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94-760: [REDACTED] Look up الحرمين in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Haramayn (from Arabic: الحرمين , dual form of haram , meaning "The Two Sanctuaries"), is the traditional Islamic appellation of the two holiest cities of Islam, Mecca and Medina . It may also refer to: Jerusalem and Hebron during the Mamluk and Ottoman eras, echoing their status as holy sites for Palestinian Muslims Imam al-Haramayn (1028–1085 CE), Sunni Shafi'i hadith and Kalam scholar al-Haramain Foundation (or al-Haramayn Foundation),

188-460: A ت ta . When the dual noun or adjective is rendered in the genitive or accusative cases, the ان -ān becomes ين -ain . Besides the noun and adjective dual, there are also dual verb forms of compulsory use for second and third person, together with their pronouns, but none for the first person. The use of dual in spoken Arabic varies widely and is mostly rendered as ين -ain even when in nominative context. Whereas its use

282-604: A branch of the Northwest Semitic languages included Edomite , Hebrew , Ammonite , Moabite , Phoenician ( Punic / Carthaginian ), Samaritan Hebrew , and Ekronite . They were spoken in what is today Israel and the Palestinian territories , Syria , Lebanon , Jordan , the northern Sinai Peninsula , some northern and eastern parts of the Arabian Peninsula , southwest fringes of Turkey , and in

376-800: A charity foundation based in Saudi Arabia, alleged by the U.S. Department of the Treasury to have "direct links" with Osama bin Laden Haramain high-speed railway , Saudi Arabia's high-speed rail system linking Mecca and Medina. Bayn al-Haramayn , the area between the Imam Husayn shrine and al-Abbas mosque, in Karbala See also [ edit ] Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques Topics referred to by

470-629: A comparative analysis of Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic was published in Latin in 1538 by Guillaume Postel . Almost two centuries later, Hiob Ludolf described the similarities between these three languages and the Ethiopian Semitic languages . However, neither scholar named this grouping as "Semitic". The term "Semitic" was created by members of the Göttingen school of history , initially by August Ludwig von Schlözer (1781), to designate

564-492: A distinction between singular and plural : English, for example, distinguishes between man and men , or house and houses . In some languages , in addition to such singular and plural forms, there is also a dual form, which is used when exactly two people or things are meant. In many languages with dual forms, the use of the dual is mandatory as in some Arabic dialects using dual in nouns as in Hejazi Arabic , and

658-590: A dual number, though its use was confined to standard phrases like "two hands", "two eyes", and "two arms". The dual in Hebrew has also atrophied, generally being used for only time, number, and natural pairs (like body parts) even in its most ancient form . Inuktitut and the related Central Alaskan Yup'ik language use dual forms; however, the related Greenlandic language does not (though it used to have them). Khoekhoegowab and other Khoe languages mark dual number in their person-gender-number enclitics , though

752-639: A few modern Indo-European languages such as Irish , Scottish Gaelic , Lithuanian , Slovene , and Sorbian languages . The majority of modern Indo-European languages, including modern English, have lost the dual number through their development. Its function has mostly been replaced by the simple plural. They may however show residual traces of the dual, for example in the English distinctions: both vs. all , either vs. any , neither vs. none , and so on. A commonly used sentence to exemplify dual in English

846-437: A literary language of early Christianity in the third to fifth centuries and continued into the early Islamic era. The Arabic language, although originating in the Arabian Peninsula , first emerged in written form in the 1st to 4th centuries CE in the southern regions of The Levant . With the advent of the early Arab conquests of the seventh and eighth centuries, Classical Arabic eventually replaced many (but not all) of

940-466: A number of languages, including Amharic and Tigrinya . With the expansion of Ethiopia under the Solomonic dynasty , Amharic, previously a minor local language, spread throughout much of the country, replacing both Semitic (such as Gafat ) and non-Semitic (such as Weyto ) languages, and replacing Ge'ez as the principal literary language (though Ge'ez remains the liturgical language for Christians in

