African diaspora religions , also described as Afro-American religions , are a number of related beliefs that developed in the Americas in various nations of the Caribbean , Latin America and the Southern United States . They derive from traditional African religions with some influence from other religious traditions, notably Christianity and Islam .
122-504: Haitian Vodou ( / ˈ v oʊ d uː / ) is an African diasporic religion that developed in Haiti between the 16th and 19th centuries. It arose through a process of syncretism between several traditional religions of West and Central Africa and Roman Catholicism . There is no central authority in control of the religion and much diversity exists among practitioners, who are known as Vodouists, Vodouisants, or Serviteurs. Vodou teaches
244-535: A premye mèt bitasyon (original founder); their descent from this figure is seen as giving them their inheritance both of the land and of familial spirits. In other examples, particularly in urban areas, an ounfò can act as an initiatory family. A priest becomes the papa ("father") while the priestess becomes the manman ("mother") to the initiate; the initiate becomes their initiator's pitit (spiritual child). Those who share an initiator refer to themselves as "brother" and "sister." Individuals may join
366-411: A prèt Vodou ("Vodou priest"). Priestesses are termed manbo , alternatively spelled mambo . Oungan numerically dominate in rural Haiti, while there is a more equitable balance of priests and priestesses in urban areas. The oungan and manbo are tasked with organising liturgies, preparing initiations, offering consultations with clients using divination, and preparing remedies for
488-650: A belief that all things occur in accordance with this divinity's will. Vodouists regard Bondye as being transcendent and remote; as the God is uninvolved in human affairs, they see little point in approaching it directly. While Vodouists often equate Bondye with the Christian God , Vodou does not incorporate belief in a powerful antagonist that opposes the supreme being akin to the Christian notion of Satan . Vodou has also been characterized as polytheistic . It teaches
610-516: A black sombrero, and in another by a statue of Star Wars -character Darth Vader . In Port-au-Prince, it is common for Vodouists to include human skulls on their altar for the Gede. In ounfòs where both Rada and Petwo deities are worshipped, their altars are kept separate. Various spaces other than the temple are used for Vodou ritual. Cemeteries are seen as places where spirits reside, making them suitable for certain rituals, especially to approach
732-563: A book titled the History of Dahomey . Modern era scholars have questioned the objectivity and accuracy of Dalzel, and to what extent his pioneering book on Fon people was a polemic or dispassionate scholarship. In the 19th century and early 20th century, as the French presence increased and then the colonial period began in the Benin and nearby regions, more history and novels with references to
854-491: A diaspora with little contact with the point of origin (Africa) to one that maintains active contact with the mother continent; all culminating in the birth of a unique African who straddles continents, worlds and cultures. There are several conceptual difficulties in defining the African diaspora—indeed, in defining the term diaspora . Contemporary theorizations of the term diaspora tend to be preoccupied with problematizing
976-559: A form of mourning and celebrating their start of life as a spirit by the one who died, can last for days. The Fon culture incorporated culture and shared ideas with ethnic groups that have been their historical neighbors. Many of their practices are found among Yoruba people , Akan people , Ewe people and others. A notable part of the Fon people's society was their use of female soldiers in combat roles over some two centuries. Over 3,000 women trained and served as regular warriors to protect
1098-439: A home for the spirits. After the period of seclusion in the djèvo , the new initiate is brought out and presented to the congregation; they are now referred to as ounsi lave tèt . When the new initiate is presented to the rest of the community, they carry their pot tèt on their head, before placing it on the altar. The final stage of the process involves the initiate being given an ason rattle. The initiation process
1220-424: A man with a knowledge of Latin who is capable of administering Catholic baptisms, weddings, and the last rites , and who is willing to perform these at Vodou ceremonies. In rural areas especially, a congregation may consist of an extended family. Here, the priest will often be the patriarch of that family. Families, particularly in rural areas, often believe that through their zansèt (ancestors) they are tied to
1342-524: A new environment as evident in Haiti They have generally refused to accept innovative re-interpretation of Fon mythologies within the Abrahamic mythical framework. The priests of the Fon people, contrary to the expectations of the missionaries, adopted and re-interpreted Abrahamic myths into their own frameworks. The traditional Fon religion is regionally called Vodoun , Vodzu or Vodu , which
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#17327832453041464-532: A part of the ruling class in the Aja kingdom of Allada (also called the Ardra kingdom). The Aja people had a major dispute; one group broke off and these people came to be the Fon people, who migrated to Allada with king Agasu. The sons of king Agasu disputed who should succeed him after his death, and the group split again. This time the Fon people migrated with Agasu's son Dogbari northwards to Abomey, where they founded
1586-456: A particular ounfò because it exists in their locality or because their family are already members. Alternatively, it may be that the ounfò places particular focus on a lwa whom they are devoted to, or that they are impressed by the oungan or manbo who runs the ounfò in question, perhaps having been treated by them. Vodou is hierarchical and includes a series of initiations. There are typically four levels of initiation,
1708-675: A professor of World History specializing on Africa, for the next seventy years was that the French colonial state, instead of the former king of Fon people, now decided how the surplus (profits) from these plantations were to be spent. The French colonial administrators made some infrastructure improvements to improve the plantation profitability and logistics to serve French colonial interests. The French colonial administration targeted slavery in Benin, they outlawed capture of slaves, legally freed numerous slaves, but faced resistance and factional struggles from previous local slave owners running their farms. The slavery that continued included those that
