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104-488: Halide Edib Adıvar ( Ottoman Turkish : خالده اديب [hɑːliˈde eˈdib] , sometimes spelled Halidé Edib in English; 11 June 1884 – 9 January 1964) was a Turkish novelist, teacher, and a nationalist and feminist intellectual. She was best known for her novels criticizing the low social status of Turkish women and what she saw from her observation as the lack of interest of most women in changing their situation. She

208-487: A Shi'ite . Maronites derive their name from Maron , a 4th-century Syriac Christian saint venerated by multiple Christian traditions. He is often conflated with John Maron , the first Maronite Patriarch, who ruled 685-707. The cultural and linguistic heritage of the Lebanese people is a blend of many peoples that have come to rule the land over the course of thousands of years. In a 2013 interview, Pierre Zalloua ,

312-550: A Syriac Christian , going on to explain that to him and many Lebanese the "acceptance" of Lebanon's "Arab identity" according to the Taef Agreement was not something that they "accepted" but instead were forced into signing through pressure. The official declared "Arab Identity" of Lebanon was created in 1990 based on the Taif Agreement, without any free discussion or debate among Lebanese people and while Lebanon

416-568: A news agency . They concurred on the name " Anadolu Ajansı ". During the Greco-Turkish War she was granted the ranks of first corporal and then sergeant in the nationalist army. She traveled to the fronts, worked in the headquarters of İsmet Pasha , Commander of the Western Front and wrote her impressions of the scorched earth policy of the invading Hellenic Army and the atrocities committed against Turkish civilians by

520-671: A Greek school in Constantinople. She attended the American College for Girls briefly in 1893. In 1897, she translated Mother by Jacob Abbott , for which the sultan awarded her the Order of Charity (Şefkat Nişanı) . She attended the American College again from 1899 to 1901, when she graduated. Her father's house was a center of intellectual activity in Constantinople and even as a child Halide Edib participated in

624-661: A Lebanese biologist who took part in the National Geographic Society 's Genographic Project , pointed out that genetic variation preceded religious variation and divisions: "Lebanon already had well-differentiated communities with their own genetic peculiarities, but not significant differences, and religions came as layers of paint on top. There is no distinct pattern that shows that one community carries significantly more Phoenician than another." Although Christianity existed in Roman Phoenice since

728-409: A Persian or Arabic active or passive participle to a neuter verb, to do ( ایتمك etmek ) or to become ( اولمق olmaq ). For example, note the following two verbs: Below table shows some sample conjugations of these two verbs. The conjugation of the verb "etmek" isn't straightforward, because the root of the verb ends in a [t]. This sound transforms into a [d] when followed by a vowel sound. This

832-483: A dialect of Aramaic called Syriac . Syriac remains the liturgical language of the Maronite Church. Phoenicianism is an identity on the part of Lebanese Christians that has developed into an integrated ideology led by key thinkers, but there are a few who have stood out more than others: Charles Corm , Michel Chiha , and Said Aql in their promotion of Phoenicianism . In post civil-war Lebanon since

936-676: A document but would use the native Turkish word bal ( بال ) when buying it. The transliteration system of the İslâm Ansiklopedisi has become a de facto standard in Oriental studies for the transliteration of Ottoman Turkish texts. In transcription , the New Redhouse, Karl Steuerwald, and Ferit Devellioğlu dictionaries have become standard. Another transliteration system is the Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft (DMG), which provides

1040-777: A key role in the establishment of Greater Lebanon by the French Mandate. With only two exceptions, all Lebanese presidents have been Maronites as part of a tradition that persists as part of the National Pact , by which the Prime Minister has historically been a Sunni Muslim and the Speaker of the National Assembly has historically been a Shia Muslim . A unique feature of the Lebanese system

1144-927: A more security-minded view of Lebanon. They regarded the national project as mainly a program for the security of Maronites and a bulwark against threats from Muslims and their hinterland. The right-wing yet secular Guardians of the Cedars , with its exiled Leader and founder Etienne Saqr (also the father of singers Karol Sakr and Pascale Sakr ) took no sectarian stance and even had Muslim members who joined in their radical stance against Arabism and Palestinian forces in Lebanon . Saqr summarized his party's view on Arab Identity in their official ideological manifesto by stating Lebanon will remain, as always, Lebanese without any labels. The French passed through it yet it remained Lebanese. The Ottomans ruled it and it remained Lebanese. The stinky winds of Arabism blow through it, but

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1248-541: A negative verb, and a positive complex verb expressing ability. In Turkish, complex verbs can be constructed by adding a variety of suffixes to the base root of a verb. The two verbs are یازممق yazmamaq (not to write) and سوه‌بلمك sevebilmek (to be able to love). Another common category of verbs in Turkish (more common in Ottoman Turkish than in modern Turkish), is compound verbs. This consists of adding

1352-477: A possessive pronoun if needed, and copula وار var , followed by the 3rd person singular form of the verb 'to do: ایتمك etmek attached as a suffix (or separate as a stanadalone verb); as conjugated in the above section. The verbs 'not to exist' and 'not to have' are created in the exact same manner and conjugation, except that the copula یوق yok is used. Turkish being an agglutinative language as opposed to an analytical one (generally), means that from

