116-473: Ram Dass (born Richard Alpert ; April 6, 1931 – December 22, 2019), also known as Baba Ram Dass , was an American spiritual teacher, guru of modern yoga , psychologist , and writer. His best-selling 1971 book Be Here Now , which has been described by multiple reviewers as "seminal", helped popularize Eastern spirituality and yoga in the West. He authored or co-authored twelve more books on spirituality over
232-539: A castration phobia as sons do, so this syndrome seems to be reserved for the opposite sex. Feminist psychoanalysts debate whether the father of psychoanalysis might have been a victim of sexism in this case. To compensate for the perceived disadvantage, they postulate a Jocasta complex consisting of an incestuous desire of mothers for their infant sons; but other analysts point out that Sophocles' Iokasta doesn't exhibit this behaviour. The witch's special interest in little Hansel (while she merely abuses his sister as
348-454: A master's degree in psychology from Wesleyan University in 1954, he was recommended to Stanford University by his mentor at Wesleyan, David McClelland . Alpert wrote his doctoral thesis on "achievement anxiety", receiving his Ph.D. in psychology from Stanford in 1957. Alpert then taught at Stanford for one year, and began psychoanalysis . McClelland moved to Cambridge, Massachusetts, to teach at Harvard University, and helped Alpert accept
464-737: A tenure-track position there in 1958 as an assistant clinical psychology professor. Alpert worked with the Social Relations Department, the Psychology Department, the Graduate School of Education, and the Health Service, where he was a therapist. He specialized in human motivation and personality development, and published his first book Identification and Child Rearing . McClelland did work with his close friend and associate Timothy Leary ,
580-525: A "countercultural bible" and "seminal" to the era. In addition to introducing its title phrase into common use, Be Here Now has influenced numerous other writers and yoga practitioners, including the Apple Inc. co-founder Steve Jobs , the self-help writer Wayne Dyer , and the poet Lawrence Ferlinghetti . The first section of the book inspired the lyrics to George Harrison 's song " Be Here Now ", written in 1971 and released on his 1973 album Living in
696-615: A castration complex. The myth of Oedipus is about the attempt to liberate the 'amputated' potency of the id, but fails because of the remaining unconscious motives. As the ego is overwhelmed by the punitive fear of the moral content of its ‘preconscious’ superego, it cuts off the instinctive desire for knowledge from itself (blinds itself). Attempts to find a female equivalent of the Oedipus complex have not yielded good results. According to Freud, girls, because of their anatomically different genitals, cannot identify with their father, nor develop
812-450: A causal factor of depression, publishing an influential paper in 1967 after a decade of research using the construct of schemas to explain the depression. Beck developed this empirically supported hypothesis for the cause of depression into a talking therapy called cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) in the early 1970s. Attachment theory was developed theoretically by John Bowlby and formalized empirically by Mary Ainsworth . Bowlby
928-522: A god, fulfilling the prophecy in the Bhagavad Gita that Vishnu would take on earthly form when the world was threatened by evil. The potential for abuse in the transformed guru-follower relationship is large, and there have been multiple instances of apparent or proven sexual, mental, and emotional abuse by gurus. Anthony Storr has documented, for example, the excesses of Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh ; Joel Kramer and Diana Alstad have examined
1044-413: A kitchen slave) offers much better evidence here, although such 'Crunchy house syndrome' should not as omnipresent as the Oedipus complex. In the later second part of the 20th century, several Freud researchers questioned the author's perception that his patients had informed him of childhood sexual abuse. Some of them argued that Freud had imposed his preconceived view on his patients, while others raised
1160-403: A large following; in contrast to the old guru-shishya tradition , the modern guru-follower relationship is not secretive, not exclusive, and does not necessarily involve a tradition. Many such gurus, but not all, teach a form of yoga as exercise ; others teach forms which are more devotional or meditational; many teach a combination. Some have been affected by scandals of various kinds. Before
1276-597: A lecturer in clinical psychology at the university. Alpert and Leary had met through McClelland, who headed the Center for Research in Personality where Alpert and Leary both did research. Alpert was McClelland's deputy in the lab. After returning from a visiting professorship at the University of California, Berkeley , in 1961, Alpert devoted himself to joining Leary in experimentation with and intensive research into
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#17328013435731392-547: A manuscript he had written, entitled From Bindu to Ojas . The community's residents edited, illustrated, and laid out the text, which ultimately became a best-selling book when published under the name Be Here Now in 1971. The 416-page manual for conscious being was published by the Lama Foundation, as Ram Dass's benefit for the community. Be Here Now contained Ram Dass's account of his spiritual journey, as well as recommended spiritual techniques and quotes. It became
1508-487: A mistake in private, to his friend and colleague Wilhelm Fliess in 1898; but it took another 8 years before he had clarified the obscure connections sufficiently enough to publicly revoke his thesis, stating the reasons. (Freud's final position on the origin of neurosis in general is summarized in his late work The Discomfort in Culture . According to this, the causes do not lie in general sexual abuse of children, but in
1624-518: A notion that was rejected by Freud and his followers at the time. By 1936 the "Principle of Multiple Function" was clarified by Robert Waelder . He widened the formulation that psychological symptoms were caused by and relieved conflict simultaneously. Moreover, symptoms (such as phobias and compulsions ) each represented elements of some drive wish (sexual and/or aggressive), superego, anxiety, reality, and defenses. Also in 1936, Anna Freud , Sigmund's daughter, published her seminal book, The Ego and
1740-556: A popular guide to New Age spirituality, selling two million copies. The proceeds helped sustain the Lama Foundation for several years, after which they donated the book's copyright and half its proceeds to the Hanuman Foundation in Taos. Be Here Now is one of the first guides for those not born Hindu to becoming a yogi . For its influence on the hippie movement and subsequent spiritual movements, it has been described as