1830-567: A religion exhibiting diverse cultural influences. As formed in Haiti, Vodou represented "a new religion", "a creolized New World system", one that differs in many ways from African traditional religions. The scholar Leslie Desmangles therefore called it an "African-derived tradition", Ina J. Fandrich termed it a "neo-African religion", and Markel Thylefors called it an "Afro-Latin American religion". Several other African diasporic religions found in
1952-444: A thousand lwa , although certain ones are especially widely venerated. In Rada ceremonies, the first lwa saluted is Papa Legba , also known as Legba. Depicted as a feeble old man wearing rags and using a crutch, Papa Legba is the protector of gates and fences and thus of the home, as well as of roads, paths, and crossroads. In Petwo rites, the first lwa invoked is usually Mèt Kalfou . The second lwa usually greeted are
2074-500: Is monotheistic , teaching the existence of a single supreme God. This entity is called Bondye or Bonié, a name deriving from the French term Bon Dieu ("Good God"). Another term for it is the Gran Mèt , borrowed from Freemasonry. For Vodouists, Bondye is the ultimate source of power, the creator of the universe, and the maintainer of cosmic order. Haitians frequently use the phrase si Bondye vle ("if Bondye wishes"), suggesting
2196-500: Is sèvitè ( serviteurs , "devotees"), reflecting their self-description as people who sèvi lwa ("serve the lwa "), the supernatural beings that play a central role in Vodou. Many words used in the religion derive from the Fon language of West Africa; this includes the word Vodou itself. First recorded in the 1658 Doctrina Christiana , the Fon word Vôdoun was used in
2318-533: Is also considered sympathetic to gay people, with many gay and bisexual individuals holding status as Vodou priests and priestesses, and some groups having largely gay congregations. Some Vodouists state that the lwa determine a person's sexual orientation. The lwa Èzili Dantò is sometimes regarded as a lesbian, and is also seen as the patron of masisi (gay men). The anthropologist Alfred Métraux described Vodou as "a practical and utilitarian religion". Its practices largely revolve around interactions with
2440-467: Is also used to store clothing that will be worn by those possessed by the lwa during rituals. If space is available, the ounfò may also have a room set aside for the patron lwa of that temple. Many ounfòs have a room known as the djévo in which the initiate is confined during their initiatory ceremony. Every ounfò usually has a room or corner of a room devoted to Erzuli Freda. Some ounfò will also have additional rooms in which
2562-538: Is believed to reside. The first initiation rite is the kanzo ; this term also describes the initiate themselves. Initiation is generally expensive, complex, and requires significant preparation. Prospective initiates are for instance required to memorise many songs and learn the characteristics of various lwa . Vodouists believe the lwa may encourage an individual towards initiation, bringing misfortune upon them if they refuse. Initiation will often be preceded by bathing in special preparations. The first part of
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#17327832453042684-517: Is called an ounfò , varyingly spelled hounfò , hounfort , or humfo . An alternative term is gangan , although the connotations of this term vary regionally in Haiti. Most communal Vodou activities centre around this ounfò , forming what is called "temple Vodou". The size and shape of ounfòs vary, from basic shacks to more lavish structures, the latter being more common in Port-au-Prince. Their designs are dependent on
2806-407: Is considered a high ethic. Among Vodouists, a moral person is regarded as someone who lives in tune with their character and that of their tutelary lwa . In general, acts that reinforce Bondye's power are deemed good; those that undermine it are seen as bad. Maji , meaning the use of supernatural powers for self-serving and malevolent ends, are usually thought bad. The term is quite flexible; it
2928-713: Is estimated to be about 3,500,000 people, and they speak the Fon language , a member of the Gbe languages . The history of the Fon people is linked to the Dahomey kingdom , a well-organized kingdom by the 17th century but one that shared more ancient roots with the Aja people . The Fon people traditionally were a culture of an oral tradition and had a well-developed polytheistic religious system. They were noted by early 19th-century European traders for their N'Nonmiton practice, or Dahomey Amazons – which empowered their women to serve in
3050-480: Is etymologically linked to Vodun – a term that refers to their theological concept of "numerous immortal spirits and deities". The religious practice of the Fon people have four overlapping elements: public gods, personal or private gods, ancestral spirits, and magic or charms. Thus, the Vodoun religion is polytheistic . The Fon people have a concept of a female Supreme Being called Nana Buluku , who gave birth to
3172-507: Is generally presented within this context. The Fon people did not invent slavery in Africa, nor did they have a monopoly on slavery nor exclusive slave trading activity. The institution of slavery long predates the origins of the Fon people in the Aja kingdom and the formation of the kingdom of Dahomey. The sub-Saharan and the Red Sea region, states Herbert Klein – a professor of history,
3294-553: Is linked with mango trees, and Danbala with bougainvillea . Selected trees in Haiti have had metal items affixed to them, serving as shrines to Ogou, who is associated with both iron and the roads. Spaces for ritual also appear in the homes of many Vodouists. These may vary from complex altars to more simple variants including only images of saints alongside candles and a rosary . Many practitioners will also have an altar devoted to their ancestors in their home, to which they direct offerings. Drawings known as vèvè are sketched onto
3416-514: Is not recorded in contemporary sources before the late eighteenth century, and is very likely an attempt by the ruling dynasty in the Dahomean kingdom's capital of Agbome to legitimize its conquest of the independent coastal kingdom of Allada in the 1720s. These claims can also be interpreted as a metaphorical expressions of cultural and political influences between kingdoms rather than actual kinship. While references and documented history about
3538-454: Is one of the most popular deities in the pantheon. Danbala and his consort Ayida-Weddo are often depicted as a pair of intertwining snakes. The Simbi are understood as the guardians of fountains and marshes. Usually seen as a fanmi rather than a nanchon , the Gede are associated with the realm of the dead. The head of the family is Baron Samedi ("Baron Saturday"); he is associated with
3660-505: Is paid to the historical conditions and experiences that produce diasporic communities and consciousness—how dispersed populations become self-conscious diaspora communities. Fon people The Fon people , also called Dahomeans , Fon nu or Agadja are a Gbe ethnic group. They are the largest ethnic group in Benin , found particularly in its south region; they are also found in southwest Nigeria and Togo . Their total population
