Misplaced Pages

#260739

114-645: Langsdorff was born on 20 March 1894 in Bergen, Germany on the island of Rügen . He was the eldest son in a family with legal and religious traditions rather than a naval tradition. In 1898, the family moved to Düsseldorf, where they were neighbours of the family of Graf (Count) Maximilian von Spee , who was to become a German naval hero (while losing his life) at the Battle of the Falkland Islands in 1914. Influenced by his honoured neighbours, Langsdorff entered

228-601: A German invasion was only a potential risk, whereas British dominance of the Argentine economy was a reality. A diplomatic mission by the British Lord Willingdon arranged commercial treaties whereby Argentina sent thousands of cattle to Britain at no charge, decorated with the Argentine colours and with the phrase "good luck" written on them. El Pampero and FORJA criticised this arrangement, with Arturo Jauretche and Homero Manzi proclaiming "these are

342-415: A challenging and controversial re-election campaign for an unprecedented third term in office . To make things worse, on 12 May 1940, the Argentine proposal was leaked to the press, and was published nationwide by Argentine daily newspaper La Nación , leading to much confusion in the country, and outrage among nationalist groups, who demanded Ortiz's resignation. On 13 May, the Argentine government issued

456-587: A clean fashion, giving the opposition UCR a majority in Congress. This policy of democratic restoration would soon put the administration of Ortiz at odds with the more conservative factions of his own ruling Concordancia party, including conservative vice-president Ramón Castillo. The opposition Radical Civic Union , in turn, was divided between FORJA, a political grouping that consisted of hardline supporters of deposed UCR president Hipólito Yrigoyen (who died in 1933) and opposed any form of cooperation with

570-456: A communique acknowledging the existence of the proposal, and on 18 May another communique was issued, clarifying that Argentina would continue to observe the "most strict neutrality" in the conflict. The leak of this proposal at an early stage of the conflict, together with the perceived diplomatic snub, severely weakened the position of the Ortiz administration and of pro- Allied factions within

684-701: A critically effective 8-inch shell into Spee, destroying steam boilers needed to operate the ship's fuel cleaning system. Langsdorff learned that he had 16 hours of pre-cleaned fuel in his ready tanks—with no hope of replacement or repairs to the system at sea. After this engagement, Langsdorff and the British Commodore Harwood decided to break off the action, Langsdorff heading for the neutral port of Montevideo in Uruguay to make repairs. The Uruguayan authorities followed international treaties and, although granting an extra 72 hours stay over

798-532: A handful of military leaders actually supported Adolf Hitler , and pro-Axis positions were a minority, their true influence inside the army remains difficult to ascertain, as their advocates generally disguised themselves and adopted nationalist arguments. Meanwhile, the Communist Party aligned itself with the diplomatic policies of the Soviet Union. As a result, it supported neutrality and opposed

912-511: A local dynasty, the Rugard burgh became an administrative centre. With Danish rule, the principality became Christian and subject to German immigration in the course of the Ostsiedlung . While the Rugard stronghold included a suburbium already, the town of Bergen was erected on the neighbouring hilltop and not within the ramparts of the Rugard, that today are preserved in a park north of

1026-503: A long tradition of neutrality regarding European wars, which had been upheld and defended by all major political parties since the 19th century. One of the main reasons for this policy was related to Argentina's economic position as one of the world's leading exporters of foodstuffs and agricultural products, to Europe in general and to the United Kingdom in particular. Relations between Britain and Argentina had been strong since

1140-477: A new appeal. Bergen has essentially good transport connections. This refers to travel on the island of Rügen and the national rail system . The road connection with the mainland, on the other hand, used to be very choked. In summer, the Rügen Causeway – the bridge that joins Rügen to the mainland at Stralsund often became a bottleneck. This has recently been alleviated by the new Strelasund Crossing –

1254-751: A newly created conservative party known as Concordancia , which was born as an alliance between the National Democratic Party , dissident sectors of the Radical Civic Union that had opposed Hipólito Yrigoyen , and the Independent Socialist Party . Still reeling from the aftermath of the Great Depression , the government of Agustín P. Justo at first undertook fiscally conservative economic policies, reducing public expenditure and restricting

SECTION 10

#1732764918261

1368-564: A number of interpretations for his reasons for staying neutral. One such perspective focuses on the Argentine tradition of neutrality. Others see Castillo as a nationalist, not being influenced by the power structure in Buenos Aires (since he was from Catamarca ), so that, with the support of the army, he could simply defy the pressure to join the Allies. A similar interpretation considers instead that Castillo simply had no power to go against

1482-522: A peace deal, thus winning the 1936 Nobel Peace Prize . In the aftermath of the 1930 military coup and the subsequent accusations of electoral fraud against Justo, political tensions in Argentina would remain high throughout the 1930s. On 5 April 1931, supporters of deposed president Yrigoyen won the elections for governor in the Province of Buenos Aires , but the government of Uriburu declared

1596-724: A pistol. His body was buried in the German section of the La Chacarita Cemetery in Buenos Aires , Argentina . Dudley Pope noted in his book The Battle of the River Plate that an Imperial naval ensign was the flag Langsdorf laid down upon when he shot himself. Raeder had forbidden politics in the navy. Admiral Lutjens had used the naval salute exclusively. Almost all of the officers of the Kriegsmarine at