1856-457: A priori with the conditions of mental apparatus ), ideologies such as Marxism and the phenomenon of technological as well as cultural creativity of mankind and its zoological closest relatives. The idea of psychoanalysis began to receive serious attention in the 1890s; Freud called it first Free Association . During this time, he worked as a neurologist in a children's hospital, where attempts were made to develop an effective treatment for
1972-477: A research tool into childhood development, and is still used to treat certain mental disturbances. In the 1960s, Freud's early thoughts on the childhood development of female sexuality were challenged; this challenge led to the development of a variety of understandings of female sexual development, many of which modified the timing and normality of several of Freud's theories. Several researchers followed Karen Horney 's studies of societal pressures that influence
2088-493: A research tool, the experimental application of which actually made it possible to eliminate symptoms of this kind. Paralysed people could suddenly walk again, blind ones could see. Although this effect is not known to last long – as Freud discovered in own experiments – the phenomenon of hypnotic false-healing played a decisive role in convincing him of the psycho-traumatical causation of the multifaceted neurotic clinical picture. Freud's first attempt to explain neurotical symptoms
2204-413: A technical elaboration of the three-instance model of the psyche and examined primarily the logical structure of the unconscious . Freud distinguished between the conscious and unconscious realms of the psyche and argued that the contents of unconscious largely determine cognition and behaviour . He found that many of the drives – since his structural model located in the ‘id’ – are repressed into
2320-466: A trip to India in 2004, he gave up traveling and moved to Maui , Hawaii , where he hosted annual retreats with other spiritual teachers until his death in 2019. Ram Dass was born Richard Alpert in 1931. His parents were Gertrude (Levin) and George Alpert, a lawyer in Boston . He considered himself an atheist during his early life. Speaking at Berkeley Community Theater in 1973 he said, "My Jewish trip
2436-571: A ‘latency’ break – the Sleeping Beauty – between the ages of about 7 and 12 for benefit social-intellectual growth. Psychoanalysts place large emphasis on experiences of early childhood , try to overcome infantile amnesia . In traditional Freudian setting, the patient lies on a couch, and the analyst sits just behind or somehow out of sight. The patient should express all his thoughts, all secrets and dreams, including free associations and fantasies . In addition to its task of strengthening
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#17328013435732552-415: Is about Oedipus' own sexual desire addresses to his mother Jocasta – admittedly as an already genitally mature man and without knowing about the close blood relationship including an not less unconscious patricide – which the woman reciprocates just as unsuspectingly. Freud interprets the passage where Oedipus – after realising his serious violation of the moral-totemic incest taboo – pokes out his eyes with
2668-571: Is continued in post-lineage yoga , which is practised outside any major school or guru's lineage. The concept of the guru, along with mantra and meditation , reached the West in the 1960s with The Beatles' trip to India , for a Transcendental Meditation training course at Maharishi Mahesh Yogi 's ashram in Rishikesh . Modern gurus since then have used the divine status of the traditional guru to claim that they were gods or goddesses. Some asserted they were avatars , earthly incarnations of
2784-488: Is evidence both from research in psychology and from the recollections of former devotees like Daniel Shaw, once a senior member of staff in Gurumayi 's Siddha Yoga organisation, that even if a guru is seen to be lying, devotees will ignore the matter and "keep on believing". Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis is a theory developed by Sigmund Freud . It describes the human mind as an apparatus that emerged along
2900-446: Is impossible to have precisely defined concepts from the outset, respectively phenomena that from now on have been clarified without any gaps and contradictions. "Indeed, even physics would have missed out on its entire development if it had been forced to wait until its concepts of matter, energy, gravity and others reached the desirable clarity and precision." The psychologist Frank Sulloway points out in his book Freud, Biologist of
3016-492: Is indispensable for the diagnostic prozess ( sickness can only be realised as a deviation from health : the optimal cooperation of all mental-organic functions), but Freud had to be modest. He had to leave his model of human's soul in the unfinished state of a torso because – as he stated one last time in Moses and Monotheism – there was no well-founded primate research in the first half of 20th century. Without knowledge of
3132-439: Is no longer the decisive factor here, but the specific function of each of the three instances. This new model did not replace the first one: it integrated it.) The Interpretation of Dreams includes the first comprehensive conceptualisation of Oedipus complex : The little boy admires his father because of the mental and physical advantages of the adult man and wants to become like him, but also comes into conflict with him over
3248-622: Is not a child's desire ), but as a method whose appropriation is open to everyone. In the Wednesday round of young psychoanalysis, academics and ‘uneducated’ worked together on an equal footing to rediscover the happiness lost in the Dark Continent of the human soul – not easy to understand for some outsiders. In order to counteract misunderstandings, Freud clearly sets out the only condition for being able to pursue this interest seriously in his treatise on The Question of Lay Analysis :
3364-403: Is not yet able to help himself due to inexperience. ) From the sum of what is shown and communicated, the analyst deduces unconscious conflicts with imposed traumas that are causing the patient's symptoms, his persona and character problems, and works out a diagnosis . This explanation of the origin of loss of mental health and the analytical processes as a whole confronts the patients ego with
3480-480: The psychosexual phases , which categorised early childhood development into five stages depending on what sexual affinity a child possessed at the stage: His early formulation included the idea that because of societal restrictions, sexual wishes were repressed into an unconscious state, and that the energy of these unconscious wishes could be result in anxiety or physical symptoms. Early treatment techniques, including hypnotism and abreaction , were designed to make