3782-523: Is practiced by individuals of various ethnicities. Having faced much criticism through its history, Vodou has been described as one of the world's most misunderstood religions. Vodou is a religion. More specifically, scholars have characterised it as an Afro-Haitian religion, and as Haiti's "national religion". Its main structure derives from the African traditional religions of West and Central Africa which were brought to Haiti by enslaved Africans between
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3904-589: Is responsible for Haiti's poverty , a view that in turn has been accused of being rooted in European colonial prejudices towards Africans. Although Vodou permeates every aspect of its adherent's lives, it offers no prescriptive code of ethics. Rather than being rule-based, Vodou morality is deemed contextual to the situation, with no clear binary division between good and evil. Vodou reflects people's everyday concerns, focusing on techniques for mitigating illness and misfortune; doing what one needs to in order to survive
4026-654: Is seen to have ended when the new initiate is first possessed by a lwa . Initiation is seen as creating a bond between a devotee and their tutelary lwa , and the former will often take on a new name that alludes to the name of this lwa . Finally, after the kouche , the new initiate may be expected to visit a Catholic church. The creation of sacred works is important in Vodou. Votive objects used in Haiti are typically made from industrial materials, including iron, plastic, sequins, china, tinsel, and plaster. An altar, or pè , will often contain images (typically lithographs ) of Roman Catholic saints. Since developing in
4148-702: Is sometimes used synonymously with nanchon or alternatively as a sub-division of the latter category. It is often claimed that there are 17 nanchon , of which the Rada and the Petwo are the largest and most dominant. The Rada lwa are seen as being 'cool'; the Petwo lwa as 'hot'. This means that the Rada are dous or doux , or sweet-tempered, while the Petwo are lwa cho , indicating that they can be forceful or violent and are associated with fire. Whereas
4270-430: Is the lwa of vegetation, and because he is seen to give healing properties to various plant species is considered the lwa of healing too. Ogou is a warrior lwa , associated with weapons. Sogbo is a lwa associated with lightning, while his companion, Bade , is associated with the wind. Danbala is a serpent lwa and is associated with water, being believed to frequent rivers, springs, and marshes; he
4392-505: Is thus a term primarily used by scholars and outsiders to the religion; many practitioners describe their belief system with the term Ginen , which especially denotes a moral philosophy and ethical code regarding how to live and to serve the spirits. Vodou is the common spelling for the religion among scholars, in official Haitian Creole orthography, and by the United States Library of Congress . Some scholars prefer
4514-511: Is to echofe ("heat things up"), thus bringing about change, whether that be to remove barriers or to facilitate healing. Secrecy is important in Vodou. It is an initiatory tradition, operating through a system of graded induction or initiation. When an individual agrees to serve a lwa , it is deemed a lifelong commitment. Vodou has a strong oral culture, and its teachings are primarily disseminated through oral transmission, although many practitioners began to use texts after they appeared in
4636-468: Is traditionally depicted with snakes, or with Moses , whose staff turned into serpents. The Marasa, or sacred twins, are typically equated with the twin saints Cosmos and Damian . Scholars like Desmangles have argued that Vodouists originally adopted the Roman Catholic saints to conceal lwa worship when the latter was illegal during the colonial period. Observing Vodou in the latter part of
4758-514: Is usually used to denigrate other Vodouists, although some practitioners have used it as a self-descriptor in reference to Petwo rites. The extended family is of importance in Haitian society, with Vodou reinforcing family ties, and emphasising respect for the elderly. Although there are accounts of male Vodou priests mistreating their female followers, in the religion women can also lay claim to moral authority as social and spiritual leaders. Vodou
4880-425: The drapo often feature either the vèvè of specific lwa they are dedicated to or depictions of the associated Roman Catholic saint. These drapo are understood as points of entry through which the lwa can enter the peristil . African diasporic religions Afro-American religions involve ancestor veneration and include a creator deity along with a pantheon of divine spirits such as
5002-466: The gwo bonnanj is thought capable of leaving the head and travelling while a person sleeps. Vodouists believe that every individual is connected to a specific lwa , regarded as their mèt tèt (master of the head). They believe that this lwa informs the individual's personality. Vodou holds that the identity of a person's tutelary lwa can be identified through divination or by consulting lwa when they possess other humans. Some of
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5124-475: The lwa Loco; in Vodou mythology, he was the first oungan and his consort Ayizan the first manbo . The oungan and manbo are expected to display the power of second sight , something regarded as a gift from Bondye that can be revealed to the individual through visions or dreams. Many priests and priestesses are often attributed fantastical powers in stories told about them, and may bolster their status with claims to have received revelations from
5246-486: The lwa are believed to remove their protection from their devotees, or to inflict misfortune, illness, or madness on an individual. Although there are exceptions, most lwa derive their names from the Fon and Yoruba languages and originated as deities venerated in West or Central Africa. New lwa are nevertheless added to the pantheon, with both talismans and certain humans thought capable of becoming lwa , in
5368-535: The lwa are capable of offering people help, protection, and counsel in return for ritual service. Each lwa has its own personality, and is associated with specific colors, days of the week, and objects. Particular lwa are also associated with specific human family lineages. These spirits are not seen as moral exemplars for practitioners to imitate. The lwa can be either loyal or capricious in their dealings with their devotees; they are easily offended, for instance if offered food they dislike. When angered,
5490-462: The lwa at an ounfò (temple), run by an oungan (priest) or manbo (priestess). Alternatively, Vodou is also practised within family groups or in secret societies like the Bizango . A central ritual involves practitioners drumming, singing, and dancing to encourage a lwa to possess one of their members and thus communicate with them. Offerings to the lwa , and to spirits of
