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50-577: Most of the villages were submerged in the 1990s under the waters behind the dam on the Euphrates at Birecik . The town was therefore moved to the village of Karaotlak. Halfeti was the subject of an internet urban legend wherein the town was the only location on Earth where black roses grew. As part of the Southeastern Anatolia Project , aka GAP, several dams were constructed in the area and surrounding regions as part of

100-486: A drier climate and therefore lacked a consistent supply of wood. The Portuguese explorer Pedro Teixeira noted this problem when he visited Basra in 1604: since importing timber was costly, locally-built ships were small and expensive. Although Basra did also become an Ottoman shipyard later on, Birecik had none of these disadvantages and remained the primary Ottoman shipyard in Mesopotamia. The first reference to

150-592: A large naval base compared to Birecik. At the same time, Birecik has a wetter climate than settlements further downstream because it's closer to the Mediterranean coast in Syria, and the mountain regions nearby are able to support large mixed-growth forests to supply timber for shipbuilding. The city of Basra , despite having the advantage of being much further downstream and closer to the Persian Gulf , has

200-608: A larger agricultural and economic initiative by the Turkish Government. The town of Halfeti was among those settlements, ancient and contemporary, that would remain under the rising water levels of the local dams and rivers following the execution of the GAP. Until the area was flooded in 1999, the people lived from fishing in the Euphrates and farming on the riverbank, especially growing pistachios. Some buildings, including

250-414: A lesser extent, there are also outcroppings west of the Euphrates. Most of the underlying basalt and limestone formations are now covered by more recent alluvial deposits . There is also an alluvial plain along the Euphrates, formed by clay, sand, silt, and gravel deposited during floods. This area is about 3 km wide around Birecik but only 1 km wide further north near ancient Zeugma. To

300-421: A team headed by M. Özdoğan and N. Karul in 2001. The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica identified Birecik with ancient Apamea or its suburb Seleucia and described it as opposite Zeugma , with which it was connected by a bridge of boats. At the same time, it added that "the place seems to have had a pre- Seleucid existence as Birtha , a name which revived under Roman rule". Later discoveries have shown that

350-408: Is Zikrullah Erdoğan. Birecik Birecik is a municipality and district of Şanlıurfa Province , Turkey . Its area is 912 km , and its population is 93,866 (2023). It lies on the Euphrates . Built on a limestone cliff 400 ft. high on the left/east bank of the Euphrates, "at the upper part of a reach of that river, which runs nearly north-south, and just below a sharp bend in

400-509: Is located between Gaziantep to the west and the Urfa plateau to the east. The region's elevation varies between about 400 and 500 meters above sea level, with steep slopes along the banks of the Euphrates. Low-lying areas are used for farming; the higher areas are used for livestock grazing. Cotton growing is common in the Birecik area. There are no major tributaries of the Euphrates in

450-592: Is suspect however as it seems that his daughter married the next lord, Galeran of Le Puiset of the Montlhery family , and it seems that Ablgharib's position was preserved to a certain extent. Birecik then formed part of the County of Edessa ; it was strongly fortified with a castle and served as the capital of a minor feudal lordship. In 1151, Birecik was captured by the Artukid ruler Timurtaş of Mardin , an ally of

500-588: Is the marly limestone known as havara coming from a quarry east of Birecik. This type is less resistant to weathering. In some buildings, both types of stone were used. More recently, Urfa limestone has also been used in restoration work on historic buildings. One example is the Mahmutpaşa Cami, which now has examples of all three types of stone. An old qanat , estimated to be 30 km long, historically brought water to Bireck for drinking, irrigation, water mills, and other uses. The exact source of

550-554: The Dulkadirid leader Sevli Beg in 1390. In 1401, however, Timur crossed the Euphrates at Birecik on his way from Damascus to Malatya . The Mamluk commander of Birecik's castle submitted to Timur's forces, and it appeared that the town would be spared, but Timur left a contingent of about 3,000 troops in Birecik and they ended up looting the town and castle before leaving to rejoin Timur. Birecik gained in importance during