3596-666: The ABC , And When I Die, Will I Be Dead? It was adapted into a book in 1987. Ram Dass also served on the faculty of the Metta Institute where he provided training on mindful and compassionate care of the dying. The Love Serve Remember Foundation was organized to preserve and continue the teachings of Neem Karoli Baba and Ram Dass. Over the course of his life, since the inception of the Hanuman Foundation, Ram Dass donated his book royalties and profits from teaching to his foundation and other charitable causes. The annual estimate of
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3712-526: The Eros of Socratic-Platonic philosophy. Freud attached great importance to coherence of his structural model . The metapsychological specification of the functions and interlocking of the three instances was intended to ensure the full connectivity of this ‘psychic apparatus’ with biological sciences, in particular Darwin's theory of evolution of species, including mankind with his behaviour, natural thinking ability and technological creativity. Such insight
3828-728: The Hitchcock Estate in Millbrook, New York , after IFIF's New York City branch director and Mellon fortune heiress Peggy Hitchcock arranged for her brother Billy to rent the estate to IFIF. Alpert and Leary immediately set up a communal group with former Harvard Psilocybin Project members at the estate (commonly known as "Millbrook"), and the IFIF was subsequently disbanded and renamed the Castalia Foundation (after
3944-475: The Phobia of a five-year-old boy . However, Freud not only discovered this complex and the 'oral fixatet' Syndrom of Narzissos' regress back into amniotic fluid (as far as possible given the state of science at the time), but also devised a hypothesis of healthy emotional development, which by nature completes in three successive stages: the oral, anal and genital phases . Whereby the sexual drive of latter takes
4060-624: The Seva Foundation with public health leader Larry Brilliant and humanitarian activist Wavy Gravy . The foundation joined with health-care workers to treat the blind in India , Nepal , and developing countries. It has become an international health organization. In the early 1970s, Ram Dass taught workshops on conscious aging and dying around the United States. Elisabeth Kübler-Ross was one of his students. Ram Dass helped create
4176-477: The id and the ego's conscious values, which manifests itself in more or less conspicuous mental disorders, although Freud did not equate the statistical normality of our society with ‘healthy’. "Health can only be described in metapsychological terms." He discovered that the instinctive impulses are expressed most clearly – albeit still encoded – in the symbols of dreams as well as in the symptomatic detours of neuroticism and Freudian slips . Psychoanalysis
4292-444: The synthetic function of the ego as a mediator in psychic functioning, distinguishing such from autonomous ego functions (e.g. memory and intellect). These "ego psychologists" of the 1950s paved a way to focus analytic work by attending to the defenses (mediated by the ego) before exploring the deeper roots to the unconscious conflicts. In addition, there was growing interest in child psychoanalysis . Psychoanalysis has been used as
4408-549: The teleological element of his three-fold soul model, a desiring energy that links cause and purpose , instead of mere ‘effect’. This universal force embodies the psychicaly source that drives all instinctual needs of living beings, as well as the First Cause of their physicaly evolution. On this path, sexual behaviour realises Darwin's Law of Natural Selection by favouring the most fitting and aesthetically well-proportioned body forms in reproduction. Of course Freud
4524-812: The Dying Project with its Executive Director Dale Borglum, whom he had met in India. At the time, Borglum was also executive director of the Hanuman Foundation. The Living/Dying Project, based in Marin, California , starting in 1986, was initially named the Dying Center and located in Santa Fe, New Mexico . The Dying Center was the first residential facility in the U.S. where people came to die "consciously". In 1981, he appeared on an Australian radio documentary about death and near-death experiences that aired on
4640-658: The Material World . During the 1970s, Ram Dass taught, wrote, and worked with foundations. He founded the Hanuman Foundation, a nonprofit educational and service organization that initiated the Prison-Ashram Project (now known as the Human Kindness Foundation), in 1974. The Hanuman Foundation strives to improve the spiritual well-being of society through education, media and community service programs. In 1978, Ram Dass co-founded
4756-543: The Mechanisms of Defense , outlining numerous ways the mind could shut upsetting things out of consciousness. When Hitler 's power grew, the Freud family and many of their colleagues fled to London. Within a year, Sigmund Freud died. In the United States, also following the death of Freud, a new group of psychoanalysts began to explore the function of the ego. Led by Heinz Hartmann , the group built upon understandings of
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4872-641: The Mind: Beyond the Psychoanalytic Legend that the theories and hypotheses of psychoanalysis are anchored in the findings of contemporary biology. He mentions the profound influence of Charles Darwin ‘s theory of evolution on Freud and quotes this sense from the writings of Haeckel , Wilhelm Fliess , Krafft-Ebing and Havelock Ellis . In 1905, Freud published Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality in which he laid out his discovery of
4988-460: The Oedipal model. For his work, Bowlby was shunned from psychoanalytical circles who did not accept his theories. Nonetheless, his conceptualization was adopted widely by mother-infant research in the 1970s. The predominant psychoanalytic theories can be organised into several theoretical schools. Although these perspectives differ, most of them emphasize the influence of unconscious elements on
5104-460: The age of 88. In the 1990s, Ram Dass discussed his bisexuality . He stated, "I've started to talk more about being bisexual, being involved with men as well as women," and added his opinion that for him, his sexuality "isn't gay, and it's not not-gay, and it's not anything—it's just awareness." At 78, Ram Dass learned that he had fathered a son as a 24-year-old at Stanford, during a brief relationship with history major Karen Saum, and that he