1710-563: A process of import substitution industrialization , which had some antecedents during the Great Depression. This led to a process of internal migration as well, with people living in the countryside or in small villages moving to urban centers. At the beginning of the Second World War on 1 September 1939, the Argentine government proclaimed its neutrality in the conflict. On 3 September, the diplomatic representatives of

1824-624: A regional day school, the socio-cultural community centre/"multi-generational house" (NBZ Rotensee) and a special-needs school. Tetel is the smallest district in Bergen. It is located southeast of Bergen auf Rügen near Zittvitz. Three families live in Tetel. The oldest house is about 120 years old. The origin of the name stretches back to 1232 when there was a place on Rügen called Gora , a Slavic word for " mountain " ( Berg in German ) which came from

1938-571: A second crossing over the Strelasund with an expressway feeder. Individually, the road network serving Bergen is as follows. The B 96 reaches Bergen from Stralsund, where it connects with the B 105 which leads to Rostock . Bergen is also accessible by car by taking the ferry from Glewitz . In Bergen, the road further branches into the B 196, affording access to the island's eastern area, where there are bathing beaches . The B 96 itself leads further on to Sassnitz . Those who would rather forgo

2052-489: A secret organization called the United Officers' Group (GOU) to oust Castillo from power. Future president Juan Perón was a member of this group but did not support an early coup, recommending instead to postpone the overthrowing of the government until the plotters had developed a plan to make necessary reforms. The coup was to take place close to the elections, should the electoral fraud have been confirmed, but it

2166-614: A special commission integrated by representatives from each ministry, housed on the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and chaired by a delegate from this ministry. On 13 December 1939, the Battle of the River Plate took place. During this battle, the German pocket battleship Admiral Graf Spee was severely damaged by British ships on the waters of the River Plate estuary. Cornered, the German captain Hans Langsdorff ordered

2280-507: A team of negotiators to London. As a result of these negotiations, on 1 May 1933, the bilateral treaty known as the Roca-Runciman Treaty was signed between Argentina and the United Kingdom, which guaranteed Argentina a beef export quota that was equivalent to the levels sold in 1932, in exchange for Argentina reducing tariffs on almost 350 British goods to 1930 rates and to refrain from imposing duties on coal, strengthening

2394-654: A thousand people being detained. Seriously ill, Yrigoyen was returned to Buenos Aires and kept under house arrest. He died on 3 June, and his burial in La Recoleta Cemetery was the occasion of a mass demonstration. In December, during a meeting of the national convention of the UCR , a joint uprising by the military and politicians broke loose in Santa Fe , Rosario , and Paso de los Libres . José Benjamin Abalos, who

SECTION 20

#1732764918261

2508-609: Is built on a glacial moraine deposited when the ice sheets retreated during the last ice age . Not far from central Bergen, to the northeast, is the Kleiner Jasmunder Bodden , a shallow bay, and to the southeast lies another bay, the Greifswalder Bodden , and with the town of Putbus . South of the town is the Kiebitzmoor ("Peewit Moor") and to the northwest is the lake of Nonnensee which

2622-530: Is considered the end of the Infamous Decade and the starting point of the self-styled Revolution of '43 . Arturo Rawson took power as de facto president. The nature of the coup was confusing during its first days: German embassy officials burned their documentation fearing a pro-Allied coup, while the United States embassy considered it a pro-Axis coup. Rawson met with a delegate from

2736-530: Is located in one of the carefully restored buildings of the former abbey. The exhibition covers the following: Argentina during World War II The history of Argentina during World War II was a complex period that began in 1939 , after the outbreak of the war in Europe , and ended in 1945 with the surrender of the Empire of Japan. Before the start of World War II in 1939, Argentina had maintained

2850-696: Is said to have claimed that Buenos Aires could be completely destroyed by the Brazilian Air Force, allowing Argentina to be dominated without the open intervention of the United States, who would support Brazil by providing ships and bombs. The Liberation of Paris in August 1944 gave new hopes to the pro-Allied factions in Argentina, who saw it as an omen of the possible fall of the Argentine government and called for new elections. The demonstrations in support of Paris soon turned into protests against

2964-584: The European Allies . In April 1940, Foreign Affairs Minister Cantilo made a visit to United States ambassador Normal Armour , presenting the Argentine proposal for the United States, Argentina and other Latin American states to join the war together as non-belligerent parties. However, the Argentine proposal suffered from bad timing, as then U.S. President, Franklin Roosevelt , was in the midst of

3078-645: The Falkland Islands , but was never put into operation. On the other hand, the newspaper El Pampero , financed by the German embassy, actively supported Hitler. Within the Argentine Army , Germanophile sentiments were strong among many officers, an influence that predated both world wars, having been steadily growing since 1904. Generally, it did not involve a rejection of democracy but rather an admiration of German military history , which combined with an intense Argentine nationalism influenced

3192-481: The Federal Republic , the town has undergone a number of marked changes. The population dwindled from its former level of almost 20,000 to 16,500. Many prefabricated concrete structures , common in the former Warsaw Pact countries, were modernized and adapted to new demands. In addition, a few schools were closed and new hotels built. Historical downtown was completely renovated and decorated, giving it

3306-482: The Hague Conventions and avoided killing anyone; his humane treatment won the respect of the ships' officers detained as his prisoners. On the morning of 13 December 1939 Langsdorff's lookouts reported sighting a British cruiser and two destroyers. Admiral Graf Spee now suffered engine fatigue that reduced her top speed to 23kn. After Langsdorff had committed his ship to the attack it became apparent that