5612-429: The lwa of agriculture, is for instance associated with Saint Isidore the farmer. Similarly, because he is understood as the "key" to the spirit world, Papa Legba is typically associated with Saint Peter , who is traditionally depicted holding keys in Roman Catholic imagery. The lwa of love and luxury, Èzili Freda, is associated with Mater Dolorosa . Danbala the serpent is often equated with Saint Patrick , who
5734-417: The lwa , and incorporate song, drumming, dance, prayer, possession, and animal sacrifice. Practitioners gather together for sèvices (services) in which they commune with the lwa . Ceremonies for a particular lwa often coincide with the feast day of the Roman Catholic saint which that lwa is associated with. The mastery of ritual forms is considered imperative in Vodou. The purpose of ritual
5856-580: The lwa , sometimes via visits to the lwa 's own abode. There is often bitter competition between different oungan and manbo . Their main income derives from healing the sick, supplemented with payments received for overseeing initiations and selling talismans and amulets. In many cases, oungan and manbo become wealthier than their clients. Oungan and manbo are generally powerful and well-respected members of Haitian society. Being an oungan or manbo provides an individual with both social status and material profit, although
5978-401: The lwa . Their authenticity is often challenged, and they are referred to as hungan-macoutte , a term bearing some disparaging connotations. Becoming an oungan or manbo is expensive, often requiring the purchase of ritual paraphernalia and land on which to build a temple. To finance this, many save up for a long time. Vodouists believe that the oungan 's role is modelled on
6100-399: The lwa . Vodou also promotes a belief in destiny , although individuals are still deemed to have freedom of choice. This view of destiny has been interpreted as encouraging a fatalistic outlook, something that the religion's critics, especially from Christian backgrounds, have argued has discouraged Vodouists from improving their society. This has been extended into an argument that Vodou
6222-450: The nanm , or sometimes the espri , which is divided in two parts . One of these is the ti bonnanj ("little good angel"), understood as the conscience that allows an individual to engage in self-reflection and self-criticism. The other part is the gwo bonnanj ("big good angel") and this constitutes the psyche, source of memory, intelligence, and personhood. Both parts are believed to reside within an individual's head, although
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#17327832453046344-568: The oungan or manbo lives. The area around the ounfò often contains objects dedicated to particular lwa , such as a pool of water for Danbala, a black cross for Baron Samedi, and a pince (iron bar) embedded in a brazier for Criminel. Sacred trees, known as arbres-reposoirs , sometimes mark the ounfò 's external boundary. Hanging from these trees can be found macounte straw sacks, strips of material, and animal skulls. Various animals, particularly birds but also some mammal species such as goats, are sometimes kept within
6466-406: The ounsi becomes the hungenikon or reine-chanterelle , the mistress of the choir. They are responsible for overseeing the liturgical singing and shaking the chacha rattle which dictates the rhythm during ceremonies. They are aided by the hungenikon-la-place , commandant general de la place , or quartermaster , who is charged with overseeing offerings and keeping order during
6588-399: The peristil , sacrificing animals, and taking part in the dances at which they must be prepared to be possessed by a lwa . The oungan and manbo conduct initiatory ceremonies whereby people become ounsi , oversee their training, and act as their counsellor, healer, and protector. In turn, the ounsi are expected to be obedient to their oungan or manbo . One of
6710-454: The ti bonnanj proceeds to face judgement before Bondye. This idea of judgement is more common in urban areas, having been influenced by Roman Catholicism, while in the Haitian mountains it is more common for Vodouists to believe that the ti bonnanj dissolves into the navel of the earth nine days after death. The land of the Ginen is often identified as being located beneath the sea, under
6832-461: The Mawu-Lisa and created the universe. After giving birth, the mother Supreme retired, and left everything to Mawu-Lisa (Moon-Sun, female-male) deities, spirits and inert universe. Mawu-Lisa created numerous minor imperfect deities. In Fon belief, the feminine deity Mawu had to work with trickster Legba and the cosmic serpent Aido Hwedo to create living beings, a method of creation that imbued
6954-632: The Kongo people lands on the Atlantic coast of Central Africa in the 16th century, there were numerous plantations in the Caribbean and Atlantic coastline of South America, which had already created a booming demand for slaves from the European traders. The expanded territory of the Dahomey kingdom was well positioned to supply this transatlantic trade and the 18th and 19th century history of the Fon people
7076-451: The Marasa or sacred twins. In Vodou, every nanchon has its own Marasa, reflecting a belief that twins have special powers. Another important lwa is Agwe , also known as Agwe-taroyo, who is associated with aquatic life and is the protector of ships and fishermen. Agwe is believed to rule the sea with his consort, La Sirène . She is a mermaid , and is sometimes described as Èzili of
7198-572: The Négritude movement have sought to remove Roman Catholic influences. Most Haitians practice both Vodou and Roman Catholicism, seeing no contradiction in pursuing the two different systems simultaneously. Smaller Vodouist communities exist elsewhere, especially among Haitian diasporas in Cuba and the United States . Both in Haiti and abroad Vodou has spread beyond its Afro-Haitian origins and
7320-598: The Orisha , Loa , Vodun , Nkisi and Alusi , among others. In addition to the religious syncretism of these various African traditions, many also incorporate elements of folk Catholicism including folk saints and other forms of folk religion , Native American religion , Spiritism , Spiritualism , Shamanism (sometimes including the use of Entheogens ) and European folklore . Various "doctoring" spiritual traditions also exist such as Obeah and Hoodoo which focus on spiritual health. African religious traditions in
7442-400: The 16th and 19th centuries. Of these, the greatest influences came from the Fon and Bakongo peoples. On the island, these African religions mixed with the iconography of European-derived traditions such as Roman Catholicism and Freemasonry , taking the form of Vodou around the mid-18th century. In combining varied influences, Vodou has often been described as syncretic , or a "symbiosis",