1456-438: A purposeful exclusion of Arabism in the segment. The speech met with applause afterward from the audience; What we are missing today is an important element of our life and our honor, which is our identity. I will tell you today, that I as a Lebanese citizen , my identity is Maronite , Syriac Christian , and Lebanese ( Arabic : مارونية سريانية مسيحية لبنانية mārūniyya, suryāniyya masīḥiyya, lubnāniyya). Etienne Sakr , of

1560-411: A single root verb, with the addition of a variety of morphemes and suffixes, multiple new and different verbs meanings can be expressed in single but larger words. Below table is a sample from the verb تپمك tepmek meaning 'to kick', whose root (which is also 2nd person imperative) is تپ tep . Each of the produced new verbs below can be made into an infinitive with the addition of ـمك -mek at

1664-654: A transliteration system for any Turkic language written in Arabic script. There are few differences between the İA and the DMG systems. Maronite Maronites ( Arabic : الموارنة , romanized :  Al-Mawārinah ; Syriac : ܡܖ̈ܘܢܝܐ , romanized :  Marunoye ) are a Syriac Christian ethnoreligious group group native to the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant whose members belong to

1768-430: A vowel, when it comes to taking case suffixes, a letter - ـنـ [n] comes after the possessive suffix. For singular endings, the final vowel ی is removed in all instances. For plural endings, if the letter succeeding the additional - ـنـ [n] is a vowel, the final vowel ی is kept; otherwise it is removed (note the respective examples for kitaplarını versus kitaplarından ). Examples below : Below table shows

1872-588: Is a Christian-based political party of Maronite majority and former militia. it currently holds 4 of the 128 seats in parliament, all of which are Christian. As a militia , it played a pivotal role during the Lebanese Civil War as it controlled its own Maronite canton (Marounistan) as part of the Lebanese Front . The party is also led by the Gemayel family , a notable Maronite family based in

1976-530: Is not different from the grammar of modern Turkish .The focus of this section is on the Ottoman orthography; the conventions surrounding how the orthography interacted and dealt with grammatical morphemes related to conjugations, cases, pronouns, etc. Table below lists nouns with a variety of phonological features that come into play when taking case suffixes. The table includes a typical singular and plural noun, containing back and front vowels, words that end with

2080-424: Is reflected in conventions of Ottoman orthography as well. In Turkish, there is a verb representing to be , but it is a defective verb. It doesn't have an infinitive or several other tenses. It is usually a suffix. Negative verb to be is created with the use of the word دگل değil , followed by the appropriate conjugation of the to be verb; or optionally used as a standalone for 3rd person. Generally,

2184-469: Is the latter's abandonment of compound word formation according to Arabic and Persian grammar rules. The usage of such phrases still exists in modern Turkish but only to a very limited extent and usually in specialist contexts ; for example, the Persian genitive construction takdîr-i ilâhî (which reads literally as "the preordaining of the divine" and translates as "divine dispensation" or "destiny")

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2288-503: Is the predecessor of modern Turkish. However, the standard Turkish of today is essentially Türkiye Türkçesi (Turkish of Turkey) as written in the Latin alphabet and with an abundance of neologisms added, which means there are now far fewer loan words from other languages, and Ottoman Turkish was not instantly transformed into the Turkish of today. At first, it was only the script that was changed, and while some households continued to use

2392-644: Is the principle of "confessional distribution": all religious community has an allotted number of deputies in the Parliament. Thirty-four seats in parliament are reserved for Maronites. The largest party is the Lebanese Forces that receives most of its support from the Maronite Christians but it also supported by other Christian sects throughout the country. It currently has 19 seats in parliament, 11 of them being Maronite. The Phalange Party

2496-519: Is used, as opposed to the normative modern Turkish construction, ilâhî takdîr (literally, "divine preordaining"). In 2014, Turkey's Education Council decided that Ottoman Turkish should be taught in Islamic high schools and as an elective in other schools, a decision backed by President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan , who said the language should be taught in schools so younger generations do not lose touch with their cultural heritage. Most Ottoman Turkish

2600-751: The Annuario Pontificio , in 2020 the Eparchy of San Charbel in Buenos Aires , Argentina, had 750,000 members; in 2021 the Eparchy of Our Lady of Lebanon of São Paulo , Brazil, had 521,000 members; in 2020 the Eparchy of Saint Maron of Sydney , Australia, had 161,370 members; in 2020 the Eparchy of Saint Maron of Montreal , Canada, had 94,300 members; in 2021 the Eparchy of Our Lady of the Martyrs of Lebanon in Mexico had 167,190 members; in 2021

2704-557: The American and Canadian schools for Native American children that were forcibly assimilated and often abused. He wrote that Edip showed a strong hatred of Armenians in her writings, portraying them as "a mythical and existential enemy of the Ottomans" and even made claims of blood libel and child cannibalism similar to those in anti-Semitism . She also claimed a conspiracy to turn Turkish children into Armenians, "thus also turning

