christian tradition of seeing in the book's prophecies allusions to the advent of Christ . For example, the medieval exegete Najm al-Dīn al-Ṭūfī (d. 716 AH/1316 CE) provided a commentary on select verses from the Book of Habakkuk, saying the prophet's words "for his rays become light" (Habakkuk 3:4) alluded to the spread of Islam ; that his words "his glory comes to town, his power appears in his courts" (Habakkuk 3:4) referred to Muhammad's stay in
8140-684: The emerging scientific fields that could in the coming years focus their attention on the phenomenon of suffering. Disease and injury may contribute to suffering in humans and animals. For example, suffering may be a feature of mental or physical illness such as borderline personality disorder and occasionally in advanced cancer . Health care addresses this suffering in many ways, in subfields such as medicine , clinical psychology , psychotherapy , alternative medicine , hygiene , public health , and through various health care providers . Health care approaches to suffering, however, remain problematic. Physician and author Eric Cassell, widely cited on
8250-400: The existence of evil: a quintessential form of evil, for many people, is extreme suffering, especially in innocent children, or in creatures destined to an eternity of torments (see problem of hell ). The ' Four Noble Truths ' of Buddhism are about dukkha , a term often translated as suffering. They state the nature of suffering, its cause, its cessation, and the way leading to its cessation,
8360-462: The first canon which includes a selection of books that did not appear in the Hebrew Bible ; the councils were under significant influence of Augustine of Hippo , who regarded the canon as already closed. Canon XXIV from the Synod of Hippo (in 393 AD) records the scriptures which are considered canonical; the Old Testament books as follows: Genesis; Exodus; Leviticus; Numbers; Deuteronomy; Joshua
8470-651: The first three books of Maccabees and Wisdom of Sirach . The Council of Florence (1442) promulgated a list of the books of the Bible, including the books of Judith, Esther, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch and two books of the Maccabees as Canonical books: Five books of Moses, namely Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy; Joshua, Judges, Ruth, four books of Kings [1 Samuel, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 2 Kings], two of Paralipomenon [1 Chronicles, 2 Chronicles], Esdras [Ezra], Nehemiah, Tobit, Judith, Esther, Job, Psalms of David, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Baruch, Ezechiel, Daniel;
8580-429: The following: consolation or relief; moral conduct (do no harm, help the afflicted, show compassion ); spiritual advancement through life hardships or through self-imposed trials ( mortification of the flesh , penance , asceticism ); ultimate destiny ( salvation , damnation , hell ). Theodicy deals with the problem of evil , which is the difficulty of reconciling the existence of an omnipotent and benevolent god with
8690-547: The forecourt and monumental stairway in front of the Santuário do Bom Jesus do Matosinhos at Congonhas . Although not mentioned by name in the Qu'ran, Habakkuk ( Arabic : حبقوق , romanized : Hab'aqūq ), is recognized as an Islamic prophet because he is believed to herald the coming of last prophet and divine scripture Muhammad and the Qu'ran in the Book of Habakkuk. In the court of Al-Ma'mun , Imam Ali al-Ridha ,
8800-418: The greatest pleasure lies in ataraxia , free from the worrisome pursuit or the unwelcome consequences of ephemeral pleasures. Epicureanism 's version of Hedonism , as an ethical theory, claims that good and bad consist ultimately in pleasure and pain. For Stoicism , the greatest good lies in reason and virtue, but the soul best reaches it through a kind of indifference ( apatheia ) to pleasure and pain: as
8910-441: The history of the canon constitute the first formal utterance of papal authority on the subject. The first is the so-called "Decretal of Gelasius", the essential part of which is now generally attributed to a synod convoked by Pope Damasus in the year 382. The other is the Canon of Innocent I, sent in 405 to a Gallican bishop in answer to an inquiry. Both contain all the deuterocanonicals, without any distinction, and are identical with
9020-486: The masters and the rabbis , following such portion of God's Book as they were given to keep and were witnesses to," with this passage having often been interpreted by Muslims to include within the phrase "prophets" an allusion to all the prophetic figures of the Jewish scriptural portion of the nevi'im , that is to say all the prophets of Israel after Moses and Aaron . Thus, Islamic authors have often alluded to Habakkuk as
9130-504: The matters suggested by their positive appellations, but to the matter of suffering as well: Well-being or Quality of life , Welfare economics , Happiness economics , Gross National Happiness , genuine progress indicator . In law, " Pain and suffering " is a legal term that refers to the mental distress or physical pain endured by a plaintiff as a result of injury for which the plaintiff seeks redress. Assessments of pain and suffering are required to be made for attributing legal awards. In
9240-479: The moral status of a being comes from its ability to feel pleasure and pain: therefore, moral agents should consider not only the interests of human beings but also those of (other) animals. Richard Ryder came to the same conclusion in his concepts of ' speciesism ' and 'painism' . Peter Singer 's writings, especially the book Animal Liberation , represent the leading edge of this kind of utilitarianism for animals as well as for people. Another doctrine related to