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#17327832453047564-405: The 20th century, Donald J. Cosentino argued that by that point, the use of Roman Catholic saints reflected the genuine devotional expression of many Vodouists. The scholar Marc A. Christophe concurred, stating that most modern Vodouists genuinely see the saints and lwa as one, reflecting Vodou's "all-inclusive and harmonizing characteristics". Many Vodouists possess chromolithographic prints of
7686-542: The Americas can vary. They can have non-prominent African roots or can be almost wholly African in nature, such as religions like Trinidad Orisha . The nature and composition of the African diaspora have undergone significant changes over time: from the forced migration of African captives of the Old and New Worlds to the voluntary emigration of free, skilled Africans in search of political asylum or economic opportunities; from
7808-546: The Americas formed in a similar way, and owing to their shared origins in West African traditional religion, Vodou has been characterized as a "sister religion" of Cuban Santería and Brazilian Candomblé . Vodou has no central institutional authority, no single leader, and no developed body of doctrine . It thus has no orthodoxy , no central liturgy, and no formal creed. Developing over the course of several centuries, it has changed over time. It displays variation at both
7930-460: The Benin coastline including the ports of the Dahomey rulers and the Fon people became one of the largest exporter of slaves. The kingdom of Dahomey, along with its neighbors' kingdoms of Benin and Oyo Empire, raided for slaves and sold their captives into transatlantic slavery. The competition for captives, slaves and government revenues, amongst the African kingdoms, escalated the mutual justification and pressure. The captives were sold as slaves to
8052-407: The Dahomey kingdom disagreed. The dispute led to a French attack in 1890, and annexation of the kingdom as a French colony in 1892. This started the colonial rule for the Fon people. The period of French colonial empire marked the end of the Fon royalty, though France kept the system of plantations , which they had inherited from the royalty. The only difference, so states Patrick Manning –
8174-610: The Europeans from the Bight of Benin (also called the Slave Coast), from the eighteenth to the nineteenth century. The Fon people were both victims and also victimized other ethnic groups. Some captives came from wars, but others came from systematic kidnapping within the kingdom or at the frontiers, as well as the caravans of slaves brought in by merchants from the West African interior. The kingdom of Dahomey of Fon people controlled
8296-578: The Fon homeland region such as the Yoruba and Bantu , Fon culture merged with French, Portuguese or Spanish to produce distinct religions ( Voodoo , Obeah , Candomblé and Santería ), dance and musical styles ( Arará , Yan Valu ). In the French colonies, such as Saint-Domingue (now Haiti), the Christian missionaries confiscated and burnt the statues and religious objects of the Fon people, but this did not end their practices. They rebuilt their icons again. The Fon people and their government have reversed
8418-443: The Fon people appeared, such as those by Édouard Foà, N. Savariau, Le Herisse and M.J. Herskovits' anthropological study on Fon people published in 1938. These histories suggest that Fon people's kingdom of Dahomey expanded in early 18th century, particularly during King Agaja's rule through the 1740s, reaching the Atlantic coast from their inland capital of Abomey. During this period, 200 years after Portugal had already settled in
8540-415: The Fon people are scant before the 17th century, there are abundant documents on them from the 17th century, particularly written by European travelers and traders to West African coasts. These memoirs mention such cities as Ouidah and Abomey. Among the most circulated texts are those of Archibald Dalzel , a slave trader who in 1793 wrote the legends, history and slave trading practices of the Fon people in
8662-482: The Fon people participated. France agreed to autonomy to Dahomey in 1958, and full independence in 1960. Some Fon people converted to Christianity or Islam under the influence of missionaries during the colonial era, in Benin and in French West Indies colonies, but many continued their traditional religious practices. While Islam arrived in the Benin area between 11th and 13th centuries, Christianity
8784-640: The Fon society make pottery, weave clothes and produce metal utensils. Among the cash crops, palm oil plantations are common in Fon people's region. The Fon culture is patrilineal and allows polygyny and divorce . A man with multiple wives usually lived in a compound with each wife and her children occupying a separate hut. A collection of compounds formed a village, usually headed by a hereditary chief. In contemporary times, traditional patrilineal clan-based living and associated practices are uncommon. Funerals and death anniversaries to remember their loved ones are important events, including drumming and dancing as
8906-543: The Rada are generally righteous, their Petwo counterparts are more morally ambiguous and associated with issues like money. The Rada owe more to Dahomeyan and Yoruba influences; their name probably comes from Arada , a city in the Dahomey kingdom of West Africa. The Petwo derive largely from Kongo religion, although also exhibit Dahomeyan and creolised influences. Some lwa exist andezo or en deux eaux , meaning that they are "in two waters" and are served in both Rada and Petwo rituals. Vodou teaches that there are over
9028-626: The Senegal and in Lower Guinea by the fifteenth century". By the 15th century, Songhay Empire rulers to the immediate north of the Fon people, in the Niger River valley, were already using thousands of captured slaves for agriculture. The demand for slave labor to produce sugarcane, cotton, palm oil, tobacco and other goods in the plantations of European colonies around the globe had sharply grown between 1650 and 1850. The Bight of Benin
9150-592: The Slave Coast, through the lands of Ewe and Fon people. The Fon people, like neighboring ethnic groups in West Africa, remained an oral tradition society through the late medieval era, without ancient historical records. According to these oral histories and legends, the Fon people originated in present-day Tado, a small Aja town now situated near the Togo–Benin border. Their earliest rulers were originally
9272-654: The United States with modern Paganism . Vodou has also absorbed elements from other contexts; in Cuba, some Vodouists have adopted elements from Spiritism . Influenced by the Négritude movement, other Vodouists have sought to remove Roman Catholic and other European influences from their practice of Vodou. In English , Vodou's practitioners are termed Vodouists ; in French and Haitian Creole , they are called Vodouisants or Vodouyizan . Another term for adherents