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600-617: The Ottoman Imperial Council commissioned 300 new ships to be built. In 1559, the Ottomans decided to deploy five new galliots at Basra to counter the presence of Portuguese ships near Ottoman ports, which was causing a decline in customs revenue. From October 1559 until February 1560, the Imperial Council wanted to build the ships at Birecik, but ultimately the vizier Sokullu Mehmed Pasha decided to send

650-753: The Southeastern Anatolia Project , is situated within the district. The Roman city of Zeugma is now drowned in the reservoir behind the dam. Zeugma's famous mosaics, including the 'river god', have been taken to Gaziantep Museum, but some rescued remains of Zeugma are exhibited in Birecik. With its rich architectural heritage, Birecik is a member of the Norwich -based European Association of Historic Towns and Regions (EAHTR) There are 83 neighbourhoods in Birecik District: In mid-19th century, Swiss traveler Alexander Schläfli recorded that Birejik had 5500-6000 people with 50-60 Armenian families and

700-656: The Zengid ruler Nur ad-Din Zengi , and afterwards Birecik became part of Nur ad-Din's direct holdings. After Nur ad-Din died in 1174, Saladin conquered the whole region. Birecik formed part of the Kurdish Ayyubid principality of Aleppo ; while other towns in the principality were assigned as sub-principalities (namely Tall Bashar and Aintab ), Birecik was not and seems to have been governed directly from Aleppo by its Ayyubid governor, Az-Zahir Ghazi . Birecik

750-630: The 1400s as the preferred route connecting Aleppo and Upper Mesopotamia shifted towards the Birecik-Urfa route instead of the Mardin - Ra's al-'Ayn route that had been preferred previously. Birecik was unsuccessfully put under siege in 1420 by the Ak Koyunlu leader Kara Yusuf . Again in 1472, the Ak Koyunlu leader Uzun Hasan attacked Birecik unsuccessfully, causing damage to the city walls. The Mamluk sultan, Qaitbay , later came to inspect

800-493: The Euphrates, the main crossing was still at Zeugma. The town maintained its importance during medieval times as it protected the most important crossing of the Euphrates in northern Syria. The crossing at Zeugma was no longer used, and the traffic all went to Birecik instead. Zeugma's population had probably also moved to Birecik as well. Al-bira had been under control by the Muslim Arabs from 637 until 1079 when it

850-497: The Gaziantep Formation contain a distinct karstic limestone member. This limestone member was deposited in a shallow marine environment during Eocene-Oligocene times. Karstic springs have formed in these deposits. The transition between this unit and the rest of the Gaziantep Formation is not always clearly discernible. The closest areas to Birecik where this unit is visible are at Kalazan Dağı, Arat Dağı, and

900-475: The Gaziantep Formation, and it stands without supports. Vertical wells were dug at several points along the qanat's course so they could access the water. Water flows through the qanat at a rate of approximately 20 liters per second. Birecik Castle (in Turkish: Birecik Kalesi ) is built on a clayey limestone hill that belongs to the Gaziantep Formation. Rockfall caused by erosion of

950-717: The Ottoman shipyard at Birecik is in June 1547, when an Arab merchant from Basra named Hajji Fayat reported to the Portuguese governor in Hormuz about it. Hajji Fayat specifically referred to the abundance of timber as one of the reasons why the "large and well-populated" town of Birecik was such an advantageous shipbuilding location. Around that time, the Birecik shipyard employed 45 tax-exempt workers. The first documented order for ship construction at Birecik dates from July 1552, when

1000-847: The account by Zosimus of the invasion of Mesopotamia by Roman Emperor Julian in AD 363. The Greeks at one stage called what is now Birecik by the name Macedonopolis (anglicized also as Makedonoupolis ). The city represented by bishops at the First Council of Nicaea and the Council of Chalcedon is called by this name in Latin and Greek records, but Birtha in Syriac texts. A 6 AD inscription in Syriac found at Birecik contains an epitaph of Zarbian, "commander of Birtha". Ancient Birtha grew when