2808-773: The Arab identity instead. This conflict of ideas of identity is believed to be one of the pivotal disputes between the Muslim and Christian populations of Lebanon and what mainly divides the country to the detriment of national unity. In general it appears that Muslims focus more on the Arab identity of the Lebanese history and culture whereas the Christian communities–especially the Maronites, focus on their history and struggles as an ethnoreligious group as distinct from Arab identity and

2912-683: The Archeparchy of Aleppo , 15,000 in the Archeparchy of Damascus and 45,000 in the Eparchy of Lattaquié ). In 2015, the BBC placed the number of Maronites in Syria at between 28,000 and 60,000. Maronites first migrated to Cyprus in the 8th century, and there are approximately 5,800 Maronites on the island today, the vast majority in the Republic of Cyprus . The community historically spoke Cypriot Maronite Arabic , but today Cypriot Maronites speak

3016-617: The Eparchy of Our Lady of Lebanon of Los Angeles in the United States had 47,480 members; in 2020 and the Eparchy of Saint Maron of Brooklyn in the United States had 23,939 members. According to the Annuario Pontificio , 51,520 people belonged to the Maronite Catholic Eparchy of Our Lady of Lebanon of Paris in 2021. In Europe, some Belgian Maronites are involved in the trade of diamonds in

3120-774: The Greek Army in Western Anatolia in her book The Turkish Ordeal . As a result of her husband Adnan Adıvar's participation in the establishment of the Progressive Republican Party, the family moved away from the ruling elite. When the one-party period started in 1926 with the Progressive Republican Party's abolition and the approval of the Law of Reconciliation, she and her husband were accused of treason and escaped to Europe. They lived in France and

3224-803: The Greek language , with the Cypriot government designating Cypriot Maronite Arabic as a dialect. A Maronite community of about 11,000 people lives in Israel. The 2017 Annuario Pontificio reported that 10,000 people belonged to the Maronite Catholic Archeparchy of Haifa and the Holy Land and 504 people belonged to the Exarchate of Jerusalem and Palestine . [REDACTED] Catholicism portal According to various sources

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3328-761: The Guardians of the Cedars Lebanese party, in an interview responded "We are not Arabs" to an interview question about the Guardians of the Cedars' ideology of Lebanon being Lebanese. He continued by talking about how describing Lebanon as being not Arab was a crime in present-day Lebanon, about the Lebanese Civil War, and about Arabism as being a first step towards Islamism, claiming that "the Arabs want to annex Lebanon" and in order to do this "to push

3432-579: The Lebanese Druze during the 1860 conflict. According to some estimates about 11,000 Lebanese Christians (including Maronites) were killed; over 4,000 died from hunger and disease as a result of the war. After the 1860 massacres, many Maronites fled to Egypt. Antonios Bachaalany, a Maronite from Salima (Baabda district) was the first emigrant to the New World, where he reached the United States in 1854 and died there two years later. According to

3536-500: The Marada Movement , National Liberal Party and Independence Movement . People born into Christian families or clans who have either Aramaic or Maronite cultural heritage are considered an ethnicity separate from Israeli Arabs and since 2014 can register themselves as Arameans. The Christians who have applied so far for recognition as Aramean are mostly Galilean Maronites . In addition, some 500 Christian adherents of

3640-577: The Maronite Church . The largest concentration has traditionally resided near Mount Lebanon in modern Lebanon . The Maronite Church is an Eastern Catholic sui iuris particular church in full communion with the pope and the rest of the Catholic Church . The Maronites derive their name from Saint Maron , a Syriac Christian whose followers migrated to the area of Mount Lebanon from their previous place of residence around

3744-672: The Phoenician legacy of the Lebanese people and has promoted the use of the Lebanese dialect written in a modified Latin alphabet , rather than the Arabic one , although both alphabets have descended from the Phoenician alphabet. In opposition to such views, Arabism was affirmed at the March 1936 Congress of the Coast and Four Districts, when the Muslim leadership at the conference made

3848-591: The Taif agreement , politically Phoenicianism is restricted to a small group. Among leaders of the movement, Said Akl and Etienne Saqr have been notable names, some going as far as voicing anti-Arab views. In his book the Israeli writer Mordechai Nisan , who at times met with some of them during the war, quoted Said Akl , a famous Lebanese poet and philosopher, as saying; "I would cut off my right hand, and not associate myself to an Arab." Akl believes in emphasizing

3952-718: The Turkish Hearths (Türk Ocağı) in 1911 and became the first female member in 1912. She was also a founder of the Elevation of Women ( Taali-i Nisvan ) organization. She became a friend of the Armenian priest and musician Komitas between 1913 and 1914. Komitas was invited to sing at her house several times. While Halide Edib was friendly towards him in person, in her writings she described Komitas and his music as "Anatolian" instead of Armenian. She claimed that his music had been stolen from Turks and that he "simply turned

4056-696: The Turkish National Movement . On the road to Ankara she met with Yunus Nadi Abalıoğlu , another journalist who had decided to join the Turkish National Movement. In a meeting at the train station in Geyve, on 31 March 1920, they agreed on the importance of informing the international public opinion about the developments regarding the Turkish War of Independence and decided to help the national struggle by establishing