5220-467: The ancient trap to pacify political conflicts among the groups of Neolithic mankind. (See Prometheus ' uprising against Zeus, who created Pandora as a fatal wedding gift for Epimetheus to divide and rule the titanic brothers; Plato's myth of spherical men cut into isolated individuals for the same reason; and the similarly resolved revolt of inferior gods in the Flood epic Atra-Hasis ). Nonetheless, due to
5336-519: The average dose); after trying them, the LSD seemed to have no psychotropic effect on Neem Karoli Baba , but instead told him that the same state could be achieved through meditation and that he could live in that state. After this, Neem Karoli Baba became Richard Alpert's guru, and gave him the name "Ram Dass", which means "servant of God", referring to the incarnation of God as Ram or Lord Rama . Ram Dass called his new guru "Maharaj-ji", and studied with him
5452-497: The betrayal of trust that is involved. Swami Vivekananda said early in the modern era that there are many incompetent gurus, and that a true guru should understand the spirit of the scriptures, have a pure character and be free from sin, and should be selfless, without desire for money and fame. Following the downfalls of several gurus accused of misconduct, practitioners have publicly debated whether gurus are still necessary. As for how gurus can get away with abuse for so long, there
5568-529: The brain but, rather, mental processes. Although Freud retained this theory throughout his life, he largely replaced it with the structural theory . Structural theory divides the psyche into the id , the ego , and the super-ego . The id is present at birth as the repository of basic instincts, which Freud called " Triebe " ("drives"). Unorganized and unconscious, it operates merely on the 'pleasure principle', without realism or foresight. The ego develops slowly and gradually, being concerned with mediating between
5684-535: The child would therefore be the prerequisite for the later development of hysterical and other kinds of neurotical symptoms. It contradicts the seduction thesis that Freud reported in the same year about patients who expressed their "emphatic disbelief" in this respect: that they "had no feeling of remembering the infantile sexual scenes". In the course of his further research, Freud began to doubt his thesis that such abuse should be almost omnipresent in our society. Initially he expressed his suspicion of having made
5800-599: The conscious. There has also been considerable work done on consolidating elements of conflicting theories. There are some persistent conflicts among psychoanalysts regarding specific causes of certain syndromes, and some disputes regarding the ideal treatment techniques. In the 21st century, psychoanalytic ideas have found influence in fields such as childcare , education , literary criticism , cultural studies , mental health , and particularly psychotherapy . Though most mainstream psychoanalysts subscribe to modern strains of psychoanalytical thought, there are groups who follow
5916-443: The creation of modern yoga , hatha yoga was practised in secret by solitary, ascetic yogins, learning the tradition as a long-term pupil or shishya apprenticed to their master or guru. The ancient relationship was the primary means by which spirituality was expressed in India. Traditional yoga was often exclusive and secretive: the shishya submitted to and obeyed the guru, understanding that lengthy initiation and training under
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#17328013435736032-403: The demands of innate needs and externally imposed behavioural rules that prohibit their satisfaction. Freud called the former the primary process , taking place predominantly in the unconscious, and the latter the secondary process of predominantly conscious, more or less coherent thoughts. Freud summarised this view in his first model of the soul. Known as the topological model , it divides
6148-509: The development of an Oedipal complex . Freud's theories, however, characterized no such phase. According to Freud, the Oedipus complex was at the centre of neurosis, and was the foundational source of all art, myth, religion, philosophy, therapy—indeed of all human culture and civilization. It was the first time that anyone in Freud's inner circle had characterised something other than the Oedipus complex as contributing to intrapsychic development,
6264-688: The development of women. In the first decade of the 21st century, there were approximately 35 training institutes for psychoanalysis in the United States accredited by the American Psychoanalytic Association (APsaA), which is a component organization of the International Psychoanalytical Association (IPA), and there are over 3000 graduated psychoanalysts practicing in the United States. The IPA accredits psychoanalytic training centers through such "component organisations" throughout
6380-553: The diagnostic interpretation of dreams . Overall, psychoanalysis is a method for the treatment of mental disorders . Founded in the early 1890s, initially in co-operation with Josef Breuer 's and others' clinical research, Freud continued to revise and refine theory and practice of psychoanalysis until his death in 1939. An encyclopaedic article quotes him with following cornerstones of psychoanalysis: Using similar psychoanalytical terms, Freud's earlier colleagues Alfred Adler and Carl Jung developed their own therapeutic methods,
6496-544: The earnings he donated ranges from $ 100,000 to $ 800,000. His guru, Neem Karoli Baba, died on 11 September 1973. Timothy Leary and Ram Dass, who had grown apart after Ram Dass denounced Leary in a 1974 news conference, reconciled in 1983 at Harvard (at a reunion for the 20th anniversary of their controversial firing from the Harvard faculty), and reunited before Leary's death in May 1996. Ram Dass explored Judaism seriously for
6612-422: The ego with its ability to think dialectical – Freud's primacy of intellect –, therapy also aims to induce transference . The patient thus projects his educated him mother and father as internalised in his superego since birth onto the analyst. As he once did as a baby and little child, he experiences again the feelings of helpless dependence, all the futile longing for love, anger, rage and urge for revenge on
6728-631: The end. ... Now, I really am ready to face the music all around me." Ram Dass did not leave the Hawaiian Islands until July 2019, when he attended the consecration of a new Hanuman Mandir in Taos, New Mexico, on July 13, 2019, after which he returned to Hawaii and continued to make public appearances and to give talks at small venues; held retreats in Maui; and continued to teach through live webcasts . Ram Dass died in Maui , on December 22, 2019, at