3420-649: The Polabian language spoken by the Rani (or Rujani), a Slavic people who once inhabited the area. The Roskilde Register ( Roeskilder Matrikel ) of 1294 mentioned the place as Villa Berghe . In 1278 it was called Berghe , in 1302 Bergh in Ruya and in 1306 Berghen . In 1314 it was mentioned in the records as villa montis . On 6 November 1995, it was renamed from Bergen/Rügen to Bergen auf Rügen. Bergen's history goes back over one thousand years. The first settlements on

3534-503: The Prussian Province of Pomerania . The first industrial enterprises were established in 1823 and 1853, when leather factories set up shop here. In 1883, the first trains reached Bergen station on the railway from Altefähr . In 1890, the dairy began operations and the following year, the post office was built by the marketplace. When in 1898 and 1899, the waterworks and the power station came into operation, and

Hans Langsdorff - Misplaced Pages Continue

3648-571: The UCR party, vowing that the UCR would once again take part in elections and to continue the fight against fraudulent practices. That same year, once again amid accusations of fraud, the Justo administration managed to secure the victory of its candidate Manuel Fresco for governor of the Province of Buenos Aires , but it could not avoid the UCR victory of Amadeo Sabattini for governor in Córdoba , despite bloody incidents that aimed at disrupting

3762-614: The end of World War II in Europe , two German U-boats, U-977 and U-530 (then sailing in Europe), decided to flee to Argentina rather than surrender to the Allies. The subs reached Mar del Plata , Buenos Aires Province respectively on 17 August 1945 and 10 July 1945, and Argentina quickly handed them over to the American military after first summoning US and British Royal Navy experts for interrogating them and examining their logs. During World War II, 4,000 Argentines served with all three British armed services , even though Argentina

3876-550: The first truly free presidential elections in the country. As a result of these electoral changes, Hipólito Yrigoyen , leader of the centrist Radical Civic Union (UCR), was elected President of Argentina . Under the successive administrations of presidents Hipólito Yrigoyen (1916–1922) and Marcelo Torcuato de Alvear (1922–1928), Argentina continued the trend of strong economic growth and democratic consolidation that had begun under previous administrations, matching countries such as Canada or Australia in per capita income, while

3990-521: The 1920s and 1930s, had taken measures to protect the meat supply market in the Commonwealth . At the 1932 Imperial Conference negotiations in Ottawa , bowing to pressure, mainly from Australia and South Africa, Britain had decided to severely curtail imports of Argentine beef . The plan provoked an immediate outcry in Buenos Aires , and the Argentine government dispatched Vice-president Roca and

4104-478: The Allies to generate a continent-wide resistance to the Axis . But the government of Castillo, through foreign minister Enrique Ruiz Guiñazu , opposed the American proposal. From that moment onwards, relations between both countries worsened, and American pressure for Argentine entry into the war began to increase. Castillo did, however, declare a state of emergency after the attack on Pearl Harbor. Castillo's term

4218-566: The Argentine government, intensifying nationalist sentiment and opposition to Ortiz in military circles. From the beginning of his administration, Ortiz had been suffering from diabetes, and his health continued to deteriorate throughout his presidency. By 3 July 1940, after only two years in office, Ortiz had lost much of his eyesight , and thus he requested a temporary leave of absence from his duties as president, being replaced by conservative Vice-president Ramón S. Castillo , who became acting president. During Castillo's tenure, stances towards

4332-561: The Axis powers were blacklisted and boycotted, and the supply of newsprint was limited to pro-Allied newspapers. American exports of electronic appliances, chemical substances and oil production infrastructure were halted. The properties of forty-four Argentine companies were seized, and scheduled loans were halted. Hull wanted to weaken the Argentine government or force its resignation. Torn between diplomatic and economic pressure as opposed to an open declaration of war against Argentina, he opted for

4446-474: The British embassy on 5 June and promised to break relations with the Axis powers and declare war within 72 hours. This turn of events enraged the United Officers' Group , as did Rawson's choices for his cabinet. A new coup took place, replacing Rawson with Pedro Pablo Ramírez . Thus, Rawson became the shortest non-interim president in Argentine history. One of the first measures of the new Ramírez government

4560-591: The British influence in Argentina during the early stages of the war, in line with the Treaty of Non-Aggression between Germany and the Soviet Union . The launching of Operation Barbarossa and the consequent Soviet entry in the war changed that attitude. Some Trotskyists promoted the fight against the Third Reich as an early step of an international class struggle . As for the Castillo administration, there are

4674-586: The Communist Party to Perón and the new government. As a result, the Communist Party turned against the government, which it viewed as pro-Nazi. Perón countered complaints by declaring that "The excuses they seek are very well known. They say we are 'nazis', I declare we are as far from Nazism as from any other foreign ideology. We are only Argentines and want, above all, the common good for Argentines. We do not want any more electoral fraud , nor more lies. We do not want that those who do not work live from those who do". The government held diplomatic discussions with

Hans Langsdorff - Misplaced Pages Continue

4788-547: The FORJA faction led by Dellepiane and Del Mazo had drifted away from the organization and rejoined the UCR , while FORJA itself adopted more nationalistic and left-wing ideas , under the leadership of Arturo Jauretche . Nationalistic sectors of the army also promoted neutrality as a way to oppose the United Kingdom and its economic influence. Notably during this time, a plan was made by the Naval War College to invade