1034-422: A question of transcription; the exact pronunciation is not recorded. Most of the attested languages have merged a number of the reconstructed original fricatives, though South Arabian retains all fourteen (and has added a fifteenth from *p > f). In Aramaic and Hebrew, all non-emphatic stops occurring singly after a vowel were softened to fricatives, leading to an alternation that was often later phonemicized as

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1128-652: A result of the loss of gemination. In languages exhibiting pharyngealization of emphatics, the original velar emphatic has rather developed to a uvular stop [q] . Note: the fricatives *s, *z, *ṣ, *ś, *ṣ́, and *ṱ may also be interpreted as affricates (/t͡s/, /d͡z/, /t͡sʼ/, /t͡ɬ/, /t͡ɬʼ/, and /t͡θʼ/). Notes: The following table shows the development of the various fricatives in Hebrew, Aramaic, Arabic and Maltese through cognate words: – żmien xahar sliem tnejn – */d/ d daħaq – ħolm għarb sebgħa Proto-Semitic vowels are, in general, harder to deduce due to

1222-569: A variety of Maghrebi Arabic formerly spoken in Sicily . The modern Maltese alphabet is based on the Latin script with the addition of some letters with diacritic marks and digraphs . Maltese is the only Semitic official language within the European Union . Successful as second languages far beyond their numbers of contemporary first-language speakers, a few Semitic languages today are

1316-499: Is lenited . Masculine nouns take no special inflection, but feminine nouns have a slenderized dual form, which is in fact identical to the dative singular. Languages of the Brythonic branch do not have dual number. As mentioned above for Middle Welsh, some nouns can be said to have dual forms, prefixed with a form of the numeral "two" (Breton daou- / div- , Welsh dau- / deu- / dwy- , Cornish dew- / diw- ). This process

1410-583: Is verb–subject–object (VSO), possessed–possessor (NG), and noun–adjective (NA). This was still the case in Classical Arabic and Biblical Hebrew , e.g. Classical Arabic رأى محمد فريدا ra'ā muħammadun farīdan . (literally "saw Muhammad Farid", Muhammad saw Farid ). In the modern Arabic vernaculars , however, as well as sometimes in Modern Standard Arabic (the modern literary language based on Classical Arabic) and Modern Hebrew ,

1504-427: Is " Both go to the same school. " where both refers to two specific people who had already been determined in the conversation. Many Semitic languages have dual number. For instance, in Hebrew יים ‎- ( -ayim ) or a variation of it is added to the end of some nouns, e.g. some parts of the body (eye, ear, nostril, lip, hand, leg) and some time periods (minute, hour, day, week, month, year) to indicate that it

1598-547: Is a working language in Eritrea. Tigre is spoken by over one million people in the northern and central Eritrean lowlands and parts of eastern Sudan. A number of Gurage languages are spoken by populations in the semi-mountainous region of central Ethiopia, while Harari is restricted to the city of Harar . Ge'ez remains the liturgical language for certain groups of Christians in Ethiopia and in Eritrea . The phonologies of

1692-660: Is also used liturgically by the primarily Arabic-speaking followers of the Maronite Church , Syriac Catholic Church , and was originally the liturgical language of the Melkites in Antioch , and ancient Syria . Koine Greek and Classical Arabic are the main liturgical languages of Oriental Orthodox Christians in the Middle East, who compose the patriarchates of Antioch , Jerusalem , and Alexandria . Mandaic

1786-612: Is both spoken and used as a liturgical language by the Mandaeans . Although the majority of Neo-Aramaic dialects spoken today are descended from Eastern varieties, Western Neo-Aramaic is still spoken in two villages in Syria. Despite the ascendancy of Arabic in the Middle East, other Semitic languages still exist. Biblical Hebrew, long extinct as a colloquial language and in use only in Jewish literary, intellectual, and liturgical activity,