1050-744: The acts of the First Council of Nicaea in 325 as bishop of Macedonopolis, The chronicle of Michael the Syrian speaks of a Daniel of Birtha at the Council of Chalcedon in 451, while Giovanni Domenico Mansi calls him bishop of Macedonopolis. The Chronicle of Joshua the Stylite tells of a Bishop Sergius of Birtha who was entrusted by the Emperor Anastasius I Dicorus with refortifying the city, something that must have occurred after peace

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1100-506: The ancient city of Carchemish (known as Europos to the Greeks) became abandoned; this had happened by the middle of the 4th century. Another possible impetus for Birtha's growth was when the Romans withdrew their legion from Zeugma after a Persian attack in the mid-3rd century; some of Zeugma's inhabitants may have moved to Birtha at that point. Although Birtha served as a crossing point on

1150-684: The area, although there are some minor streams such as the Kerzin Çayı (located about 8 km south of Birecik), Hamomin Dere, Yedigöz Dere, and Pırpar Dere. The lowest geological layer in the Birecik area is the Gaziantep Formation , which dates to Eocene through Oligocene times. Large exposed outcroppings of formation this exist around Birecik and along the Euphrates. It consists of gray, soft to medium-hard chalky limestone, marl , clayey limestone, and limestone. The upper levels of

1200-566: The beginning of the third millennium BC. More than 300 graves were excavated here in 1997 and 1998. The site was discovered during the building of the Birecik Dam as part of the GAP project . The cemetery was used between 3100-2600 BC. Early archaeological inspection in the Birecik area was done in 1894 by J.E. Gauiter. Later, in 1946, K. Kökten conducted a survey of the area and found traces of Middle Paleolithic occupation. Another survey

1250-410: The crossing at Birecik/Birtha may therefore be what the 1911 publication said "was used from time immemorial in the passage from North Syria to Haran (Charrae), Edessa and North Mesopotamia, and was second in importance only to that at Thapsacus, by which crossed the route to Babylon and South Mesopotamia." The placing of Apamea-Zeugma further upstream and the identification of Birecik with Roman Birtha

1300-533: The damage and ordered significant rebuilding of the walls. Birecik became part of the Ottoman Empire in 1516. It already had a dock at the time that was collecting tolls; the income from the tolls rose dramatically after Suleiman the Magnificent 's campaign to conquer Baghdad in 1534 (see table). Meanwhile, by 1547 the Ottomans had chosen to make Birecik the site of a major imperial shipyard –

1350-586: The empire's first in Mesopotamia. Birecik's geography made it uniquely well-suited to play such a role: by the time it reaches Birecik, the Euphrates has already descended from the Taurus foothills, and the rest of its course consists of gentle slopes and wide valleys. In contrast, the Tigris has a steeper gradient at the same latitude, hindering navigation by larger ships. Towns on the upper Tigris like Diyarbakır or Cizre would have therefore been less suitable for

1400-530: The heights to the west of ancient Zeugma . Above the Gaziantep Formation is a basalt formation which covers a large area between Birecik and Suruç . This basalt formation was formed from basalt flows during Pliocene times. By this time, the Birecik area was no longer underwater – during the Middle and Late Miocene , tectonic activity had uplifted the region above sea level. Major basalt outcroppings exist at Arat Dağı, Karadağ, and north of Suruç. To

1450-519: The hill has happened in some areas. The castle itself is built out of limestone quarried from Kalazan Dağı to the northwest. As an episcopal see , Birtha was a suffragan of the metropolitan see of Edessa , the capital of the Roman province of Osrhoene . This is attested in a Notitia Episcopatuum of 599, which assigns to it the first place among the suffragans. The names of three of its bishops are recorded in extant documents. Mareas signed