9394-468: The Waters because she is believed to bring good luck and wealth from the sea. Also given the name Èzili is Èzili Freda or Erzuli Freda, the lwa of love and luxury who personifies feminine beauty and grace, and Ezili Dantor , who takes the form of a peasant woman. Azaka is the lwa of crops and agriculture, usually addressed as "Papa" or "Cousin". His consort is the female lwa Kouzinn. Loco
9516-455: The West African kingdom of Dahomey to signify a spirit or deity. In Haitian Creole, Vodou came to designate a specific style of dance and drumming, before outsiders to the religion adopted it as a generic term for much Afro-Haitian religion. The word Vodou now encompasses "a variety of Haiti's African-derived religious traditions and practices", incorporating "a bundle of practices that practitioners themselves do not aggregate". Vodou
9638-401: The child of a particular lwa , their mèt tèt . This is followed by a period of seclusion within the djèvo known as the kouche . A deliberately uncomfortable experience, it involves the initiate sleeping on a mat on the floor, often with a stone for a pillow. They wear a white tunic, and a specific salt-free diet is followed. It includes a lav tèt ("head washing") to prepare
9760-404: The colonial attempts to culturally change them. After the end of the colonial era, January 10 has been declared an official annual holiday in Benin dedicated to Vodun gods. The Fon people are traditionally settled farmers, growing cassava , corn and yams as staples. The men prepare the fields, women tend and harvest the crop. Hunting and fishing are other sources of food, while some members of
9882-529: The dead, include fruit, liquor, and sacrificed animals . Several forms of divination are utilized to decipher messages from the lwa . Healing rituals and the preparation of herbal remedies and talismans also play a prominent role. Vodou developed among Afro-Haitian communities amid the Atlantic slave trade of the 16th to 19th centuries. Its structure arose from the blending of the traditional religions of those enslaved West and Central Africans brought to
10004-480: The earth, or above the sky. Some Vodouists believe that the gwo bonnanj stays in the land of the Ginen for a year and a day before being absorbed into the Gede family. However, Vodouists usually distinguish the spirits of the dead from the Gede proper, for the latter are lwa . Vodou also teaches that the dead continue to participate in human affairs, with these spirits often complaining that they suffer from hunger, cold, and damp, and thus requiring sacrifices from
10126-533: The existence of a transcendent creator divinity, Bondye , under whom are spirits known as lwa . Typically deriving their names and attributes from traditional West and Central African deities, they are equated with Roman Catholic saints. The lwa divide into different groups, the nanchon ("nations"), most notably the Rada and the Petwo , about whom various myths and stories are told. This theology has been labelled both monotheistic and polytheistic . An initiatory tradition, Vodouists commonly venerate
10248-485: The existence of beings called the lwa , a term varyingly translated into English as "spirits", "gods", or " geniuses ". These lwa are also known as the mystères , anges , saints , and les invisibles , and are sometimes equated with the angels of Christian cosmology. Vodou teaches that there are over a thousand lwa . Serving as Bondye's intermediaries, they communicate with humans through their dreams or by directly possessing them. Vodouists believe
10370-476: The fame and reputation of individual priests and priestesses can vary widely. Respected Vodou priests and priestesses are often literate in a society where semi-literacy and illiteracy are common. They can recite from printed texts and write letters for illiterate members of their community. Owing to their prominence in a community, the oungan and manbo can effectively become political leaders, or otherwise exert an influence on local politics. A Vodou temple
10492-472: The floor of the peristil using cornmeal, ash, coffee grounds, or powdered eggshells; these are central to Vodou ritual. Usually arranged symmetrically around the poto-mitan , these designs sometimes incorporate letters; their purpose is to summon lwa . Inside the peristil , practitioners also unfurl ceremonial flags known as drapo (flags) at the start of a ceremony. Often made of silk or velvet and decorated with shiny objects such as sequins,
10614-408: The fourth of which makes someone an oungan or manbo . There is much variation in what these initiation ceremonies entail, and the details are kept secret. Each initiatory stage is associated with a state of mind called a konesan ( conaissance or knowledge). Successive initiations are required to move through the various konesans , and it is in these konesans that priestly power
10736-615: The good, the bad and a destiny for every creature including human beings. Only by appeasing lesser deities and Legba, in Fon theology, can one change that destiny. This appeasing requires rituals and offerings to the lesser gods and ancestral spirits, who are believed to have ability to do favors to human beings. A typical traditional home compound of the Fon people has a Dexoxos , or ancestral shrine. The charms are locally called gbo, gris gris, ju ju , or obeah , involve leaves, herbs, smoke and these are offerings to public or personal gods of each family. While many Fon identify as Christian,
10858-472: The initiate for having the lwa enter and reside in their head. Voudoists believe that one of the two parts of the human soul, the gwo bonnanj , is removed from the initiate's head, thus making space for the lwa to enter and reside there. The initiation ceremony requires the preparation of pot tèts (head pots), usually white porcelain cups with a lid in which a range of items are placed, including hair, food, herbs, and oils. These are regarded as
10980-404: The initiation rite is known as the kouche or huño , and is marked by salutations and offerings to the lwa . It begins with the chire ayizan , a ceremony in which palm leaves are frayed and then worn by the initiate. Sometimes the bat ge or batter guerre ("beating war") is performed instead, designed to beat away the old. During the rite, the initiate comes to be regarded as
11102-490: The island of Hispaniola , among them Kongo , Fon , and Yoruba . There, it absorbed influences from the culture of the French colonialists who controlled the colony of Saint-Domingue , most notably Roman Catholicism but also Freemasonry . Many Vodouists were involved in the Haitian Revolution of 1791 to 1801 which overthrew the French colonial government, abolished slavery, and transformed Saint-Domingue into
11224-417: The king of the Fon people shifted to agricultural exports to France, particularly palm oil , but used slaves to operate the plantations. The agricultural exports were not as lucrative as slave exports had been in past. To recover state revenues he leased the ports in his kingdom to the French through a signed agreement in late 19th century. The French interpreted the agreement as ceding the land and ports, while