1880-552: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Dual (grammatical number) The dual number existed in Proto-Indo-European and persisted in many of its descendants , such as Ancient Greek and Sanskrit , which have dual forms across nouns, verbs, and adjectives; Gothic , which used dual forms in pronouns and verbs; and Old English (Anglo-Saxon), which used dual forms in its pronouns . It can still be found in

1974-466: Is dual (regardless of how the plural is formed). A similar situation exists in classical Arabic, where ان -ān is added to the end of any noun to indicate that it is dual (regardless of how the plural is formed). It is also present in Khoisan languages that have a rich inflectional morphology , particularly Khoe languages , as well as Kunama , a Nilo-Saharan language . Many languages make

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2068-499: Is natural for the consonants , as sound correspondences among the consonants of the Semitic languages are very straightforward for a family of its time depth. Sound shifts affecting the vowels are more numerous and, at times, less regular. Each Proto-Semitic phoneme was reconstructed to explain a certain regular sound correspondence between various Semitic languages. Note that Latin letter values ( italicized ) for extinct languages are

2162-416: Is not fully productive, however, and the prefixed forms are semantically restricted. For example, Breton daouarn (< dorn "hand") can only refer to one person's pair of hands, not any two hands from two different people. Welsh deufis must refer to a period of two consecutive months, whereas dau fis can be any two months (compare "fortnight" in English as opposed to "two weeks" or "14 days";

2256-405: Is now only spoken by a few thousand Christian and Muslim Arameans (Syriacs) in western Syria . The Arabs spread their Central Semitic language to North Africa ( Egypt , Libya , Tunisia , Algeria , Morocco , and northern Sudan and Mauritania ), where it gradually replaced Egyptian Coptic and many Berber languages (although Berber is still largely extant in many areas), and for a time to

2350-615: Is quite common in Levantine Arabic , for instance كيلوين kilowain meaning "two kilograms", dual forms are generally not used in Maghrebi Arabic , where two units are commonly expressed with the word زوج zuʒ , as in زوج كيلو zuʒ kilu meaning "a pair of kilograms", with the noun appearing in singular. In Biblical , Mishnaic , and Medieval Hebrew , like Arabic and other Semitic languages , all nouns can have singular, plural or dual forms, and there

2444-413: Is shown in pointed text with a pathach; in a purely consonantal text, masculine dual is not indicated at all by the consonants. The dual for (two) days is יוֹמַ֫יִם ‎ with pathach under the mem. An example of the dual form is יום / יומיים / ימים ‎ yōm / yomạyim / yāmīm "day / two days / [two or more] days". Some words occur so often in pairs that the form with the dual suffix -ạyim

2538-491: Is still a debate whether there are vestiges of dual verbal forms and pronouns. However, in practice, most nouns use only singular and plural forms. Usually ־ים ‎ -īm is added to masculine words to make them plural for example ספר / ספרים ‎ sēfer / səfārīm "book / books", whilst with feminine nouns the ־ה ‎ -ā is replaced with ־ות ‎ -ōṯ . For example, פרה / פרות ‎ pārā / pārōṯ "cow / cows". The masculine dual form

2632-448: Is used in practice for the general plural, such as עין / עינים ‎ ʿạyin / ʿēnạyim "eye / eyes", used even in a sentence like "The spider has eight eyes." Thus words like ʿēnạyim only appear to be dual, but are in fact what is called "pseudo-dual", which is a way of making a plural. Sometimes, words can change meaning depending on whether the dual or plural form is used, for example; ʿayin can mean eye or water spring in

2726-574: Is used to form the plural of some body parts, garments, etc., for instance: In this case, even if there are more than two, the dual is still used, for instance יש לכלב ארבע רגליים yesh lə-ḵélev arbaʿ ragláyim ("a dog has four legs "). Another case of the pseudo-dual is duale tantum (a kind of plurale tantum ) nouns: In Nama , nouns have three genders and three grammatical numbers . The non-Khoe Khoesan languages ( Tuu and Kx'a ), do not have dual number marking of nouns. The category of dual can be reconstructed for Proto-Indo-European ,