6844-1026: The estate where people paid to undergo the psychedelic experience without drugs, through meditation, yoga, and group therapy sessions. Alpert and Leary co-authored The Psychedelic Experience with Ralph Metzner , based on the Tibetan Book of the Dead , published in 1964. Alpert co-authored LSD with Sidney Cohen and Lawrence Schiller in 1966. In 1967 Alpert gave talks at the League for Spiritual Discovery 's center in Greenwich Village . In 1967, Alpert traveled to India where he met American spiritual seeker Bhagavan Das , and later met Neem Karoli Baba . In 1967, Bhagavan Das guided Alpert throughout India, eventually introducing him to Neem Karoli Baba , whom Alpert called "Maharaj-ji", who became his guru at Kainchi ashram. Neem Karoli Baba gave Alpert
6960-401: The failing parents, but now with the possibility of processing these contents that have chaped his persona. ( All people who have been brought up in moralic culturs project irrational fears and hopes for happiness everywhere. The term Countertransference means that the analyst himself projects such content onto his patient; then he has an own open problem and has to go to his own analyst if he
7076-438: The first controlled, double-blind study of drugs and the mystical experience. While not illegal at the time, their research was controversial and led to Leary's and Alpert's dismissal from Harvard in 1963. In 1967, Alpert traveled to India and became a disciple of Hindu guru Neem Karoli Baba , who gave him the name Ram Dass, meaning "Servant of Ram ," but usually rendered simply as "Servant of God" for Western audiences. In
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#17328013435737192-399: The first controlled, double-blind study of drugs and the mystical experience. Leary and Alpert were formally dismissed from Harvard in 1963. According to Harvard President Nathan M. Pusey , Leary was dismissed for leaving Cambridge and his classes without permission or notice, and Alpert for allegedly giving psilocybin to an undergraduate. In 1963 Alpert, Leary, and their followers moved to
7308-518: The first international congress of psychoanalysis held in Salzburg, Austria. Alfred Adler was one of the most active members in this society in its early years. The second congress of psychoanalysis took place in Nuremberg, Germany in 1910. At this congress, Ferenczi called for the creation of an International Psychoanalytic Association with Jung as president for life. A third congress
7424-449: The first time when he was 60 years old. He wrote, "My belief is that I wasn't born into Judaism by accident, and so I needed to find ways to honor that", and "From a Hindu perspective, you are born as what you need to deal with, and if you just try and push it away, whatever it is, it's got you." In February 1997, Ram Dass had a stroke that left him with expressive aphasia , which he interpreted as an act of grace . He stated, "The stroke
7540-513: The following four years. After Alpert returned to America as Ram Dass, he stayed as a guest at the Lama Foundation in Taos, New Mexico . Ram Dass had helped Steve Durkee ( Nooruddeen Durkee ) and Barbara Durkee (Asha Greer or Asha von Briesen) co-found the countercultural, spiritual community in 1967, and it had an ashram dedicated to Ram Dass's guru. During Ram Dass's visit, he presented
7656-484: The following years, he co-founded the charitable organizations Seva Foundation and Hanuman Foundation . From the 1970s to the 1990s, he traveled extensively, giving talks and retreats and holding fundraisers for charitable causes. In 1997, he had a stroke , which left him with paralysis and expressive aphasia . He eventually grew to interpret this event as an act of grace , learning to speak again and continuing to teach and write books. After becoming seriously ill during
7772-457: The golden needle clasp of his wife's and mother's nightdress (while Jocasta commits suicide) as a manifestation of the same ‘cover-up’ mechanism that he began to uncover in the above-mentioned fantasies. In his eyes psychoanalysis works in opposite direction to this mechanism of preconscious self-delusion, by bringing the due to incest taboo have been repressed desires (the ‘id’) back into realm of inner perception, own conscious thinking. This raised
7888-435: The guru can be seen in the case of one of these pioneers, Yogendra , who explicitly rejected the role of traditional guru for a single pupil or shishya . The physical context, too, is transformed along with the nature of the teacher's authority; yoga as exercise is often taught in an urban yoga studio, where the instructor's yoga teacher training stands in for the old guru-shishya relationship. The trend away from authority
8004-475: The guru is poorly understood. Modern yoga practices are often open to everyone, without any sort of initiation into any organisation or doctrine. The modern guru Jaggi Vasudev explicitly rejected "all that traditional whatever"; all the same, some yoga traditions still emphasise and respect a teacher's lineage ( parampara ). For example, Gurumayi 's Siddha Yoga pays careful attention to her predecessors, Muktananda and Bhagawan Nityananda . Another major change
8120-400: The guru was essential for progress. So strong was the guru-shishya relationship that Vivekananda stated that "The guru must be worshipped as God. He is God, he is nothing less than that". The role of the guru in the modern world is radically transformed. Globalisation has extended the guru's reach into environments where they may be a stranger, and where the religion, purpose, and status of
8236-806: The ideas of id, ego, and superego in The Ego and the Id . In the book, he revised the whole theory of mental functioning, now considering that repression was only one of many defense mechanisms, and that it occurred to reduce anxiety. Hence, Freud characterised repression as both a cause and a result of anxiety. In 1926, in "Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety", Freud characterised how intrapsychic conflict among drive and superego caused anxiety , and how that anxiety could lead to an inhibition of mental functions, such as intellect and speech. In 1924, Otto Rank published The Trauma of Birth , which analysed culture and philosophy in relation to separation anxiety which occurred before
8352-510: The instinctive social behaviour and other abilities of our genetically closest relatives in realm of animals, his thesis of the Darwinian primordial horde (as presented for discussion in Totem and Taboo ) cannot be tested and, where necessary, replaced by a realistic model. Horde life and its violent abolition via introduction of monogamy (as a political agreement between the sons who murdered
8468-536: The intellectual colony in Hermann Hesse 's novel The Glass Bead Game ). The core group at Millbrook, whose journal was the Psychedelic Review , sought to cultivate the divinity within each person. At Millbrook, they experimented with psychedelics and often participated in group LSD sessions, looking for a permanent route to higher consciousness. The Castalia Foundation hosted weekend retreats on