11346-456: The kingdom of Dahomey sometime about 1620 CE. The Fon people have been settled there since, while the kingdom of Dahomey expanded in southeast Benin by conquering neighboring kingdoms. The oral history of the Fon further attributes the origins of the Fon people to the intermarrying between this migrating Allada-nu Aja group from the south with the Oyo-nu inhabitants in the (Yoruba) Kingdoms of
11468-570: The latter case through their strength of personality or power. Vodouists often refer to the lwa living in the sea or in rivers, or alternatively in Ginen, a term encompassing a generalized understanding of Africa as the ancestral land of the Haitian people. The lwa divide into nanchon or "nations". This classificatory system derives from the way in which enslaved Africans were divided into "nations" upon their arrival in Haiti, usually based on their African port of departure rather than their ethno-cultural identity. The term fanmi (family)
11590-523: The latter refuses then misfortune may befall them. A prospective oungan or manbo must normally rise through the other roles in a Vodou congregation before undergoing an apprenticeship with a pre-existing oungan or manbo lasting several months or years. After this apprenticeship, they undergo an initiation ceremony, the details of which are kept secret from non-initiates. Other oungan and manbo do not undergo any apprenticeship, but claim that they have gained their training directly from
11712-406: The living. Vodou ethical standards correspond to its sense of cosmological order, with a belief in the interdependence of things playing a role in Vodou approaches to ethical issues. Serving the lwa is central to Vodou and its moral codes reflect the reciprocal relationship that practitioners have with these spirits; for Vodouists, virtue is maintained by ensuring a responsible relationship with
11834-406: The majority continue to practice Benin's traditional religion Vodun . The Fon have priests and mediums who receive the spirits on the occasion of the great festivals. The cult of the sacred serpents in the temple of Whydah had some importance, but eventually fell into disuse. Practice can involve drumming to induce possession by one of these gods or spirits. Together with other cultural groups from
11956-419: The mid-19th century, chromolithography has also had an impact on Vodou imagery, facilitating the widespread availability of images of the Roman Catholic saints who are equated with the lwa . Various Vodouists have made use of varied available materials in constructing their shrines. Cosentino encountered a shrine in Port-au-Prince where Baron Samedi was represented by a plastic statue of Santa Claus wearing
12078-525: The mid-20th century. The terminology used in Vodou ritual is called langaj . Unlike in Santería and Candomblé, which employ Yoruba as a liturgical language not understood by most practitioners, in Vodou the liturgies are predominantly in Haitian Creole, the everyday language of most Vodouists. Male priests are referred to as an oungan , alternatively spelled houngan or hungan , or
12200-525: The military, who decades later fought the French colonial forces in 1890. Cities built by the Fon include Abomey , the historical capital city of Dahomey on what was historically referred to by Europeans as the Slave Coast . These cities became major commercial centres for the slave trade . A significant portion of the sugar plantations in the French West Indies, particularly Haiti , Suriname and Trinidad , were populated with slaves that came from
12322-402: The name of the West African community that embarked in slave ships from the Bight of Benin, and is now found in Haiti , Saint Lucia , Trinidad , French Antilles and other nearby islands with French influence. In some Caribbean colonial documents, alternate spellings such as Rara are also found. The slave traders and ship owners of European colonial system encouraged competition, equipped
12444-478: The perimeter of the ounfò for use as sacrifices. Forming a spiritual community of practitioners, the ounfò 's congregation are known as the pititt-caye (children of the house). They worship under the authority of an oungan or manbo , below whom is ranked the ounsi , individuals who make a lifetime commitment to serving the lwa . Members of either sex can join the ounsi , although most are female. The ounsi 's duties include cleaning
12566-671: The phallus, the skull, and the graveyard cross, the latter used to mark out his presence in a Haitian cemetery. His consort is Gran Brigit, who has authority over cemeteries and is mother to many of the other Gede. The Gede regularly satirise the ruling authorities, and are welcomed to rituals as they are thought to bring merriment. The Gede's symbol is an erect penis, while the banda dance associated with them involves sexual-style thrusting, and those possessed by these lwa typically make sexual innuendos. Most lwa are associated with specific Roman Catholic saints. These links are reliant on "analogies between their respective functions"; Azaka,
12688-415: The pillar through which the lwa enter the room during ceremonies. It is around this central post that offerings, including both vèvè patterns and animal sacrifices, are made. However, in the Haitian diaspora many Vodouists perform their rites in basements, where no poto mitan are available. The peristil typically has an earthen floor, allowing libations to the lwa to drain directly into
12810-661: The plateau. These Yorubas were known as the Igede, which the Ajas called the Gedevi. The fusion of the immigrant Aja conquerors and the original Indigenous Yorubas of the Abomey plateau thus created a new culture, that of the Fon. Although these oral traditional origins have been passed down through the generations, they are not without controversy. The claim to any origin from within Allada
12932-670: The port Ouidah, from where numerous European slave ships disembarked. However, this was not the only port of the region and it competed with the ports controlled by other nearby kingdoms on the Bight of Benin and the Bight of Biafra . The Fon people, along with the neighboring ethnic groups such as the Ewe people, disembarked in French colonies to work as slaves in the plantations of the Caribbean and coasts of South America. They were initially called Whydah , which probably meant "people sold by Alladah". The word Whydah phonetically evolved into Rada ,
13054-618: The regional and local level—including variation between Haiti and the Haitian diaspora—as well as among different congregations. It is practiced domestically, by families on their land, but also by congregations meeting communally, with the latter termed "temple Vodou". In Haitian culture, religions are not generally deemed totally autonomous. Many Haitians thus practice both Vodou and Roman Catholicism, with Vodouists usually regarding themselves as Roman Catholics. In Haiti, Vodouists have also practiced Protestantism , Mormonism , or Freemasonry; in Cuba they have involved themselves in Santería, and in