2820-465: Is widely used in Sanskrit, as noted above. Its use is mandatory when the number of objects is two, and the plural is not permitted in this case, with one exception (see below). It is always indicated by the declensional suffix (and some morphophonemic modifications to the root resulting from addition of the suffix). For nouns, the dual forms are the same in the following sets of cases, with examples for

2914-586: The Assyrians and Mandaeans of northern and southern Iraq , northwestern Iran , northeastern Syria and southeastern Turkey , with up to a million fluent speakers. Syriac is a recognized language in Iraq, furthermore, Mesopotamian Arabic is one of the most Syriac influenced dialects of Arabic, due to Syriac, the dialect of Edessa specifically, having originated in Mesopotamia. Meanwhile Western Aramaic

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3008-591: The Beni Ḥassān brought Arabization to Mauritania . A number of Modern South Arabian languages distinct from Arabic still survive, such as Soqotri , Mehri and Shehri which are mainly spoken in Socotra , Yemen, and Oman. Meanwhile, the Semitic languages that had arrived from southern Arabia in the 8th century BC were diversifying in Ethiopia and Eritrea , where, under heavy Cushitic influence, they split into

3102-532: The European Union . The Semitic languages are notable for their nonconcatenative morphology . That is, word roots are not themselves syllables or words, but instead are isolated sets of consonants (usually three, making a so-called triliteral root ). Words are composed from roots not so much by adding prefixes or suffixes, but rather by filling in the vowels between the root consonants, although prefixes and suffixes are often added as well. For example, in Arabic,

3196-521: The Horn of Africa to a much earlier date. According to another hypothesis, Semitic originated from an offshoot of a still earlier language in North Africa and desertification made its inhabitants to migrate in the fourth millennium BC into what is now Ethiopia , others northwest out of Africa into West Asia. The various extremely closely related and mutually intelligible Canaanite languages ,

3290-557: The Iberian Peninsula (modern Spain , Portugal , and Gibraltar ) and Malta . With the patronage of the caliphs and the prestige of its liturgical status, Arabic rapidly became one of the world's main literary languages. Its spread among the masses took much longer, however, as many (although not all) of the native populations outside the Arabian Peninsula only gradually abandoned their languages in favour of Arabic. As Bedouin tribes settled in conquered areas, it became

3384-554: The Levant , Ethiopia , the Eastern Mediterranean region, the Arabian Peninsula , and North Africa . According to a 2009 study, the Semitic languages originated in the Levant c.  3750 BC , and were introduced to the Horn of Africa c. 800 BC from the southern Arabian Peninsula, and to North Africa via Phoenician colonists at approximately the same time. Others assign the arrival of Semitic speakers in

3478-616: The Middle East and Asia Minor during the Bronze Age and Iron Age , the earliest attested being the East Semitic Akkadian of Mesopotamia ( Akkad , Assyria , Isin , Larsa , and Babylonia ) from the third millennium BC . The origin of Semitic-speaking peoples is still under discussion. Several locations were proposed as possible sites of a prehistoric origin of Semitic-speaking peoples : Mesopotamia ,

3572-730: The Qur'an and Jews speak and study Biblical Hebrew , the language of the Torah , Midrash , and other Jewish scriptures. The followers of the Assyrian Church of the East , Chaldean Catholic Church , Ancient Church of the East , Assyrian Pentecostal Church , Assyrian Evangelical Church , and the Syriac Orthodox Church speak Eastern Aramaic languages and use Classical Syriac as their liturgical language . Classical Syriac

3666-573: The genitive forms of uncer for first person and incer for second person. The dual lasted beyond Old English into the Early Middle English period in the Southern and Midland dialects. Middle English saw git evolve into ȝit , and inc can be seen in various different forms including ȝinc , ȝunc , unk , hunk , and hunke . The dual mostly died out in the early 1200s, surviving to around 1300 only in