4902-785: The Junta Nacional de Carnes ( National Meat Board ), and, in 1935, creation of the Central Bank of the Argentine Republic , under the advice of economist Otto Niemeyer . In foreign policy, the most pressing issue of the Justo administration was the restoration of international trade, which had collapsed following the Great Depression . As a byproduct of Black Tuesday and the Wall Street Crash of 1929 , Great Britain, principal economic partner of Argentina in

5016-919: The Kiel Naval Academy against his parents' wishes in 1912. During the First World War , the then-Lieutenant Langsdorff received the Iron Cross 2nd Class at the Battle of Jutland in 1916, and subsequently worked in minesweepers for the rest of the war. He received the Iron Cross 1st Class sometime during the remainder of the war, but the exact date is unknown. In 1923, while posted to the navy office in Dresden, Langsdorff met Ruth Hager. The two were married in March 1924, with their son Johann being born on 14 December. In October 1925, Langsdorff

5130-579: The Ministry of War, fostered better relations between the state and the unions. As previously discussed, the Communist Party had aligned itself with the diplomatic policies of the Soviet Union. Following the launching of Operation Barbarossa and the consequent Soviet entry in the war, the Communists became pro-war and halted its support for further labour strikes against British factories located in Argentina. This switch redirected workers' support from

5244-488: The Ortiz government concluded that the worldwide nature of the conflict would eventually make neutrality untenable and impossible to maintain. Thus, Minister of Foreign Affairs José Maria Cantilo was tasked with drafting a proposal, under which Argentina, together with the United States and eventually other Latin American states, would join the Allies as "non-belligerent" states, offering economic and diplomatic support to

5358-607: The Reformation was introduced to Pomerania . Ownership of the monastery was transferred to the Pomeranian dukes . In 1613, Bergen was granted Lübeck law town rights. This is exceptional when compared with most other Pomeranian towns, which had already been granted town rights in the 13th century. After the Thirty Years' War , the town became Swedish as part of Swedish Pomerania in 1648. In 1815, it became part of

5472-630: The South Atlantic following the outbreak of the Second World War . For the first three weeks of the war, the ship hid in the open ocean east of Brazil while the German government determined how serious Britain was about the war. On 20 September 1939, Admiral Graf Spee was released to carry out her orders. Over the next 10 weeks, Langsdorff and Admiral Graf Spee were extremely successful, stopping and sinking nine British merchant ships, totalling over 50,000 tons. Langsdorff adhered to

5586-476: The United Kingdom and France informed the Argentine government that their countries had entered a state of war against Nazi Germany . Following the initial policies of other states in the Americas, the Ortiz government issued a decree on 4 September 1939, declaring Argentine neutrality in the conflict. To enforce the observance of neutrality, on 14 September 1939, Ortiz issued a second presidential decree, creating

5700-490: The United States itself or Brazil acting on their behalf. However, it would be unlikely that Germany would provide such weapons, given their fragile situation in 1944. Ramírez called a new meeting of the GOU, and it was agreed to break diplomatic relations with the Axis powers (albeit without yet a declaration of war) on 26 January 1944. The break in relations generated unrest within the military, and Ramírez considered removing both

5814-403: The United States to join the Allies . However, Argentina eventually gave in to the Allies' pressure, broke relations with the Axis powers on 26 January 1944, and declared war on 27 March 1945. In 1916, following the enactment of universal and secret male suffrage by conservative president Roque Saenz Peña , the voting franchise was expanded, and electoral transparency improved, leading to

SECTION 50

#1732764918261

5928-463: The United States, with Argentina requesting aircraft, fuel, ships and military hardware. The Argentine Minister of Foreign Affairs Segundo Storni argued that, although Argentina refrained from participating in the war, it remained closer to the Allies, sending them food, and that up to then the Axis powers had not taken action against the country to justify a declaration of war. The United States Secretary of State Cordell Hull replied that Argentina

6042-681: The abbey encouraged the first inn to be built in 1232. In 1325, Bergen, along with the Principality of Rügen, became part of the Duchy of Pomerania by inheritance. Until the 15th century, Bergen was under the monastery's administration. Fires, such as that in 1445, almost destroyed the entire town, the monastery and parts of the church. In 1534, after a decree by the Pomeranian Landtag in Treptow an der Rega (today Trzebiatów),

6156-415: The action. In the 1956 film The Battle of the River Plate , Langsdorff was played by Peter Finch . [REDACTED] Media related to Hans Langsdorff at Wikimedia Commons Bergen auf R%C3%BCgen Bergen auf Rügen is the capital of the former district of Rügen in the middle of the island of Rügen in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania , Germany . Since 1 January 2005, Bergen has moreover been

6270-447: The administrative seat of the Amt of Bergen auf Rügen, which with a population of over 23,000 is Mecklenburg-Vorpommern's most populous Amt . Bergen is in the middle of Germany's biggest island, Rügen , on the Baltic Sea coast. The town lies in a hilly area, with the Rugard woods on the town's northeast outskirts reaching a height of 91 m above sea level . The area around Bergen is predominantly agricultural . The town itself

6384-497: The beginning of what would be later called the Infamous Decade in Argentina. Supported by nationalistic sectors of the military , Uriburu tried to implement major changes to Argentine politics and government, banning political parties, suspending elections, and suspending the 1853 Constitution , with the aim to reorganizing Argentina along corporatist and fascist lines. However, Uriburu's policies would face widespread opposition from civil society and from conservative factions of