1500-409: The identification with Apamea and its Zeugma (the word zeugma meant junction and referred to a junction of roads at a point where a pontoon bridge crossed a river) is false: Bali, some 17 kilometres upstream is now seen as the site of Zeugma, and there may have been no bridge of boats at Birtha/Birecik until the crossings at Zeugma and at Tell-Ahmar (further down) lost popularity. These, rather than

1550-406: The jail, were pulled down and rebuilt in the new town. The old town of Halfeti is only partially submerged and is now a local tourist attraction, especially for ferry trips to visit the ruins of the nearby fortress of Rumkale . The countryside is also attractive, although the green valley of the past is now underwater. Opposite Halfeti stood the village of Kale Meydanı, which was also submerged, but

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1600-579: The large landowners house was taken and reconstructed in the grounds of Harran University . There are 49 neighbourhoods in Halfeti District, each headed by a muhtar : In the 31 March 2019 local elections , the candidate of the Justice and Development Party (AKP), Şeref Albayrak, was elected mayor with 54.92% of the votes. His first rival Peoples' Democratic Party 's candidate Abdurrahman Çiftçi obtained 37.56% of votes. The current Kaymakam

1650-488: The materials to Basra instead and assemble the galliots there. The governor in Basra received the materials that summer. Later, as part of an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to reconquer Baghdad in 1629, the Ottoman vizier Hüsrev Pasha ordered 100 new ships to be built at Birecik. Birecik was the scene of an unusually cruel massacre and persecution of Armenians in 1895. Birecik Dam and hydroelectric power plant, part of

1700-744: The mosaics that would otherwise be inundated by the dam. The mosaics that were excavated were initially stored at the Gaziantep Museum , and are nowadays displayed at the Zeugma Mosaic Museum . Zeugma has been on the UNESCO World Heritage Site tentative list since 2012. Extant archaeological remains at the site include "the Hellenistic Agora, the Roman Agora, two sanctuaries, the stadium,

1750-445: The rest being Turks. He further mentioned that Birejik was an ethnic and linguistic border, because to the east lived Kurdish tribes, to the west Turks-Turkmens, and to the south Arab tribes. In his travels, Julius Heinrich Petermann observed that the north and northeastern sides of the town were inhabited by Kurds, who partly lived in rock caves, while further south lived Turks and some Armenians. Historically, Birecik's urban fabric

1800-583: The site where he had the first bridge over the Euphrates built. In 64 BC, the Roman Republic gained control of the city. Zeugma was of great importance to the Roman Empire as it was located at a strategically important place. Up to 70,000 people lived in the city, and it became a center for the military and commerce for the ancient Romans . In 253 AD, it was destroyed by the Sassanids , but

1850-655: The stream, where it follows that course after coming from a long reach flowing more from the west". The historical name of the town, al-Bīra in Arabic and Bīreh in Syriac, derives from the Aramaic Bīrthā , meaning fortress. It later evolved to Birecik with the addition of the Turkish diminutive suffix, cik . It is called Belejik amongst the local population. In Ottoman times, the historical forms Bi'retü'l-Fırat , Biğrecik , and Biğrecek are also attested. Birecik

1900-514: The theatre, two bathhouses, the Roman legionary base, administrative structures of the Roman legion, the majority of the residential quarters, Hellenistic and Roman city walls, and the East, South and West necropoles." Three large glass mosaics were discovered at Zeugma in 2014, including one depicting the nine Muses . The Zeugma Mosaic Museum attracted a record 340,569 visitors in 2019, according to

1950-453: The water is not known – locals believe it comes from Arat Dağı, but a survey by Gürpinar et al was unable to verify this. Gürpinar et al guessed that the ultimate source for the water is the karstic reservoir in the limestone member of the Gaziantep Formation. The main tunnel of the qanat is about 1.5 m in diameter and about 2-10 m below the surface. Its course is dug in a thick and relatively soft layer of rock that forms part of