3760-891: The neuter gender does not have a dual form. Austronesian languages , particularly Polynesian languages such as Hawaiian , Niuean , and Tongan , possess a dual number for pronouns but not for nouns, as nouns are generally marked for plural syntactically and not morphologically. Other Austronesian languages, particularly those spoken in the Philippines , have a dual first-person pronoun; these languages include Ilokano ( data ), Tausug ( kita ), and Kapampangan ( ìkatá ). These forms mean "we", but specifically "you and I". This form once existed in Tagalog ( katá or sometimes kitá ) but has disappeared from standard usage (save for certain dialects such as in Batangas ) since

3854-522: The nonconcatenative morphology of Semitic languages. The history of vowel changes in the languages makes drawing up a complete table of correspondences impossible, so only the most common reflexes can be given: The Semitic languages share a number of grammatical features, although variation — both between separate languages, and within the languages themselves — has naturally occurred over time. The reconstructed default word order in Proto-Semitic

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3948-512: The East Midland dialect. In a small number of modern English dialects, dual pronouns have independently returned. These include: Gothic retained the dual more or less unchanged from Proto-Germanic. It had markings for the first and second person for both the verbs and pronouns, for example wit "we two" as compared to weis "we, more than two". Old Norse and other old Germanic languages, like Old English, had dual marking only in

4042-524: The Near East, particularly after being adopted as the lingua franca of the vast Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC) by Tiglath-Pileser III during the 8th century BC, and being retained by the succeeding Neo-Babylonian and Achaemenid Empires . The Chaldean language (not to be confused with Aramaic or its Biblical variant , sometimes referred to as Chaldean ) was a Northwest Semitic language, possibly closely related to Aramaic, but no examples of

4136-708: The Palestinian territories, Jordan, Lebanon) during the 14th century BC, incorporating elements of the Mesopotamian East Semitic Akkadian language of Assyria and Babylonia with the West Semitic Canaanite languages. Aramaic , a still living ancient Northwest Semitic language, first attested in the 12th century BC in the northern Levant , gradually replaced the East Semitic and Canaanite languages across much of

4230-439: The Semitic languages of Ethiopia and Eritrea , is technically an abugida  – a modified abjad in which vowels are notated using diacritic marks added to the consonants at all times, in contrast with other Semitic languages which indicate vowels based on need or for introductory purposes. Maltese is the only Semitic language written in the Latin script and the only Semitic language to be an official language of

4324-493: The alphabet used, the name "Semitic languages" is completely appropriate. Previously these languages had been commonly known as the " Oriental languages " in European literature. In the 19th century, "Semitic" became the conventional name; however, an alternative name, " Syro-Arabian languages ", was later introduced by James Cowles Prichard and used by some writers. Semitic languages were spoken and written across much of

4418-668: The ancestor of all Indo-European languages , and it has been retained as a fully functioning category in the earliest attested daughter languages. The best evidence for the dual among ancient Indo-European languages can be found in Old Indo-Iranian ( Vedic Sanskrit and Avestan ), Homeric Greek and Old Church Slavonic , where its use was obligatory for all inflected categories including verbs, nouns, adjectives, pronouns and some numerals. Various traces of dual can also be found in Gothic , Old Irish , and Latin (more below). Due to

4512-431: The attested Semitic languages are presented here from a comparative point of view (see Proto-Semitic language#Phonology for details on the phonological reconstruction of Proto-Semitic used in this article). The reconstruction of Proto-Semitic (PS) was originally based primarily on Arabic , whose phonology and morphology (particularly in Classical Arabic ) is very conservative, and which preserves as contrastive 28 out of

4606-403: The base of the sacred literature of some of the world's major religions, including Islam (Arabic), Judaism (Hebrew and Aramaic ( Biblical and Talmudic )), churches of Syriac Christianity (Classical Syriac) and Ethiopian and Eritrean Orthodox Christianity (Ge'ez). Millions learn these as a second language (or an archaic version of their modern tongues): many Muslims learn to read and recite