4160-683: The Vakit newspaper condemning the massacres: "We slaughtered the innocent Armenian population ... We tried to extinguish the Armenians through methods that belong to the medieval times". From 1919 to 1920 she was among the contributors of Büyük Mecmua , a weekly established to support the Turkish independence war. After the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I, Allied forces occupied Constantinople and various other regions of

4264-765: The diamond district of Antwerp . According to the Annuario Pontificio , 74,900 belonged to the Apostolic Exarchate of West and Central Africa ( Nigeria ) in 2020. The Diocese is centered in Ibadan , Nigeria and covers the countries of Angola , Benin , Burkina Faso , Cameroon , Central African Republic , Chad , Republic of the Congo , Democratic Republic of the Congo , Côte d'Ivoire , Equatorial Guinea , Gabon , Gambia , Ghana , Guinea , Guinea-Bissau , Liberia , Mali , Mauritania , Niger . Senegal , Sierra Leone and Togo . In 1920, Maronites played

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4368-538: The extended Latin alphabet . The changes were meant to encourage the growth of a new variety of written Turkish that more closely reflected the spoken vernacular and to foster a new variety of spoken Turkish that reinforced Turkey's new national identity as being a post-Ottoman state . See the list of replaced loanwords in Turkish for more examples of Ottoman Turkish words and their modern Turkish counterparts. Two examples of Arabic and two of Persian loanwords are found below. Historically speaking, Ottoman Turkish

4472-448: The 17th century, the Maronites had developed a strong natural liking for Europe – particularly France. The relationship between the Druze and Christians has been characterized by harmony and peaceful coexistence , with amicable relations between the two groups prevailing throughout history, with the exception of some periods, including 1860 Mount Lebanon civil war . In the 19th century, thousands of Maronites were massacred by

4576-403: The 19th century. While Maronites identify primarily as native Lebanese of Maronite origin, many identify as Arab Christians . Others identify as descendants of Phoenicians . Some Maronites argue that they are of Mardaite ancestry, while other historians, such as Clement Joseph David, the Syriac Catholic Archbishop of Damascus , reject this. Mass emigration to the Americas at the outset of

4680-405: The 20th century, famine during World War I that killed an estimated one third to one half of the population, the 1860 Mount Lebanon conflict and the Lebanese Civil War between 1975 and 1990 greatly decreased their numbers in the Levant; however Maronites today form more than one quarter of the total population of modern-day Lebanon. Though concentrated in Lebanon, Maronites also show presence in

4784-481: The Adonis River the Abraham River after Saint Abraham preached there. The early Maronites were Hellenized Semites, natives of Byzantine Syria who spoke Greek and Syriac , yet identified with the Greek-speaking populace of Constantinople and Antioch. They were able to maintain an independent status in Mount Lebanon and its coastline after the Muslim conquest of the Levant , keeping their Christian religion, and even their distinct Lebanese Aramaic as late as

4888-480: The Arab world, while also reaffirming the Lebanese identity, as well as refraining from Arab characterization as it would deny them their striving achievement of having fended off the Arabs and Turks physically, culturally, and spiritually since their conception. The Maronite perseverance led to their existence even to today. Lebanese Maronites are known to be specifically linked to the root of Lebanese Nationalism and opposition to Pan-Arabism in Lebanon, this being

4992-409: The Arabic system in private, most of the Turkish population was illiterate at the time, making the switch to the Latin alphabet much easier. Then, loan words were taken out, and new words fitting the growing amount of technology were introduced. Until the 1960s, Ottoman Turkish was at least partially intelligible with the Turkish of that day. One major difference between Ottoman Turkish and modern Turkish

5096-452: The Aramean Christian Foundation in Israel, led by IDF Major Shadi Khalloul Risho and the Israeli Christian Recruitment Forum, headed by Father Gabriel Naddaf of the Greek-Orthodox Church and Major Ihab Shlayan. Shadi Khalloul Risho is also a member of the Israeli right-wing Yisrael Beiteinu party, and was placed 15th in the 2015 parliamentary elections in the party's member list; the party however received only 5 seats. The followers of

5200-436: The Armenian genocide became widely known, the Association attempted to rename the scholarship; however, as of 2021 the name remains because the association's board had not yet obtained the consent of the donor who sponsors the Halide Edip Adıvar scholarships. Ottoman Turkish language Historically, Ottoman Turkish was transformed in three eras: In 1928, following the fall of the Ottoman Empire after World War I and

5304-427: The Assyrian Patriarch of the Church of the East , Awa III proclaiming: We affirm that we are one Syriac people, rooted in the beloved East and we form its essential constituents, despite our number and the variety of our apostolic traditions. Our witness to our Christian faith in general, and to our Syriac identity in particular, is a constant source of concern for us. Therefore, we took the time to deepen our role in

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5408-430: The Christians out (of Lebanon)", this being "the plan since 1975", among other issues. On 16 December 2022, at the Syriac Orthodox Patriarchal Residence in Atchaneh, Lebanon, the Syriac Orthodox Patriarch , Ignatius Aphrem II issued a joint statement with the Maronite Patriarch , Bechara Boutros al-Rahi , the Syriac Catholic Patriarch , Ignatius Joseph III Yonan , the Chaldean Patriarch , Louis Raphaël I Sako and