6498-402: The car may also reach Bergen by train. Already by the time the first stretches of railway were built on Rügen in 1883, trains were reaching the island from afar. The island's capital, Bergen, has always profited from this, as it lies right on the main transport arteries to the bathing resorts and the harbour at Mukran (Sassnitz). All parts of the island of Rügen can also be reached from Bergen by

6612-408: The circulation of currency in an attempt to strengthen the public coffers. However, as in other countries during this period, Keynesian ideas were eventually implemented, and more emphasis was placed on public works and infrastructure, resulting in the creation of the National Office of Public Highways, expansion of the road network, creation of the Junta Nacional de Granos ( National Grain Board ) and

6726-429: The commercial ties between Argentina and Britain and ensuring a trade surplus during the turmoil of the Great Depression , but drawing ire from nationalistic sectors and several opposition senators, including the denunciations of liberal Senator Lisandro de la Torre , who claimed that Britain received the most benefits from the treaty. Ratified by the Argentine Senate , the Roca-Runciman Treaty lasted three years and

6840-483: The country than his own idealistic perspective of keeping a neutral stance to the end of the war. A few days later, on 10 April, the United Kingdom, France, the United States, and the other Latin American countries restored diplomatic relations with Argentina. Still, diplomatic hostility against Argentina from the United States resurfaced after the unexpected death of Roosevelt, who was succeeded by Harry S. Truman . Ambassador Spruille Braden would organize opposition to

6954-424: The country, and organized political meetings and protests, propaganda posters, leaflets, and even direct actions attempting to expose Nazi activity in the country. On the side of those opposing entry into the war, FORJA was the only political party that supported neutrality throughout the war, seeing it as an opportunity to get rid of what they considered British meddling with the Argentine economy. Starting in 1940,

SECTION 60

#1732764918261

7068-452: The destroyers were in fact light cruisers ( HMS Ajax and HMS Achilles ) in addition to the heavy cruiser HMS Exeter . His ship outgunned all his opponents, having 11 inch (280 mm) main guns, to Exeter's 8 inch (200 mm) and Ajax and Achilles ’s 6 inch (150 mm) guns. Exeter was severely damaged and forced to withdraw; later she re-engaged and, further damaged and listing, again withdrew. But she had fired

7182-416: The election. Meanwhile, the province of Santa Fe , under the leadership of opposition Democratic Progressive Party governor Luciano Molinas, was the subject of a federal intervention by the national government. In 1937, presidential elections were to be held. Alvear , together with his running mate Enrique Mosca campaigned across the country, vowing that "not even fraud could defeat them". Meanwhile,

7296-412: The elections invalid. On December, facing uprisings by UCR supporters, Justo decreed a state of siege, and again imprisoned the old Yrigoyen , as well as Alvear , Ricardo Rojas , Honorio Pueyrredón , and other leading figures of the party. In 1933, attempted revolts continued. Buenos Aires , Corrientes , Entre Ríos , and Misiones would be the stage of UCR uprisings, which ended with more than

7410-598: The end of the war would force the country into isolationism at best or bring about a military attack from the soon to be victorious powers. Negotiations were eased by the departure of Hull as Secretary of State, replaced by Edward Stettinius Jr. , who demanded that Argentina hold free elections, declare war against the Axis powers, eradicate all Nazi presence in the country and give its complete cooperation to international organizations. Perón agreed, and German organizations were curtailed, pro-Nazi manifestations were banned, and German goods were seized. The Argentine merchant navy

7524-427: The fighting services of the Third Reich are ready to die for the honour of the flag. I alone bear the responsibility for scuttling the panzerschiff Admiral Graf Spee . I am happy to pay with my life for any possible reflection on the honour of the flag. I shall face my fate with firm faith in the cause and the future of the nation and of my Führer. After this he lay upon Graf Spee's battle ensign and shot himself with

7638-438: The former to avoid disrupting the supply of food to Britain. Nevertheless, he also saw the situation as a chance for the United States to have a greater influence over Argentina than Britain. The United States also threatened to accuse Argentina of being involved with the coup of Gualberto Villarroel in Bolivia, and a plot to receive weapons from Germany after the allied refusal, to face the possible threat of invasion either by

7752-399: The goods that are not being sent to our needy compatriots in the provinces". The situation changed dramatically after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and the subsequent American declaration of war upon Japan . During the Third Consultation Meeting of Foreign Ministers of the Americas ( 1942 Rio Conference ), the United States of America tried to get every Latin American country to join

7866-428: The government enacted social and economic reforms and extended assistance to small farms and businesses. However, beginning in 1928, the second administration of Hipólito Yrigoyen would face a crippling economic crisis, precipitated by the Great Depression . In 1930, Yrigoyen was ousted from power by the military led by José Félix Uriburu , in what became the first military coup in modern Argentine history, marking

7980-459: The government of Farrell and Perón. The final Axis defeat in the European Theatre of World War II took place a month later and was greeted with demonstrations of joy in Buenos Aires. Similar demonstrations took place in August, after the surrender of Japan , bringing World War II to its final end. Farrell lifted the state of emergency declared by Castillo after the 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor. In early May 1945, amid Germany's surrender at

8094-406: The government's change of position a year later. Jauretche reasoned that the United States opposed Argentina because of its perceived Nazism by refusing to declare war although neutrality was based instead on Argentine interests; which were no longer at stake with a declaration of war when the country would not actually join the conflict. Jauretche came to believe that Perón's pragmatism was better for