8584-508: The lack of ethological primate research, these ideas remained an unproven belief of palaeo-anthropological science – only a hypothesis or " just so story as a not unpleasant English critic wittily called it. But I mean it honours a hypothesis if it shows capable of creating context and understanding in new areas." The author illustrated the conflict of today's son with his father over his mother by naming it after Sophocles ' tragedy Oedipus , supplementing this view with case studies such as
8700-757: The leader and with other members) in groups as a motivation for behavior in Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego . In that same year, Freud suggested his dual drive theory of sexuality and aggression in Beyond the Pleasure Principle , to try to begin to explain human destructiveness. Also, it was the first appearance of his "structural theory" consisting of three new concepts id, ego, and superego . Three years later, in 1923, he summarised
8816-571: The living soul: The brain with its nervous system extending over the entire organism and the acts of consciousness. In Freud's view, therefore any number of phenomena can be integrated between " both endpoints of our knowledge " (including the findings of modern neurology), but this only contribute to the spatial " localisation of the acts of consciousness ", not to their understanding. With reference to Descartes, contemporary neuropsychoanalysts explain this situation as mind-body dichotomy , namely both as two total different kinds of 'stuff': an objekt and
8932-528: The methodical examination of one's own inner situation, wherever possible with assistance of an already experienced psychoanalyst. Psychoanalysis has been a controversial discipline from the outset and its effectiveness as a treatment remains contested, although its influence on psychology and psychiatry is undisputed. Psychoanalytic perspectives are also widely used outside the therapeutic field, for example in film and literary criticism , interpretation of fairy tales or philosophical concepts ( replacing Kant's
9048-469: The more conscious parts on the other hand would aim to make these morally forbidden acts of childish pleasure unrecognisable, to cover up them. The interesting point for Freud here was not so much the secretiveness itself (a well-known behaviour of Victorian era ), but the following twofold realisation: That children – at that time considered as innocent little angels – initiate pleasurable actions of their own accord (have ‘drives’ at all, as later assigned to
9164-411: The name "Ram Dass", which means "servant of God", referring to the incarnation of God as Ram or Lord Rama . Alpert also corresponded with Indian spiritual teacher Meher Baba and mentioned Baba in several of his books. The day after their first meeting, Neem Karoli Baba asked Alpert to give him the "medicine". Alpert gave him one dose of "white lightning", but he asked for 2 more tabs (915 μg or 9 times
9280-849: The neuronal-biochemical processes that permanently store experiences in the brain – like engraving the proverbial tabula rasa with some code – belongs to the physiological branch of science and lead in a different direction of research than the psychological question of what the differences between consciousness and unconsciousness are. After some thought about a suitable term, Freud called his new instrument and field of research psychoanalysis , introduced in his essay “Inheritance and Etiology of Neuroses”, written and published in French in 1896. In 1896, Freud also published his seduction theory , in which he assumed as certain that he had uncovered repressed memories of incidents of sexual abuse in each of his previous patients. This type of sexual excitations of
9396-612: The next four decades, including Grist for the Mill (1977), How Can I Help? (1985), and Polishing the Mirror (2013). Ram Dass was personally and professionally associated with Timothy Leary at Harvard University in the early 1960s. Then known as Richard Alpert, he conducted research with Leary on the therapeutic effects of psychedelic drugs . In addition, Alpert assisted Harvard Divinity School graduate student Walter Pahnke in his 1962 " Good Friday Experiment " with theology students,
9512-409: The next generation through concrete or threatened punishments. Moral education creates fears of punitive violence or the deprive of love in the child's soul. They are stored neuronally in the preconscious and influences the consciousness in the sense of the imprinted rules of behaviour. (Freud's second model of the soul, the three-instance or structural model , introduces a clearer distinction. Topology
9628-407: The organism into three areas or systems: The unconscious, the preconscious and the conscious. Sexual needs belong to the unconscious and are forced to remain there if the contents of conscious ward them off. This is the case in societys that generally consider all extra- and premarital sexual activity – including homoeroticism, that of biblical Onan and incest – to be a ‘sin’, passing this value on to
9744-413: The path of evolution and consists mainly of three functionally interlocking instances: a set of innate needs, a consciousness to satisfy them by ruling the muscular apparatus, and a memory for storing experiences that arises during this. Furthermore the theory includes insights into the effects of traumatic education and a technique for bringing repressed content back into the consciousness, in particular
9860-442: The pathological defence mechanisms, makes him aware of them as well as the instinctive contents of the id that have been repressed by them, and thus helps him to better understand himself and the world in which he lives, was born and educated. Not least this includes the fact that the neurological branch of psychoanalysis recently provided evidence that the brain stores experiences in specialised neuronal networks (memory function of
9976-462: The polygamous forefather of the horde) embodies the evolutionary-theoretical as well as cultural-prehistorical core of psychoanalysis. Further important assumptions are based on it, such as the origin of Oedipus complex, the moral-totemic rules of behaviour and, not least, Freud's Unease in Culture . They stand in contrast to the religiously enigmatic reports about the origin of monogamous couples on earth as an expression of divine will, but closer to
10092-615: The potentially therapeutic effects of hallucinogenic drugs such as psilocybin , LSD-25 , and other psychedelic chemicals , through their Harvard Psilocybin Project . Alpert and Leary co-founded the non-profit International Federation for Internal Freedom (IFIF) in 1962 in Cambridge , Massachusetts, in order to carry out studies in the religious use of psychedelic drugs, and were both on the board of directors. Alpert assisted Harvard Divinity School graduate student Walter Pahnke in his 1962 " Good Friday Experiment " with theology students,