5512-477: The East and to find ways to activate it and strengthen it. We discussed the available means of supporting our people to remain in the homeland which was baptized with the blood of our forefathers and ancestors. In this regard, we have renewed our firm resolve to continue our fatherly ministry to our people in order to help them remain in their countries and to stop the migrations caused by the current conflicts and political, economic, and social difficult conditions that

5616-399: The Maronite Church form a part of the Syriac Christians and belong to the West Syriac Rite . The Maronite Syriac Church of Antioch traces its foundation to Maron , an early 4th-century Syriac monk venerated as a saint. Before the conquest by Arabian Muslims reached Lebanon, the Lebanese people , including those who would become Muslim and the majority who would remain Christian, spoke

5720-451: The Maronite church, there were approximately 1,062,000 Maronites in Lebanon in 1994, where they constitute up to 32% of the population. Under the terms of the National Pact agreement between the various political and religious leaders of Lebanon, the president of the country must be a Maronite Christian. There is also a small Maronite Christian community in Syria. In 2017, the Annuario Pontificio reported that 3,300 people belonged to

5824-425: The Maronite diaspora is estimated to be somewhere between 7 and 12 million individuals, much larger than the Maronite population living in their historic homelands in Lebanon, Syria, Cyprus, Israel, and Palestine. Due to cultural and religious assimilation, especially in the Americas , many Maronites or those of Maronite descent might not identify as Maronite or are unaware of their Maronite heritage. According to

5928-399: The Maronites by the Byzantines. Following the Byzantine persecutions in the Orontes valley, many Maronite monks left their lands in the Orontes Valley and took refuge in the mountains of Lebanon. The Maronite community migrated since the mid 7th century and through the 8th century, moving from the Orontes Valley in central Syria to Mount Lebanon , becoming the majority of the Christians in

6032-474: The Persian character of its Arabic borrowings with other Turkic languages that had even less interaction with Arabic, such as Tatar , Bashkir , and Uyghur . From the early ages of the Ottoman Empire, borrowings from Arabic and Persian were so abundant that original Turkish words were hard to find. In Ottoman, one may find whole passages in Arabic and Persian incorporated into the text. It was however not only extensive loaning of words, but along with them much of

6136-412: The Phoenician inhabitants of the coastal lines and mountains of Lebanon, introducing them to the way of Saint Maron. In 451 AD, the Maronites followed the Council of Chalcedon , rejecting both monophysitism and miaphysitisim in favor of maintaining full communion with the then united Catholic Church. In 517 AD, a Chalcedonian conflict resulted in the massacre of 350 Maronite monks. Some sources detail

6240-420: The Syriac Catholic Church in Israel are expected to apply for the recreated ethnic status, as well as several hundred Aramaic-speaking adherents of the Syriac Orthodox Church. Though supported by Gabriel Naddaf , the move was condemned by the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate, which described it as "an attempt to divide the Palestinian minority in Israel". This recognition comes after about seven years of activity by

6344-410: The United Kingdom from 1926 to 1939. Halide Edib traveled widely, teaching and lecturing repeatedly in the United States and in India . She collected her impressions of India as a British colony in her book Inside India . She returned to Turkey in 1939, becoming a professor in English literature at the Faculty of Letters in Istanbul . In 1950, she was elected to Parliament , resigning in 1954; this

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6448-471: The accusations leveled against her for her work at Antoura back toward the Armenians themselves". Watenpaugh writes of her: Modernizing Turkey and defending its Muslim elite against Western criticism are key elements of Halide Edip's life's work, but her reluctance to protect Armenian children or even voice empathy for them as victims of genocide shows a basic lack of human compassion. For Halide Edip questions of social distinction and religion placed limits upon

6552-437: The area consisting of those regions extending from Sidon in the South and up to Batroun and the south of Tripoli in the north. The Arab conquerors settled in various cities of the coast to reduce Byzantine interference even though they were not interested in maritime trade. Since the mountains offered no attraction to them, the Christians continued to settle in the Mountains of Lebanon. The Christians that chose to remain in

6656-500: The area of Antioch , and established the nucleus of the Maronite Church. Christianity in Lebanon has a long and continuous history. The spread of Christianity in Lebanon was very slow where paganism persisted, especially in the mountaintop strongholds of Mount Lebanon. During the 5th century AD, Saint Maron sent Abraham of Cyrrhus , often referred to as the Apostle of Lebanon, to convert the still significant pagan population of Lebanon to Christianity . The area's inhabitants renamed

6760-463: The asserted universal nature of humanity; for her, genocide had not been too high a price to pay for Turkish progress, modernity, and nationalism. Despite her role in the orphanages in Antoura, Halide Edib expressed her sympathies with the Armenians regarding the bloodshed and drew the rage of the Committee of Union and Progress members inciting them to call for her punishment. Talat Pasha refused to administer any and said that "She serves her country in