8208-470: The government, and the majoritarian faction of the UCR under the official leadership of Marcelo Torcuato de Alvear , who, while also remaining in opposition to the government, soon adopted a more conciliary tone to the Ortiz administration as a result of these changes. The two other major parties, the Socialist Party and the liberal Democratic Progressive Party would also remain in opposition to

8322-507: The government, leading to incidents with the police. It was rumored that some Argentine politicians in Uruguay would create a government in exile , but the project never came to fruition. President Franklin Roosevelt supported Hull's claims about Argentina with similar statements. He also cited Churchill when he stated that history would judge all nations for their role in the war, both belligerents and neutrals. By early 1945, World War II

8436-558: The government. Meanwhile, the Communist Party , also staunchly opposed to the government, initially followed a policy of courting the trade unions, and gave priority to supporting the international stance of the Soviet Union . Economically, recovery from the Great Depression had been underway since 1933, but the beginning of the war resulted in changes to the Argentine economy, as imports from Europe were reduced. Thus began

8550-426: The influential Farrell and Perón from the government. However, their faction discovered Ramírez's plan. They broke up the United Officers' Group , to avoid letting the military loyal to Ramírez know they were aware of his plot, and then initiated a coup against him. Edelmiro Julián Farrell became then the new president of Argentina on 24 February. The United States refused to recognise Farrell as long as he maintained

8664-534: The infrastructure that Bergen had at its disposal made it worthy of being the district seat. Four days before the end of the Second World War , undefended Bergen was occupied by the Red Army on 4 May 1945. After the German Democratic Republic ( East Germany ) was founded, the new government pressed ahead with further industrialization . In 1952, construction began on the industrial area on

8778-502: The kind gesture of support from President Roosevelt who sent one of the best ophthalmologists from the United States to provide treatment as well, Ortiz's health got progressively worse, until he finally lost his eyesight completely. On 27 June 1942 he would present his full resignation to the presidency, and vice-president Castillo took office as president to fulfill the remaining two years of his mandate. Only 18 days after his resignation, Ortiz died. Meanwhile, among civil society and

8892-537: The limit of Uruguayan territorial waters she stopped, and her crew was taken off by Argentine barges. Shortly thereafter, planted charges blew up Admiral Graf Spee and she settled into the shallow water (today she has settled in the mud and lies in 7–8 metres of water, depending on the tide). Langsdorff was taken to the Naval Hotel in Buenos Aires, where he wrote letters to his family and superiors. He wrote on 19 December 1939: I can now only prove by my death that

9006-453: The main political parties, support for Argentine intervention on the Allied side continued to grow and became widespread as the war progressed. The main pro-Allied advocacy organization was Acción Argentina , founded on 5 June 1940, from a proposal of the Socialist Party . The initial manifesto of Acción Argentina was drafted by former president Marcelo T. de Alvear , and leading members of

9120-545: The main stance of the army towards the war: maintaining neutrality . The arguments in favor ranged from support for the Argentine military tradition (as the country had been neutral during both World War I and the War of the Pacific ), to a rejection of foreign attempts to coerce Argentina into joining a war perceived as a conflict between foreign countries with no Argentine interests at stake, to outright Anglophobia . Though only

9234-542: The many buslines there. Until the 1960s, Bergen was also served by a local narrow gauge railway , the Rügen Light Railway , popularly known as Rasender Roland ("Racing Roland"), but the Deutsche Reichsbahn , which owned it at the time, shut all the lines in the central and northern parts of Rügen down at that time. Part of the system still runs, however. The museum of the town of Bergen

9348-542: The mid-19th century, due to the large volume of trade between both countries, the major presence of British investments particularly in railroads and banking, as well as British immigration , and the policy of neutrality had ensured the food supply of Britain during World War I against the German U-boat campaign . At the same time, British influence over the Argentine economy was resented by nationalistic groups, while German and Italian influence in Argentina

9462-463: The military, and only a year later, in 1931, he was forced to step down. Thus, in November 1931, the military government called for elections, but only after banning UCR candidates and organizing a system that was broadly recognized as fraudulent . It was under these conditions that General Agustín P. Justo was elected president. Elected on 8 November 1931, Agustín P. Justo was supported by

9576-452: The neutralist policy, which was ratified by Farrell on 2 March, and the United States broke relations with Argentina two days later. Winston Churchill complained about the harsh policy of the United States against Argentina, pointing out that Argentine supplies were vital to the British war effort and that removing their diplomatic presence from the country would even force Argentina to seek Axis protection. British diplomacy sought to guarantee

9690-444: The normal 24 hours, required that Admiral Graf Spee leave port by 20:00 on 17 December 1939 or else be interned for the duration of the war. Langsdorff sought orders from Berlin, and was given instructions that the ship was not to be interned in Uruguay (which was sympathetic to Britain), or to be allowed to fall into enemy hands, but he was given no directive as to what action to take. He therefore considered that he could try to take

9804-497: The opposite way that these had been used under Justo , intervening those provinces where governors had won by proven fraud (namely San Juan , Santiago del Estero , Catamarca and Buenos Aires ), while respecting the results and autonomy in those provinces with no irregularities, including those where elections had been won by the opposition UCR , such as the cases of Tucumán (October 1938 and March 1939) as well as Córdoba (March 1940). In 1940, legislative elections were held in