4700-574: The case of Phoenician, coastal regions of Tunisia ( Carthage ), Libya , Algeria , and parts of Morocco , Spain , and possibly in Malta and other Mediterranean islands. Ugaritic , a Northwest Semitic language closely related to but distinct from the Canaanite group was spoken in the kingdom of Ugarit in north western Syria. A hybrid Canaano-Akkadian language also emerged in Canaan (Israel and

4794-588: The classical VSO order has given way to SVO. Modern Ethiopian Semitic languages follow a different word order: SOV, possessor–possessed, and adjective–noun; however, the oldest attested Ethiopian Semitic language, Ge'ez, was VSO, possessed–possessor, and noun–adjective. Akkadian was also predominantly SOV. The proto-Semitic three-case system ( nominative , accusative and genitive ) with differing vowel endings (-u, -a -i), fully preserved in Qur'anic Arabic (see ʾIʿrab ), Akkadian and Ugaritic , has disappeared everywhere in

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4888-465: The concept of "we two here" as contrasted to "we". Nenets , two closely-related Samoyedic languages , features a complete set of dual possessive suffixes for two systems, the number of possessors and the number of possessed objects (for example, "two houses of us two" expressed in one word). The dual form is also used in several modern Indo-European languages, such as Irish , Scottish Gaelic , Slovene , and Sorbian (see below for details). The dual

4982-673: The dual in Ancient Greek. In classical Greek, the dual was lost, except in the Attic dialect of Athens , where it persisted until the fifth century BC. Even in this case, its use depended on the author and certain stock expressions. In Koine Greek and Modern Greek , the only remnant of the dual is the numeral for "two", δύο , dýo , which has lost its genitive and dative cases (both δυοῖν , dyoīn ) and retains its nominative/accusative form. Thus it appears to be undeclined in all cases. Nevertheless, Aristophanes of Byzantium ,

5076-455: The dual number of the present tense, called laṭ lakāra: (In Sanskrit, the order of the persons is reversed.) The one exception to the rigidness about dual number is in the case of the pronoun asmad (I/we): Sanskrit grammar permits one to use the plural number for asmad even if the actual number of objects denoted is one or two (this is similar to the "royal we"). For example, while ahaṃ bravīmi , āvāṃ brūvaḥ and vayaṃ brūmaḥ are respectively

5170-492: The dual was also present in verbal inflection where the syncretism was much lower. Of living Indo-European languages, the dual can be found in dialects of Scottish Gaelic , but fully functioning as a paradigmatic category only in Slovene , and Sorbian . Remnants of the dual can be found in many of the remaining daughter languages, where certain forms of the noun are used with the number two (see below for examples). The dual

5264-550: The eastern coast of Saudi Arabia , and Bahrain , Qatar , Oman , and Yemen . South Semitic languages are thought to have spread to the Horn of Africa circa 8th century BC where the Ge'ez language emerged (though the direction of influence remains uncertain). Classical Syriac , a 200 CE Eastern Middle Aramaic dialect, used as a liturgical language in Mesopotamia , the Levant , and Kerala , India, rose to importance as

5358-508: The evident 29 consonantal phonemes. with *s [ s ] and *š [ ʃ ] merging into Arabic / s / ⟨ س ⟩ and *ś [ ɬ ] becoming Arabic / ʃ / ⟨ ش ⟩ . Note: the fricatives *s, *z, *ṣ, *ś, *ṣ́, and *ṱ may also be interpreted as affricates (/t͡s/, /d͡z/, /t͡sʼ/, /t͡ɬ/, /t͡ɬʼ/, and /t͡θʼ/), as discussed in Proto-Semitic language § Fricatives . This comparative approach

5452-514: The expression beide ("both") is equivalent to, though more commonly used than, alle zwei ("all two"). Norwegian Nynorsk also retains the conjunction korgje ("one of two") and its inverse korkje ("neither of two"). A remnant of a lost dual also survives in the Icelandic and Faroese ordinals first and second, which can be translated two ways: First there is fyrri / fyrri / fyrra and seinni / seinni / seinna , which mean