6864-596: The case during 1958 Lebanon crisis . Muslim Arab nationalists backed by Gamel Abdel Nasser tried to overthrow the then Maronite dominated government in power, due to displeasure at the government's pro-western policies and their lack of commitment and duty to the so-called "Arab brotherhood" by preferring to keep Lebanon away from the Arab League and the political confrontations of the Middle East. A more hard-nosed nationalism among some Maronites leaders, who saw Lebanese nationalism more in terms of its confessional roots and failed to be carried away by Chiha's vision, clung to

6968-441: The catholic church". The Maronites have also had a presence in Cyprus since the early 9th century and many Maronites went there following the Sultan Saladin 's successful Siege of Jerusalem in 1187 AD. During the papacy of Pope Gregory XIII (1572-1585), steps were taken to bring the Maronites still closer to Rome. The Maronite College in Rome ( Pontificio Collegio dei Maroniti ) being founded by Gregory XIII in 1584. By

7072-1056: The course of the Armenian genocide and under the direction of Halide Edib Adıvar and Djemal Pasha , about 1,000 Armenian and 200 Kurdish children were "Turkified" at the Collège Saint Joseph. Halide Edip's account of her inspectorship emphasizes her humanitarian efforts and her struggles to come to terms with the violence of the situation. However an American witness for The New York Times , describing her as "this little woman who so often boasts of her American ideals of womanhood and of which her Western friends make so much", accused Halide Edip of "calmly planning with [Cemal Pasha] forms of human tortures for Armenian mothers and young women" and taking on "the task of making Turks of their orphaned children." Robert Fisk wrote that Halide Edip "helped to run this orphanage of terror in which Armenian children were systematically deprived of their Armenian identity and given new Turkish names, forced to become Muslims and beaten savagely if they were heard to speak Armenian". Karnig Panian, author of Goodbye, Antoura ,

7176-549: The declaration that Lebanon was an Arab country, indistinguishable from its Arab neighbors. In the April 1936 Beirut municipal elections, Christian and Muslim politicians were divided along Phoenician and Arab lines in the matter of whether the Lebanese coast should be claimed by Syria or given to Lebanon, increasing the already mounting tensions between the two communities. Phoenicianism is still disputed by many Arabist scholars who have on occasion tried to convince its adherents to abandon their claims as false, and to embrace and accept

7280-467: The education ministry hired her to reform girls' schools in Constantinople. She worked with Nakiye Hanım on curriculum and pedagogy changes and also taught pedagogy, ethics, and history in various schools. She resigned over a disagreement with the ministry concerning mosque schools. She received a divorce from Salih Zeki in 1910. Her house became an intellectual salon, especially for those interested in new concepts of Turkishness. She became involved with

7384-443: The empire. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk began organizing resistance to the occupation, and Edib gained a reputation in Istanbul as a "firebrand and a dangerous agitator." She was one of the main figures of the empire to give speeches to thousands of people protesting the occupation of Smyrna by Greek forces during the Sultanahmet demonstrations . Edib eventually left Constantinople and moved to Anatolia together with her husband to join

7488-417: The end. Ottoman Turkish was highly influenced by Arabic and Persian. Arabic and Persian words in the language accounted for up to 88% of its vocabulary. As in most other Turkic and foreign languages of Islamic communities, the Arabic borrowings were borrowed through Persian, not through direct exposure of Ottoman Turkish to Arabic, a fact that is evidenced by the typically Persian phonological mutation of

7592-488: The establishment of the Republic of Turkey , widespread language reforms (a part in the greater framework of Atatürk's Reforms ) instituted by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk saw the replacement of many Persian and Arabic origin loanwords in the language with their Turkish equivalents. One of the main supporters of the reform was the Turkish nationalist Ziya Gökalp . It also saw the replacement of the Perso-Arabic script with

7696-422: The grammatical systems of Persian and Arabic. In a social and pragmatic sense, there were (at least) three variants of Ottoman Turkish: A person would use each of the varieties above for different purposes, with the fasih variant being the most heavily suffused with Arabic and Persian words and kaba the least. For example, a scribe would use the Arabic asel ( عسل ) to refer to honey when writing

7800-498: The hills around Tripoli and Byblos by the 10th century. The Maronites managed then to become "civilly semiautonomous" where they settled and kept speaking Lebanese Aramaic in daily life and Classical Syriac for their liturgy. The Maronites welcomed the conquering Christians of the First Crusade in 1096 AD. Around the late 12th century, according to William of Tyre , the Maronites numbered 40,000 people. During

7904-460: The intellectual and religious activities. Very few Roman temples were built in the coastal cities, hence the reason for the reign of paganism in the interior of the land. The Maronite movement reached Lebanon when in 402 AD Saint Maron's first disciple, Abraham of Cyrrhus , who was called the Apostle of Lebanon, realized that there were many non-Christians in Lebanon and so he set out to convert

8008-439: The intellectual life of the city. After graduating, she married the mathematician and astronomer Salih Zeki Bey , with whom she had two sons. She continued her intellectual activities, however, and in 1908 began writing articles on education and on the status of women for Tevfik Fikret 's newspaper Tanin and the women's journal Demet . She published her first novel, Seviye Talip , in 1909. Because of her articles on education,