9918-490: The organization included major intellectuals, journalists, artists and politicians from a wide ideological spectrum, among them Alicia Moreau de Justo , Américo Ghioldi , José Aguirre Cámara, Mauricio Yadarola, Rodolfo Fitte, Rafael Pividal, Raúl C. Monsegur, Federico Pinedo, Jorge Bullrich, Alejandro Ceballos, Julio A. Noble, Victoria Ocampo , Emilio Ravignani , Nicolás Repetto , Mariano Villar Sáenz Peña and Juan Valmaggia. The organization grew to encompass 300 chapters across

10032-760: The present day territory of Bergen are, however, considerably older. During the Early Middle Ages, Rügen was settled by a Slavic tribe, the Rani who established a pagan worship site on Cape Arkona , defended by a fort, the Jaromarsburg . In the area of present-day Bergen, a castle was established on the Rugard hill. When the tribe was subdued by the Danes, who erected the Principality of Rügen ruled by

10146-562: The ruling Concordancia party, nominated lawyer Roberto M. Ortiz , from the dissident anti-Yrigoyen UCR faction, as presidential candidate, with conservative lawmaker Ramón Castillo , as his running mate. The 1937 presidential elections were held in September. Completely flouting on his promise, Justo kept his political and security forces busy on election day. Amid widespread reports of intimidation, ballot stuffing and voter roll tampering (whereby, according to one observer, "democracy

10260-466: The scuttling of the ship, while the crew were taken under custody and interned by Uruguayan and Argentine authorities. While under custody, Hans Langsdorff later committed suicide at the Immigrant's Hotel in Buenos Aires, while the crew was eventually released, a dozen of them taking residence in Argentina and Uruguay . In December 1939, partly as a consequence of the Battle of the River Plate ,

10374-473: The ship to the friendlier Buenos Aires in Argentina although it was thought that the channel was not sufficiently deep for the ship; he could take the ship out to sea to battle the British forces again (British propaganda was trying to persuade people that a large British force already lay in wait for him—though in fact it would not be able to arrive for five days); or he could scuttle his ship. He decided to scuttle, largely to spare his crew further casualties. At

10488-707: The start of the war had served in the Kaiserliche Marine. Hans Langsdorff's son, Joachim Langsdorff, also joined the German navy. He died while piloting a Biber midget submarine in December 1944. His craft was later recovered by the Royal Navy and is currently displayed at the Imperial War Museum in London. The town of Ajax, Ontario is named for HMS Ajax . In the municipality, one of

10602-567: The streets was named Langsdorff Drive in his honour. The naming was supported by the River Plate Veterans Association. The street received a naming ceremony, with Langsdorff's daughter, Inge and son-in-law in attendance. This name was changed in 2021 in response to public opposition. In 2020 the town of Ajax tried to honour Langsdorff and the Admiral Graf Spee by naming a street Graf Spee Crescent. This

10716-652: The supply of Argentine food by signing a treaty covering it, while US diplomatic policy sought to prevent such a treaty. Hull ordered the confiscation of Argentine goods in the United States, suspension of foreign trade with her, prohibited US ships from mooring at Argentine ports, and denounced Argentina as the "nazi headquarters in the Western hemisphere". According to historian Norberto Galasso , at this point Washington held talks with Brazil, exploring plans for military intervention. The Brazilian ambassador in Washington

10830-522: The town centre. Soon after the fall of the Jaromarsburg in 1168, construction started on St. Mary's as the palace church of the Rügen prince, Jaromar I . In 1193 the church, now consecrated and complete apart from the westwork, was turned into a Cistercian convent . Even today there is an unusual curiosity here: the clock face on the north side of the church tower shows 61 minutes. The foundation of

10944-425: The town cleaning department and other small companies are based. Rotensee is the second most populous district in Bergen and is situated in the west of the town. Just like Bergen Süd, Rotensee is made of plattenbau houses, built in the 1980s. Not until 2000 were the first houses renovated. Due to the declining population of the town, a number of houses were demolished or dismantled. Rotensee has two day care centres,

11058-504: The town's western outskirts. From 1953 to 1958, the dairy was established, which furnished 300 tonnes of milk daily. In 1955–1956 came the establishment of the VEB Brot- und Backwaren ( Bread and Baked Goods). In 1957–1958, the slaughterhouse and meat plant went into production. An efficient food industry was set up in Bergen, supplied from the island and parts of the mainland. Since Reunification and East Germany's accession into

11172-457: The war became more complex as the conflict developed. The main political parties, newspapers and intellectuals supported the Allies, yet Castillo maintained neutrality. Meanwhile, Ortiz was in leave of absence and unable to serve as president, but he did not resign from office. The position of Argentina vis-à-vis the war generated disputes between them, with Castillo often prevailing. Despite several treatments from Argentine ophthalmologists , and

11286-481: The wishes of the army, and if he declared war he would be deposed in a military coup . A third point of view considers that the United States was the sole promoter of Argentina's entry into the war, whereas the United Kingdom benefited from Argentine neutrality as it was a major supplier of beef and wheat. This, however, fails to acknowledge the Anglophile factions' constant requests to declare war. Most likely, it

11400-649: Was Yrigoyen's former Minister, and Colonel Roberto Bosch were arrested during the uprising and the organizers and leaders of the party were imprisoned at Martín García . Former President Marcelo Torcuato de Alvear was exiled by the government, while others were detained in the penitentiary in Ushuaia . In 1935, former president Alvear was allowed to return from exile as part of a gentlemen's agreement with Justo , with Alvear promising there would be no more violent rebellions in exchange for Justo promising an end to fraudulent elections. Thus Alvear took on leadership of