5546-524: The first and second of two respectively, while fyrsti / fyrsta / fyrsta and annar / önnur / annað mean first and second of more than two. In Icelandic the pronouns annar / önnur / annað ("one") and hinn / hin / hitt ("other") are also used to denote each unit of a set of two in contrast to the pronouns einn / ein / eitt ("one") and annar / önnur / annað ("second"). Therefore in Icelandic "with one hand" translates as með annarri hendi not með einni hendi , and as in English "with

5640-409: The first must, but the second and third need not, be a single consecutive period). The modern Welsh term dwylo (= hands) is formed by adding the feminine (and conjoining) form of 'two' ( dwy ) with the word for 'hand' — llaw becoming lo as it is no longer in a stressed syllable. In Proto-Germanic , the dual had been entirely lost in nouns, and since verbs agreed with nouns in number,

5734-461: The foremost authority of his time (early 2nd century BC) on grammar and style, and a staunch defender of "proper" High Attic tradition, admonishes those who write δυσί ( dysí ) (dative, plural number) rather than the "correct" δυοῖν ( dyoīn ) (dative, dual number). The dual was lost in Latin and its sister Italic languages . However, certain fossilized forms remained, for example, viginti (twenty), but triginta (thirty),

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5828-691: The indigenous Semitic languages and cultures of the Near East . Both the Near East and North Africa saw an influx of Muslim Arabs from the Arabian Peninsula, followed later by non-Semitic Muslim Iranian and Turkic peoples . The previously dominant Aramaic dialects maintained by the Assyrians, Babylonians and Persians gradually began to be sidelined, however descendant dialects of Eastern Aramaic (including Suret (Assyrian and Chaldean varieties), Turoyo , and Mandaic ) survive to this day among

5922-707: The language remain, as after settling in south eastern Mesopotamia from the Levant during the 9th century BC, the Chaldeans appear to have rapidly adopted the Akkadian and Aramaic languages of the indigenous Mesopotamians. Old South Arabian languages (classified as South Semitic and therefore distinct from the Central-Semitic Arabic) were spoken in the kingdoms of Dilmun , Sheba , Ubar , Socotra , and Magan , which in modern terms encompassed part of

6016-507: The languages closely related to Arabic, Aramaic, and Hebrew. The choice of name was derived from Shem , one of the three sons of Noah in the genealogical accounts of the biblical Book of Genesis , or more precisely from the Koine Greek rendering of the name, Σήμ (Sēm) . Johann Gottfried Eichhorn is credited with popularising the term, particularly via a 1795 article "Semitische Sprachen" ( Semitic languages ) in which he justified

6110-466: The legends about the invention of the syllabograms and alphabetic script go back to the Semites. In contrast, all so called Hamitic peoples originally used hieroglyphs, until they here and there, either through contact with the Semites, or through their settlement among them, became familiar with their syllabograms or alphabetic script, and partly adopted them. Viewed from this aspect too, with respect to

6204-662: The main language of not only central Arabia, but also Yemen, the Fertile Crescent , and Egypt . Most of the Maghreb followed, specifically in the wake of the Banu Hilal 's incursion in the 11th century, and Arabic became the native language of many inhabitants of al-Andalus . After the collapse of the Nubian kingdom of Dongola in the 14th century, Arabic began to spread south of Egypt into modern Sudan ; soon after,

6298-477: The many colloquial forms of Semitic languages. Modern Standard Arabic maintains such case distinctions, although they are typically lost in free speech due to colloquial influence. An accusative ending -n is preserved in Ethiopian Semitic. In the northwest, the scarcely attested Samalian reflects a case distinction in the plural between nominative -ū and oblique -ī (compare the same distinction in Classical Arabic). Additionally, Semitic nouns and adjectives had