2000-421: The west of the Euphrates, there are also fluvial terraces . Birecik has a semi-arid climate ( Köppen : BSh ), which borders a mediterranean climate . The average annual temperature in Birecik is 18.2 °C (64.8 °F), and average annual precipitation is 354 millimetres (13.9 in). Birecik Dam Cemetery is an Early Bronze Age cemetery near Birecik. It was used extensively for about 500 years at

2050-578: Was already stated in the American Journal of Archaeology in 1917; and William Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854) clearly identified Birtha with Birecik, although at another point it seems to confuse it with " the Zeugma of Commagene" , the province on the right/west bank of the river. The name "Birtha" is found in no ancient Greek or Roman writer, although Bithra ( Greek : Βίθρα ) (probably meant for "Birtha") appears in

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2100-774: Was conquered by the Seljuk Turk warlord Tutush but at some point afterwards it was taken by the Armenians . When the First Crusade arrived in the region, the town was under control of the Armenian Ablgharib , who was a vassal to the Armenian ruler Kogh Vasil . Matthew of Edessa states that the army of Ablgharib numbered 1,000 and that he was eventually removed by the Franks. Matthew's account of this

2150-458: Was done in 1989 by a team headed by G. Algaze. Among the sites first identified by the Algaze survey were Akarçay Tepe and Mezraa Teleilat , which are two of the oldest known settlements in the Euphrates basin. In 1998, with the pending construction of a dam, excavations were done on sites that would be inundated once the dam was completed. More Middle Paleolithic findings were encountered by

2200-476: Was flooded during construction of the Birecik Dam . With only a fraction of the site excavated, archaeologists feared that many mosaics would be permanently lost. After reading about it in The New York Times , and with only few months left, American philanthropist David W. Packard donated USD 5 million to fund an emergency excavation of the archaeological site, allowing archaeologists to preserve

2250-524: Was later captured by the Mamluks under Baybars c. 1261. They repaired its castle in 1277-78 and again in 1300-01. Under the Mamluks, Birecik was one of the most important fortified garrisons in the region. A post route ran directly between Birecik and Aleppo. There was little traffic between Birecik and Rum Kale , another important stronghold located a bit to the north. Like Rum Kale, Birecik

2300-620: Was later rebuilt. In late antiquity , Zeugma was a diocese of the early Roman church , but the place seems to have been abandoned in the 7th century due to Sassanid Persian and then Arab raids by the Umayyad Caliphate . Arabs lived there temporarily in the Middle Ages . By the 17th century the Ottoman Turkish village of Belkis was built near the ruins. Initially the site was excavated sporadically, but in 2000,

2350-478: Was made up of stone houses. The stone used in these houses was mostly derived from two sources. The first is limestone quarried from Kalazan Dağı, northwest of the city. This stone, which was also used to build other historical buildings in Birecik, is derived from the upper limestone member of the Gaziantep Formation and is resistant to weathering. Four old quarries at Kalazan Dağı have been identified. The other type main type, used particularly in later times,

2400-526: Was made with the Persians in 504. The work was completed by Justinian . No longer a residential bishopric, Birtha is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see . Zeugma (Commagene) Zeugma ( ‹See Tfd› Greek : Ζεῦγμα ; Syriac : ܙܘܓܡܐ ) was an ancient Hellenistic era Greek and then Roman city of Commagene ; located in modern Gaziantep Province , Turkey . It

2450-535: Was named for the bridge of boats , or zeugma , that crossed the Euphrates at that location. Zeugma Mosaic Museum contains mosaics from the site, and is one of the largest mosaic museums in the world. Zeugma was founded in the early 3rd century BC as the city of Seleucia by Seleucus I Nicator , a Diadochus (successor) to Alexander the Great and Macedonian founder of the Seleucid Kingdom , on

2500-514: Was not directly located on the frontier itself, but its value to the Mamluks was as a strong fallback position in case their border territories (in Bireci'ks case, Urfa ) fell to the Mongols. Birecik wasn't very important commercially until the end of the 1300s, when some commercial traffic between Aleppo and Upper Mesopotamia began to follow the Birecik-Urfa route. It was unsuccessfully besieged by

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