8112-470: The issue of identity was brought up on several occasions, by various politicians including Druze leader Walid Jumblatt , who claimed that all Lebanese lack somewhat of a real identity and the country is yet to discover one everybody could agree on. Sami Gemayel , of the Gemayel clan and son of former president Amin Gemayel , stated he did not consider himself an Arab but instead identified himself as

8216-510: The latter of which (William Tyre) recorded both their kindness upon receiving him and the monothelitic views of which they recanted, stating; "The heresy of Maro and his followers is and was that in our Lord Jesus Christ, there exists and did exist from the beginning one will and one energy only, as may be learned from the sixth council, which as is well known, was assembled against them and in which they suffered sentence of condemnation. Now however...they repented all of these heresies and returned to

8320-433: The letter ه ـه ([a] or [e]), both back and front vowels, word that ends in a ت ([t]) sound, and word that ends in either ق or ك ([k]). These words are to serve as references, to observe orthographic conventions: Table below shows the suffixes for creating possessed nouns. Each of these possessed nouns, in turn, take case suffixes as shown above. For third person (singular and plural) possessed nouns, that end in

8424-776: The massacre was exacted under the orders of Monophysite Emperor Anastasius I, while others assign the responsibility to the Miaphysite Jacobite Syriacs. Following the Muslim conquest of the Levant in 637 AD, the Christians living in the low lands and coastal cities began to settle in the Mount Lebanon and to the coastal cities of the coast which did not particularly interest the Muslim Arabs;

8528-597: The neighboring Levant , as well as a significant part in the Lebanese diaspora in the Americas, Europe, Australia, and Africa. The Maronite Church, under the patriarch of Antioch , has branches in nearly all countries where Maronite Christian communities live, in both the Levant and the Lebanese diaspora . The Maronites and the Druze founded modern Lebanon in Ottoman Lebanon in the early 18th century, through

8632-474: The newly Arab-controlled areas and inhabited by the Arab invaders gradually became a minority and many of those converted to Islam in order to escape taxation and to further their own political and professional advancement. In 685 AD, St. John Maron became the first Patriarch of the Maronite Church. The appointing of a Patriarch made the Byzantine Emperor furious, which led to the persecution of

8736-399: The positive conjugation for two sample verbs آچمق açmak (to open) and سولمك sevilmek (to be loved). The first verb is the active verb, and the other has been modified to form a passive verb. The first contains back vowels, the second front vowels; both containing non-rounded vowels (which also impacts pronounciation and modern Latin orthograhpy). Below table shows the conjugation of

8840-598: The problems of the day in a manner which charms one not so much on account of what she says, but because it is so different from what one expected". Halide Edib died on 9 January 1964 in Istanbul. She was laid to rest at the Merkezefendi Cemetery in Istanbul. Starting in the 1970s, the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association awarded students a Halide Edip Adıvar scholarship. After Adıvar's involvement in

8944-451: The regions of Achrafieh and Metn which carries the legacy of Pierre and Bashir Gemayel . The Free Patriotic Movement is Christian-based political party which follows the agenda of former president Michel Aoun . It currently holds 17 seats of the 128 seats in Lebanon's parliament. The party has large support in Christian districts like Batroun and Jezzine . Other smaller Maronite-based parties that only receive local support includes,

9048-432: The rites prescribed by Islamic law and tradition ... Not a word of Armenian or Kurdish was allowed. The teachers and overseers were carefully trained to impress Turkish ideas and customs upon the lives of the children and to catechize them regularly on ... the prestige of the Turkish race. Professor of Human Rights Studies Keith David Watenpaugh compared the treatment of non-Turkish orphans by Halide Edip and Djemal Pasha to

9152-500: The ruling and social system known as the "Maronite-Druze dualism" in the Ottoman Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate . All Lebanese presidents , with the exception of Charles Debbas and Petro Trad , have been Maronites as part of a continued tradition of the National Pact , by which the prime minister has historically been a Sunni Muslim and the speaker of the National Assembly has historically been

9256-547: The several centuries of separation from the rest of the Christian world, they often claim to have been in full communion with the Catholic Church throughout. Despite this the majority of the accounts of those interacting with them at the time indicate that they were monothelites ; notable figures from the era such as the medieval historian Jacques de Vitry and the chronicler of the Pope, William of Tyre affirming this,

9360-462: The time of the Apostles, Christians were a minority among the majority pagans by the time Emperor Theodosius I issued The Edict of Thessalonica in 380 AD. The coastal cities of Tyre and Sidon remained prosperous during Roman rule, but Phoenicia had ceased to be the maritime empire it once was centuries ago and the north of Berytus ( Beirut ) and the mountains of Lebanon concentrated a big part of

9464-404: The verbs 'to exist' and 'to have' are expressed using what's called an existential copula , the word وار var . The verb 'to have' is expressed in the same way, except that the object noun will take a possessive pronoun, producing sentences that will literally mean "there exists house of mine". The verbs 'to exist' and 'to have' conjugated for other tenses, are expressed in the same way, with