9350-402: The names of these prophets are as follows: Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi; then there are the four greater prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Daniel, Ezekiel. According to the monk Rufinus of Aquileia ( c. 400 AD ) the deuterocanonical books were not called canonical but ecclesiastical books. In this category Rufinus includes
9460-417: The negative valence of affective phenomena . The opposite of suffering is pleasure or happiness . Suffering is often categorized as physical or mental. It may come in all degrees of intensity, from mild to intolerable. Factors of duration and frequency of occurrence usually compound that of intensity. Attitudes toward suffering may vary widely, in the sufferer or other people, according to how much it
9570-428: The organization of meaning in an individual's world and psyche. In turn, meaning determines how individuals or societies experience and deal with suffering. Many brain structures and physiological processes are involved in suffering (particularly the anterior insula and cingulate cortex , both implicated in nociceptive and empathic pain). Various hypotheses try to account for the experience of suffering. One of these,
9680-855: The other deuterocanonical books. According to Decretum Gelasianum , which is a work written by an anonymous scholar between 519 and 553, the Council of Rome (382 AD) cites a list of books of scripture presented as having been made canonical. This list mentions all the deuterocanonical books as a part of the Old Testament canon: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, Kings IV books [1 Samuel, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 2 Kings], Chronicles II books, 150 Psalms , three books of Solomon [Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs], Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Isaiah, Jeremiah with Cinoth i.e. his lamentations , Ezechiel, Daniel, Hosea, Amos, Micah, Joel, Obadiah, Jonah, Nahum, Habbakuk Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, Job, Tobit, Esdras II books [Ezra, Nehemiah], Ester, Judith, Maccabees II books. (According to
9790-490: The pursuit of pleasure, also known as the hedonic theory of motivation or the pleasure principle . This dogma also ties in with certain concepts of Behaviorism , most notably Operant Conditioning theory . In operant conditioning, a negative stimulus is removed thereby increasing a desired behavior, alternatively an aversive stimulus can be introduced as a punishing factor. In both methods, unfavorable circumstances are used in order to motivate an individual or an animal towards
9900-709: The relics of Habakkuk were found at Cela near Bayt Jibrin , when God revealed their location to Zebennus , bishop of Eleutheropolis , in a dream. Currently, one location in Israel and one in Iran lay claim to being the burial site of the prophet. The burial place of Habakkuk is identified by Jewish tradition as a hillside in the Upper Galilee region of northern Israel , close to the villages Kadarim and Hukok , about six miles southwest of Safed and twelve miles north of Mount Tabor . A small stone building, erected during
10010-516: The relief of suffering is humanitarianism (see also humanitarian principles , humanitarian aid , and humane society ). "Where humanitarian efforts seek a positive addition to the happiness of sentient beings, it is to make the unhappy happy rather than the happy happier. ... [Humanitarianism] is an ingredient in many social attitudes; in the modern world it has so penetrated into diverse movements ... that it can hardly be said to exist in itself." Pessimists hold this world to be mainly bad, or even
10120-435: The remedy of art . This Bruegel painting is among those that inspired W. H. Auden's poem Musée des Beaux Arts : About suffering they were never wrong, The Old Masters; how well, they understood Its human position; how it takes place While someone else is eating or opening a window or just walking dully along; (...) In Breughel's Icarus, for instance: how everything turns away Quite leisurely from
10230-427: The same scholar glossed Habakkuk 3:4, 15 as follows: "The earth shines with his light, and his horses launched into the sea", again interpreting the prophecy to be an allusion to the coming of Muhammad. One further prophecy of Habakkuk which Ibn Qutaybah cited, from extra-canonical Hebraic literature, was "You shall be exceedingly filled in your bows ... O Praised One (Muhammad)." This final prophecy attributed to Habakkuk
10340-459: The scripture. Thus, Muslims have traditionally had no problem accepting those other Hebrew prophets not mentioned in the Quran or hadith as legitimate prophets of God, especially as the Quran itself states: "Surely We sent down the Torah (to Moses), wherein is guidance and light; thereby the prophets (who followed him), who had surrendered themselves, gave judgment for those who were Jewish, as did
10450-524: The sensory dimension, as for instance in this sentence: "Pain-unpleasantness is often, though not always, closely linked to both the intensity and unique qualities of the painful sensation." Other current words that have a definition with some similarity to suffering include distress, unhappiness, misery, affliction, woe, ill, discomfort, displeasure, disagreeableness . Many of the Hellenistic philosophies addressed suffering. In Cynicism suffering
10560-410: The son of Nun , Judges , Ruth , four books of Kings [1 Samuel, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 2 Kings], two books of Chronicles , Job , the Psalter , five books of Solomon [Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Wisdom of Solomon, and Ecclesiasticus], the books of the twelve prophets , Isaiah , Jeremiah , Ezechiel , Daniel , Tobit , Judith , Esther , two books of Esdras [Ezra, Nehemiah], two Books of
10670-455: The soul or true self, which is eternally free of any suffering, may come to manifest itself in the person, who then achieves liberation ( moksha ). Abstinence from causing pain or harm to other beings, called ahimsa , is a central tenet of Hinduism, and even more so of another Indian religion, Jainism (see ahimsa in Jainism ). In Judaism, suffering is often seen as a punishment for sins and