10208-544: The precepts of a single psychoanalyst and their school of thought. Psychoanalytic ideas also play roles in some types of literary analysis such as archetypal literary criticism . Topographic theory was named and first described by Sigmund Freud in The Interpretation of Dreams (1899). The theory hypothesizes that the mental apparatus can be divided into the systems Conscious , Preconscious , and Unconscious . These systems are not anatomical structures of
10324-505: The psychological aspects of the human mind with emphasis on repression, the dynamics of dreams, therapeutic relationships. Neuroimaging is one of the methods used to empirically validate psychoanalytic concepts. Ego psychology was initially suggested by Freud in Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety (1926), while major steps forward would be made through Anna Freud 's work on defense mechanisms , first published in her book The Ego and
10440-441: The question for Freud of the first origin of moral prohibitions. A field of research that led him deep into the evolutionary and cultural (prä)history of mankind (see Darwin's primal horde; its abolition through patricide in Totem and Taboo ) and which, according to his own information, he had to leave unfinished as an untested hypothesis due to the lack of primate research . In 1899, Freud's work had progressed far enough that he
10556-582: The rest of the world, including countries such as Serbia, France, Germany, Austria, Italy, Switzerland, and many others, as well as about six institutes directly in the United States. Freud founded the Psychological Wednesday Society in 1902, which Edward Shorter argues was the beginning of psychoanalysis as a movement. This society became the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society in 1908 in the same year as
10672-406: The self. In 1919, through "A Child is Being Beaten", he began to address the problems of self-destructive behavior and sexual masochism . Based on his experience with depressed and self-destructive patients, and pondering the carnage of World War I , Freud became dissatisfied with considering only oral and sexual motivations for behavior. By 1920, Freud addressed the power of identification (with
10788-407: The so called individual - and analytical psychology . Freud wrote some criticisms of them and emphatically denied that they were forms of psychoanalysis. Later Freudian thinkers like Erich Fromm , Karen Horney , and Harry Stack Sullivan branched Psychoanalysis in different directions. Jacques Lacan 's work essentially represents a return to Freud. He described Freudian metapsychology as
10904-629: The so-called neurotic symptoms, but detailed examinations didn't reveal any organic defects. In the monograph written on this subject, Freud documents his suspicion that neurotic symptoms could have psychological causes. In 1885, Freud was given the opportunity to study at the Salpêtrière in Paris under the famous neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot . Charcot had specialised in the field of hysterical paralysis and anaesthesia and established hypnosis as
11020-458: The subjekt that can'nt objectify itself. With regard to Freud's libido they call this dichotomy the "dual-aspect monism". It touches on the point of psychoanalysis that is most difficult to grasp with the means of empirically based sciences – in fact, only under Kant's assumption that living systems always make judgements about the phenomena they perceive with regard to the satisfaction of their immanent needs. Therefore, Freud conceptualised libido as
11136-428: The superego) and the ego performances its highest focus of conscious thinking in frontal lobe . In some respects Freud himself embodies the founder of this field of modern research. Parallel to the consolidation of psychoanalysis, however, he turned away from it with the argument that consciousness is directly given - not to be explained by insights into physiological details. Essentially, two things were known about
11252-444: The suspicion of conscious forgery. These are two different arguments. The latter questions whether Freud deliberately lied in order to make the allegedly unfounded psychoanalysis appear as a legitimate science; the former assumes an unknowingly committed act. Freud replied at various places in his work the same to both types of argument: That natural science is a process based on trial and error . A slow but sure becoming, in which it
11368-428: The unconscious as a result of traumatic experiences during childhood and that attempts to integrate them into the conscious perception of the ego triggers resistance . These and other defense mechanisms ‘want’ to maintain the repression – not least with the means of enigma, censorship, internalised fear of punishment or mother-love withdrawal – while the affected instincts resist. All in all, an inner war rages between
11484-553: The unconscious conscious in order to relieve the pressure and the apparently resulting symptoms. This method would later on be left aside by Freud, giving free association a bigger role. In On Narcissism (1914), Freud turned his attention to the titular subject of narcissism . Freud characterized the difference between energy directed at the self versus energy directed at others using a system known as cathexis . By 1917, in " Mourning and Melancholia ", he suggested that certain depressions were caused by turning guilt-ridden anger on
11600-420: The urging of the id and the realities of the external world; it thus operates on the 'reality principle'. The super-ego is held to be the part of the ego in which self-observation, self-criticism and other reflective and judgmental faculties develop. The ego and the super-ego are both partly conscious and partly unconscious. In the late 20th century, neuropsychoanalysis was introduced. The aim of this new field
11716-399: The way in which each generation educates the next to adopt the rules of coexistence known as morality. See also The Future of an Illusion .) In the mid-1890s, he was still upholding his hypothesis of sexual abuse. In this context, he reported on fantasies of several patients, which on the one hand would point to memories of scenes of infantile masturbation stored in the unconscious, while
11832-406: The women around, cause of the taboo of incest . This initiates - starting from the id - anger that can grow into a deadly urge for revenge against the father. Impulses that the little boy cannot act out (not least due to the child's deep dependence on his parents love) and therefore are repressed into unconscious. Symptomatically, this inner situation manifests itself as a feeling of inferiority, even