9568-530: The way she believes. Let her speak her mind; she is sincere." A U.S. High Commissioner refers to her as a "chauvinist" and someone who is "trying to rehabilitate Turkey." On the other hand, German historian Hilmar Kaiser says: "And even if you're a Turkish nationalist , that doesn't make you a killer. There were people who were famous Turkish nationalists like Halide Edip; she advocated assimilation of Armenians, but she very strongly opposed any kind of murder." On 21 October 1918, Halide Edip then wrote an article in

9672-516: The wind will wither away and Lebanon will remain Lebanese. I do not know what will become of those wretched people who claim that Lebanon is Arabic when Arabism disappears from the map of the Middle East and a new Middle East would emerge, which is clean from Arabs and Arabism . On an Al Jazeera special dedicated to the political Christian clans of Lebanon and their struggle for power in the 2009 election entitled, "Lebanon: The Family Business",

9776-429: The words into Armenian". In addition, she believed that his parents were "probably of Turkish descent" and that "he was an Armenian nationalist whether his origin was Turkish or Armenian, but in temperament and heart he was a real Anatolian Turk if unconsciously." She married again in 1917 to Dr. Adnan (later Adıvar) and the next year took a job as a lecturer in literature at Istanbul University 's Faculty of Letters . It

9880-476: The words of Arabic origin. The conservation of archaic phonological features of the Arabic borrowings furthermore suggests that Arabic-incorporated Persian was absorbed into pre-Ottoman Turkic at an early stage, when the speakers were still located to the north-east of Persia , prior to the westward migration of the Islamic Turkic tribes. An additional argument for this is that Ottoman Turkish shares

9984-586: The wrongdoers of the day. They beat us with the falakha [a rod used to beat the soles of the feet], and the top-rank punishment was for speaking Armenian. Emile Joppin, the head priest at the Saint Joseph College in Antoura , wrote in a 1947 school magazine: The Armenian orphans were Islamicised, circumcised and given new Arab or Turkish names. Their new names always kept the initials of the names in which they were baptised. Thus Haroutioun Nadjarian

10088-808: Was a Pan-Turkist and several of her novels advocated for the Turanism movement. Halide Edib Adıvar is also remembered for her role in the forced assimilation of children orphaned during the Armenian genocide . Halide Edib was born in Constantinople ( Istanbul ), Ottoman Empire to an upper-class family. Her father was a secretary of the Ottoman sultan Abdul Hamid II . Halide Edib was educated at home by private tutors from whom she learned European and Ottoman literature, religion, philosophy, sociology, piano playing, English, French, and Arabic . She learned Greek from her neighbors and from briefly attending

10192-420: Was a six-year-old Armenian genocide survivor at the orphanage in 1916. Panian's name was changed to the number 551. He witnessed children that resisted Turkification being punished with beatings and starvation: At every sunset in the presence of over 1,000 orphans, when the Turkish flag was lowered, 'Long Live General Pasha!' was recited. That was the first part of the ceremony. Then it was time for punishment for

10296-644: Was during this time that she became increasingly active in Turkey's nationalist movement, influenced by the ideas of Ziya Gökalp . In 1916–1917, she acted as Ottoman inspector for schools in Damascus , Beirut and the Collège Saint Joseph in Aintoura , Mount Lebanon . The students at these schools included hundreds of Armenian , Arab , Assyrian , Maronite , Kurdish , and Turkish orphans. In

10400-661: Was first serialized in Yedigün magazine between 12 August and 21 October 1936. She was a Pan-Turkist and promoted Turanism in several of her novels. Her book entitled Yeni Turan (New Turan) calls for the unification of Turkic peoples in Central Asia and the Caucasus under an empire led by Turkey. A contemporary described her as "a slight, tiny little person, with masses of auburn hair and large, expressive Oriental eyes, she has opinions on most subjects, and discusses

10504-435: Was given the name Hamed Nazih, Boghos Merdanian became Bekir Mohamed, to Sarkis Safarian was given the name Safouad Sulieman. In a 1918 report, American Red Cross officer Major Stephen Trowbridge, met with surviving orphans and reported: Every vestige, and as far as possible every memory, of the children's Armenian or Kurdish origin was to be done away with. Turkish names were assigned and the children were compelled to undergo

10608-519: Was the only formal political position she ever held. Common themes in Halide Edib's novels were strong, independent female characters who succeeded in reaching their goals against strong opposition. She was also a fervent Turkish nationalist, and several stories highlight the role of women in Turkish independence. She also published a thriller novel, Yolpalas Cinayeti (Murder in Yolpalas), which

10712-417: Was under Syrian custody and in the presence of armed Syrian military inside the Lebanese parliament when votes on constitutional amendments were taking place. In a speech in 2009 to a crowd of Christian Kataeb supporters Gemayel declared that he felt there was importance in Christians in Lebanon finding an identity and went on to state what he finds identification with as a Lebanese Christian, concluding with

10816-515: Was written in the Ottoman Turkish alphabet ( Ottoman Turkish : الفبا , romanized :  elifbâ ), a variant of the Perso-Arabic script . The Armenian , Greek and Rashi script of Hebrew were sometimes used by Armenians, Greeks and Jews. (See Karamanli Turkish , a dialect of Ottoman written in the Greek script; Armeno-Turkish alphabet ) The actual grammar of Ottoman Turkish

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