13176-432: The relationship between diaspora and nation and the dualities or multiplicities of diasporic identity or subjectivity; they are inclined to be condemnatory or celebratory of transnational mobility and hybridity. In many cases, the term diaspora is used in a fuzzy, ahistorical and uncritical manner in which all manner of movements and migrations between countries and even within countries are included and no adequate attention
13298-436: The religion's priests and priestesses are deemed to have "the gift of eyes", capable of seeing the identity of a person's tutelary lwa . Vodou holds that Bondye has preordained the time of everyone's death, but does not teach the existence of an afterlife realm akin to the Christian ideas of heaven and hell . Instead, a common belief is that at bodily death, the gwo bonnanj join the Ginen, or ancestral spirits, while
13420-472: The republic of Haiti. The Roman Catholic Church left for several decades following the Revolution, allowing Vodou to become Haiti's dominant religion. In the 20th century, growing emigration spread Vodou abroad. The late 20th century saw growing links between Vodou and related traditions in West Africa and the Americas, such as Cuban Santería and Brazilian Candomblé , while some practitioners influenced by
13542-421: The resources and tastes of the oungan or manbo running them. Each ounfò is autonomous, and often has its own unique customs. The main ceremonial room in the ounfò is the peristil , understood as a microcosmic representation of the cosmos . In the peristil , brightly painted posts hold up the roof; the central post is the poto mitan , which is used as a pivot during ritual dances and
13664-412: The rites. Another figure is le confiance (the confidant), the ounsi who oversees the ounfò 's administrative functions. Congregants often form a sosyete soutyen ( société soutien , support society), through which subscriptions are paid to help maintain the ounfò and organize the major religious feasts. Another ritual figure sometimes present is the prèt savann ("bush priest"),
13786-399: The saints, while images of these Christian figures can also be found on temple walls, and on the drapo flags used in Vodou ritual. Vodouists also often adopt and reinterpret biblical stories and theorise about the nature of Jesus of Nazareth . Vodou holds that Bondye created humanity in its image, fashioning humans from water and clay. It teaches the existence of a soul, usually called
13908-475: The sick. There is no priestly hierarchy, with oungan and manbo being largely self-sufficient. In many cases, the role is hereditary. Historical evidence suggests that the role of the oungan and manbo intensified over the course of the 20th century. As a result, "temple Vodou" is now more common in rural areas of Haiti than it was in historical periods. Vodou teaches that the lwa call an individual to become an oungan or manbo , and if
14030-446: The soil; where this is not possible, libations are poured into an enamel basin. Some peristil include seating around the walls. Adjacent rooms in the ounfò include the caye-mystéres , also known as the bagi , badji , or sobadji . This is where stonework altars, known as pè , stand against the wall or are arranged in tiers. Also present may be a sink dedicated to the lwa Danbala-Wedo. The caye-mystéres
14152-512: The spellings Vodoun , Voudoun , or Vodun , while in French the spellings vaudou or vaudoux also appear. The spelling Voodoo , once common, is now generally avoided by practitioners and scholars when referring to the Haitian religion. This is both to avoid confusion with Louisiana Voodoo , a related but distinct tradition, and to distinguish it from the negative connotations that the term Voodoo has in Western popular culture . Vodou
14274-507: The spirits of the dead. In rural Haiti, cemeteries are often family owned and play a key role in family rituals. Crossroads are also ritual locations, selected as they are believed to be points of access to the spirit world. Other spaces used for Vodou rituals include Christian churches, rivers, the sea, fields, and markets. Certain trees are regarded as having spirits resident in them and are used as natural altars. Different species of tree are associated with different lwa ; Oyu, for example,
14396-458: The various kingdoms with weapons, which they paid for with slaves, as well as built infrastructure such as ports and forts to strengthen the small kingdoms. However, slave trading in the Bight of Benin soon came to an end as European and American nations passed legislation which outlawed their involvement in the slave trade. The last nation in the Americas to officially outlaw the slave trade was Imperial Brazil , in 1851. When slave exports ceased,
14518-513: Was adopted by Dahomey ruler Agonglo who came to power in 1789, and his Fon royalty supporters, with missionaries welcomed. According to Steven Mailloux, the missionaries attempted to integrate the old concepts of Fon people on cosmogenesis to be same as Adam-Eve, and their Legba to be Christian Satan , teachings that led to syncretism rather than abandonment. The Fon people, states Mary Turner, have generally proven to be highly resistant to Christianity and Islam, even when brought over as slaves in
14640-500: Was already shipping slaves in the late 17th century, before the Fon people expanded their kingdom to gain control of the coast line. The Fon rulers and merchants, whose powers were established on the Atlantic coast between 1700 and 1740, entered this market. The Fon people were divided on how to respond to the slave demand. Some scholars suggest that Fon people and Dahomey rulers expressed intentions to curtail or end slave trading, states Elizabeth Heath, but historical evidence affirms that
14762-399: Was already trading between 5,000 and 10,000 African slaves per year between 800 and 1600 CE, with a majority of these slaves being women and children. According to John Donnelly Fage – a professor of history specializing in Africa, a "slave economy was generally established in the Western and Central Sudan by about the fourteenth century at least, and had certainly spread to the coasts around
14884-659: Was lineage-related, who cohabited within families in the region. The Fon aristocracy adapted to the new conditions, by joining the ranks of administrators in the French rule. Taxes new to the Dahomey colony's people, which the French called impôt , similar to those already practiced in France, were introduced on all ethnic groups, including the Fon people, by the colonial administrators. Payment of these were regularly resisted or just refused, leading to confrontations, revolts, arrests, prison terms and forced labor. These complaints gelled into an anti-colonial nationalism movement in which
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