11514-501: Was a combination of the desires of the British diplomacy and the Argentine army, which prevailed over the pro-war factions. Socialist deputy Enrique Dickmann created a commission in the National Congress to investigate a rumored German attempt to seize Patagonia and then conquer the rest of the country. The conservative deputy Videla Dorna claimed that the real risk was a similar Communist invasion, and FORJA believed that

11628-460: Was also changed after the public became aware and brought it the attention of Ajax Mayor Shaun Collier. Collier put forward a motion to change this name, stating, "We did Langsdorff, which I did support ... This, I think, has crossed the line a little bit." Ajax is named after the Royal Navy cruiser involved in the Battle of the River Plate and many of its streets are named after people involved in

11742-495: Was due to end in 1944. Initially, it was arranged that Agustín Pedro Justo would run for president for a second time, but after his unexpected death in 1943 Castillo was forced to seek another candidate, finally settling on Robustiano Patrón Costas . The army, however, was neither willing to support the electoral fraud that would be necessary to secure Costas's victory, nor to continue conservative policies, nor to risk Costas breaking neutrality. A number of generals reacted by creating

11856-520: Was extended to the hereafter"), Ortiz won the elections handily. When the war began, Roberto María Ortiz was the President of Argentina . Despite winning the presidency in 1937 in a process that was widely recognized as fraudulent by both the government and the opposition, by 1939 the government of Ortiz had made democratic normalization a priority of its agenda. To achieve this aim, the Ortiz administration resorted to federal interventions, but in

11970-736: Was instead appointed to the Interior Ministry. In 1936 and 1937, while on board the new pocket battleship Admiral Graf Spee as part of the staff of Admiral Boehm , Langsdorff participated in the German support of the Nationalist side in the Spanish Civil War . On 1 January 1937, Langsdorff was promoted to captain. He received command of the Admiral Graf Spee in October 1938. On 21 August 1939, Admiral Graf Spee left port with orders to raid enemy commercial shipping in

12084-435: Was instead carried out earlier in response rumors of the possible sacking of the minister of war, Pedro Pablo Ramírez . It is not known for certain whether Patrón Costas would have maintained neutrality or not. But some declarations of support to Britain and his ties with pro-allied factions suggest that had he become president he would have declared war. The military coup that deposed Castillo took place on 4 June 1943. It

12198-445: Was instructed to ignore the German blockade. These measures eased relations with the United States. When the Allies advanced into Frankfurt , Argentina finally formalized the negotiations. On 27 March, per Decree 6945, Argentina declared war on Japan and, by extension, on Germany, an ally of Japan. FORJA, one of the main proponents of neutrality, distanced itself from the government, but eventually Arturo Jauretche would come to support

12312-411: Was nearing its end. The Red Army had captured Warsaw and was closing in on East Prussia, and Berlin itself was under attack. Allied victory was imminent. Perón, the strong man of the Argentine government, foresaw that the Allies would dominate international politics for decades and concluded that although Argentina had successfully resisted the pressure to force it to join the war, remaining neutral until

12426-643: Was posted to the Defence Ministry in Berlin to coordinate relations between the navy and the army. In 1927, he was posted to the command of a torpedo boat flotilla, and in April 1930 he was promoted to lieutenant commander. In 1931, he was recalled to Berlin, as his administrative abilities had become well-known and appreciated. Following the rise to power of the Nazis, Langsdorff requested duty at sea in 1934, but

12540-429: Was reactivated a few years ago. The following wards are parts of Bergen: Bergen Süd is the most populous district of Bergen. It consists mainly of plattenbau dwellings and was built in the mid-1960s. The buildings were renovated during the 1990s. Bergen Süd has one of the two cemeteries in the town and an industrial estate, where several car dealers, a social enterprise workshop for people with mental disabilities,

12654-646: Was renewed for another three years as the Eden-Malbrán Treaty of 1936. Argentina under Justo would also rejoin the League of Nations , and hold State Visits to presidents Getúlio Vargas of Brazil and Gabriel Terra of Uruguay , signing commercial treaties with those nations. Justo's foreign minister, Carlos Saavedra Lamas would also serve an important role as a mediator in the Chaco War between Bolivia and Paraguay , helping both countries reach

12768-547: Was strong and growing mainly due to increased interwar trade and investment, and the presence of numerous immigrants from both countries, which, together with the refusal to break relations with the Axis as the war progressed, furthered the belief that the Argentine government was sympathetic to the German cause. Because of strong divisions and internal disputes between members of the Argentine military , Argentina remained neutral for most of World War II, despite pressure from

12882-454: Was the only Latin American country to not have broken relations with the Axis, that Argentine food was sold at lucrative return, and that United States military hardware was intended for countries already at war, some of which were facing more severe fuel shortages than was Argentina. Storni resigned after this rejection. The United States took further measures to increase pressure on Argentina. All Argentine companies suspected of having ties with

12996-633: Was to prohibit Acción Argentina and its pro-Allied advocacy activities. The new government proceeded with both progressive and reactionary policies. Maximum prices were established for popular products, rents were reduced, the privileges of the Chadopyff factory were annulled and hospital fees were abolished. On the other hand, the authorities intervened trade unions, closed the Communist newspaper La Hora and imposed religious education at schools. Juan Perón and Edelmiro Julián Farrell , hailing from

#260739