10780-444: The subject of attending to the suffering person as a primary goal of medicine, has defined suffering as "the state of severe distress associated with events that threaten the intactness of the person". Cassell writes: "The obligation of physicians to relieve human suffering stretches back to antiquity. Despite this fact, little attention is explicitly given to the problem of suffering in medical education, research or practice." Mirroring
10890-425: The suffering of life is productive, exalting the will to power , despising weak compassion or pity, and recommending us to embrace willfully the ' eternal return ' of the greatest sufferings. Philosophy of pain is a philosophical speciality that focuses on physical pain and is, through that, relevant to suffering in general. Suffering plays an important role in a number of religions, regarding matters such as
11000-438: The time of life, thou shalt embrace ( חֹבֶקֶת – ḥōḇeqeṯ ) a son. And she said, Nay, my lord, [thou] man of God, do not lie unto thine handmaid. The only work attributed to Habakkuk is the short biblical text which bears his name. The Book of Habakkuk consists of the taunting riddle, which are five woes about the Chaldeans ( Babylonians ) in chapter 2, and a song of praise to God in chapter 3. The style of
11110-506: The town of Yathrib and the help he received there from the ansar ; and that his words "death goes before him" (Habakkuk 3:5). Likewise, Habakkuk 3:5–6 also received similar commentaries from medieval Islamic thinkers. The famous and revered Persian Islamic scholar and polymath Ibn Qutaybah , who served as a judge during the Abbasid Caliphate , said of the prophet Habakkuk: "Among the words of Habakkuk, who prophesied in
11220-541: The traditional body and mind dichotomy that underlies its teaching and practice, medicine strongly distinguishes pain from suffering, and most attention goes to the treatment of pain. Nevertheless, physical pain itself still lacks adequate attention from the medical community, according to numerous reports. Besides, some medical fields like palliative care , pain management (or pain medicine) , oncology , or psychiatry , do somewhat address suffering 'as such'. In palliative care, for instance, pioneer Cicely Saunders created
11330-636: The twelve minor prophets are read in the Roman Breviary during the fourth and fifth weeks of November, which are the last two weeks of the liturgical year, and his feast day is January 15. In 2011, he was commemorated with the other Minor Prophets in the calendar of saints of the Armenian Apostolic Church on February 8. Habakkuk has also been commemorated in sculpture . In 1435, the Florentine artist Donatello created
11440-404: The twelve minor prophets, namely Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi; two books of the Maccabees. Suffering Suffering , or pain in a broad sense, may be an experience of unpleasantness or aversion, possibly associated with the perception of harm or threat of harm in an individual. Suffering is the basic element that makes up
11550-475: The two books of Kings], and two of Chronicles, Job, and Tobias, and Esther, and Judith, and the two books of Maccabees, and the two of Ezra [Ezra, Nehemiah]; one book of the Psalms of David; and three books of Solomon, that is to say Proverbs, Song of Songs, and Ecclesiastes. For two books, one called Wisdom and the other Ecclesiasticus. Twelve separate books of the prophets which are connected with one another, and having never been disjoined, are reckoned as one book;
11660-477: The worst possible, plagued with, among other things, unbearable and unstoppable suffering. Some identify suffering as the nature of the world and conclude that it would be better if life did not exist at all. Arthur Schopenhauer recommends us to take refuge in things like art, philosophy, loss of the will to live , and tolerance toward 'fellow-sufferers'. Friedrich Nietzsche , first influenced by Schopenhauer, developed afterward quite another attitude, arguing that
11770-788: Was a member of the Tribe of Levi , who served as musicians in Solomon's Temple . A reference to "the prophet Habakkuk" appears in Bel and the Dragon , which is part of the deuterocanonical Additions to Daniel . Verses 33–39 place Habakkuk in Judea ; after making some stew, he is instructed by an angel of the Lord to take the stew to Daniel, who is in the lion's den in Babylon . After Habakkuk proclaims that he
11880-783: Was already known from the Cairo Geniza , has been found in two of the Dead Sea Scrolls (2QSir or 2Q18, 11QPs_a or 11Q5) in Hebrew. Another Hebrew scroll of Sirach has been found in Masada (MasSir). Five fragments from the Book of Tobit have been found in Qumran written in Aramaic and in one written in Hebrew (papyri 4Q, nos. 196–200). The Letter of Jeremiah (or Baruch chapter 6) has been found in cave 7 (papyrus 7Q2 ) in Greek . Recent scholars have suggested that
11990-610: Was also referred to by later scholars like Ibn al-Jawzi and Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah . Deuterocanonical books The deuterocanonical books , meaning "Of, pertaining to, or constituting a second canon ", collectively known as the Deuterocanon ( DC ), are certain books and passages considered to be canonical books of the Old Testament by the Catholic Church , the Eastern Orthodox Church ,
12100-468: Was considered "secondary". For Sixtus, this term included portions of both Old and New Testaments. Sixtus considers the final chapter of the Gospel of Mark to be deuterocanonical. He also applies the term to the Book of Esther from the canon of the Hebrew Bible. The term was then taken up by other writers to apply specifically to those books of the Old Testament which had been recognised as canonical by
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