11948-554: The young women. She herself sometimes liked to jokingly rename her talking cure as chimney sweeping (an association about the fairy tale through which place the stork brings a baby into house) – or in Lacan's words: "The more Anna provided signifers , the more she chattered on, the better it went." Around the same time, Freud had started to develop a neurological hypothesis about mental phenomena such as memory, but soon abandoned this attempt and left it unpublished. Insights into
12064-488: The ‘id’); and the presumably by aducation initiated emergence of a psychopathological mechanism, whose ability consists in being able to hide impulses of this kind from one's own consciousness. Short after he assumed that the same findings would have some evidence for a kind of Oedipal desires. In the tragedy Oedipus , to which Freud refers, there occurs no sexual exploitation of a child by its parents or other adults. Sophocles' poetic treatment of this ancient Greek myth
12180-403: Was able to publish The Interpretation of Dreams . This, for him, was the most important of his writings, as it formulated the realisation that every dream contains a symbolically disguised message that can be decoded with help of the dreamer's free associations . The purpose of every dream is therefore to inform the dreamer about his complex inner situation: in essence, a conflict arising from
12296-404: Was developed in order to clarify the causes of disorders and to restore mental health by enabling the ego to become aware of the id's needs that have been repressed into the unconscious and to find realistic ways of satisfying and/or controlling them. Freud summarised this goal of his therapy in the demand "Where id was, ego shall became", equating the libido as driving energy of innate needs with
12412-671: Was giving me lessons, and I realized that was grace—fierce grace ... Death is the biggest change we'll face, so we need to practice change." After he almost died from a second stroke during a trip to India in 2004, Ram Dass moved to Maui . In 2013, Ram Dass released a memoir and summary of his teaching, Polishing the Mirror: How to Live from Your Spiritual Heart . In an interview about the book, at age 82, he said that his earlier reflections about facing old age and death now seem naive to him. He said, in part: "Now, I'm in my 80s ... Now, I am aging. I am approaching death. I'm getting closer to
12528-628: Was held in Weimar in 1911. The London Psychoanalytical Society was founded in 1913 by Ernest Jones . In the 1950s, psychoanalysis was the main modality of psychotherapy . Behavioural models of psychotherapy started to assume a more central role in psychotherapy in the 1960s. Aaron T. Beck , a psychiatrist trained in a psychoanalytic tradition, set out to test the psychoanalytic models of depression empirically and found that conscious ruminations of loss and personal failing were correlated with depression. He suggested that distorted and biased beliefs were
12644-441: Was introduced by Vivekananda; his Ramakrishna Mission set the example of public service in education and medicine, something now practised by many other Indian religious movements. These religions thus shifted from a focus on personal salvation to public altruism. A further radical shift was from spiritual to physical in yoga as exercise , as pioneered by Yogendra , Kuvalayananda , and Krishnamacharya . The transformed role of
12760-479: Was no less well acquainted with the energetic- economic aspect of evolution and psychic processes (s. def. of the three metapsychological vectors ) than with the trinity of Greek philosophy, especially Plato's transcendent unity of truth : that it expresses the good and the beauty in equal measure, anchored in the proportions of golden ratio. Freud's worldview, with dream interpretation as the royal way into unconscious , wasn't conceived as an source of income ( money
12876-465: Was now a grandfather. The fact came to light when his son, Peter Reichard, a 53-year-old banker in North Carolina, took a DNA test after learning about his mother's doubt concerning his parentage. Modern yoga gurus Modern yoga gurus are people widely acknowledged to be gurus of modern yoga in any of its forms, whether religious or not. The role implies being well-known and having
12992-684: Was presented in Studies on Hysteria (1895). Co-authored with his mentor Josef Breuer , this is generally seen as the birth of psychoanalysis. The work based on Freud's and Breuer's partly joint treatment of Bertha Pappenheim , referred to in the case studies by the pseudonym Anna O . . Berta herself had dubbed the treatment talking cure . Breuer, a distinguished physician, was astonished but remained unspecific; while Freud formulated his hypothesis that Anna's hystera seemed to be caused by distressing but unconscious experiences related to sexuality, basing his assumption on corresponding associations made by
13108-653: Was primarily political Judaism, I mean I was never Bar Mitzvahed, confirmed, and so on." In a 2006 article in Tufts Magazine he was quoted by Sara Davidson, describing himself as "inured to religion. I didn't have one whiff of God until I took psychedelics ." He was also interviewed by Arthur J. Magida at the Omega Institute in Rhinebeck, New York , who published the interview in 2008, quoting Ram Dass as saying "What I mostly remember about my bar mitzvah
13224-550: Was that it was an empty ritual. It was flat. Absolutely flat. There was a disappointing hollowness to the moment. There was nothing, nothing, nothing in it for my heart." Alpert attended the Williston Northampton School , graduating cum laude in 1948. He earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in psychology from Tufts University in 1952. His father had wanted him to go to medical school, but while at Tufts he decided to study psychology instead. After earning
13340-430: Was to bridge the gap between psychoanalytic concepts and neuroscientific findings. Solms theorizes that for every cognition based action, there is a neurological reason behind it. According to Daniela Mosri, nueropsychoanalysis was coined by Solms and is a continuation of the original model proposed by Freud in 1895. Neuropsychoanalysis is an interdisciplinary approach that focuses on how neurobiological mechanisms imfluence
13456-510: Was trained psychoanalytically but was concerned about some properties of psychoanalysis; he was troubled by the dogmatism of psychoanalysis at the time, its arcane terminology, the lack of attention to environment in child behaviour, and the concepts derived from talking therapy to child behaviour. In response, he developed an alternative conceptualization of child behaviour based on principles on ethology . Bowlby's theory of attachment rejects Freud's model of psychosexual development based on
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