6392-409: The masculine noun bāla (boy): In Sanskrit, adjectives are treated the same as nouns as far as case declensions are concerned. As for pronouns, the same rules apply, except for a few special forms used in some cases. Verbs have distinct dual forms in the three persons in both the ātmanepada and parasmaipada forms of verbs. For instance, the root pac meaning "to cook", takes the following forms in

6486-400: The middle of the 20th century, with kitá as the only surviving form (e.g. Mahál kitá , loosely "I love you"). The dual was a standard feature of the Proto-Uralic language , and lives on in the Samoyedic branch and in most Sami languages , while other members of the family like Finnish , Estonian , and Hungarian have lost it. Sami languages also feature dual pronouns, expressing

6580-547: The northeastern Levant respectively. The only earlier attested languages are Sumerian and Elamite (2800 BCE to 550 BCE), both language isolates , and Egyptian ( c.  3000 BCE ), a sister branch within the Afroasiatic family, related to the Semitic languages but not part of them. Amorite appeared in Mesopotamia and the northern Levant c.  2100 BC , followed by the mutually intelligible Canaanite languages (including Hebrew, Phoenician, Moabite, Edomite, and Ammonite, and perhaps Ekronite, Amalekite and Sutean),

6674-406: The numeral two: e.g. deulin (from glin "knee"), dwyglust (from clust "ear"). In the modern languages, there are still significant remnants of dual number in Irish and Scottish Gaelic in nominal phrases containing the numeral dhá or dà (including the higher numerals 12, 22, etc.). As the following table shows, dhá and dà combines with a singular noun, which

6768-494: The other hand" is með hinni hendinni . An additional element in Icelandic worth mentioning are the interrogative pronouns hvor / hvor / hvort ("who / which / what" of two) and hver / hver / hvert ("who / which / what" of more than two). Among the Baltic languages , the dual form existed but is now nearly obsolete in standard Lithuanian . The dual form Du litu was still used on two- litas coins issued in 1925, but

6862-499: The personal pronouns and not in the verbs. The dual has disappeared as a productive form in all the living languages, with loss of the dual occurring in North Frisian dialects only quite recently. In Austro-Bavarian , the old dual pronouns have replaced the standard plural pronouns: nominative es , accusative enk (from Proto-Germanic * jut  and * inkw , * inkwiz ). A similar development in

6956-662: The plural form ( 2 litai ) is used on later two-litas coins. Semitic languages The Semitic languages are a branch of the Afroasiatic language family . They include Arabic , Amharic , Tigrinya , Aramaic , Hebrew , Maltese and numerous other ancient and modern languages. They are spoken by more than 330 million people across much of West Asia , North Africa , the Horn of Africa , Malta , and in large immigrant and expatriate communities in North America , Europe , and Australasia . The terminology

7050-444: The plural is used only for groups greater than two. However, the use of the dual is optional in some languages such as other modern Arabic dialects including Egyptian Arabic . In other languages such as Hebrew , the dual exists only for words naming time spans (day, week, etc.), a few measure words , and for words that naturally come in pairs and are not used in the plural except in rhetoric: eyes, ears, and so forth. In Slovene ,

7144-605: The pronoun obe / oba ('both'), the dual form that follows is mandatory. But the use of "obe (both)" is not mandatory since "očesi (two eyes)" as it is, implies that one means both eyes. Although relatively few languages have the dual number, using different words for groups of two and groups greater than two is not uncommon. English has words distinguishing dual vs. plural number, including: both / all , either / any , neither / none , between / among , former / first , and latter / last . Japanese , which has no grammatical number, also has words dochira ( どちら , 'which of

7238-744: The pronoun system can be seen in Icelandic and Faroese . Another remnant of the dual can be found in the use of the pronoun begge ("both") in the Scandinavian languages of Norwegian and Danish , bägge in Swedish and báðir / báðar / bæði in Faroese and Icelandic. In these languages, in order to state "all + number", the constructions are begge to / báðir tveir / báðar tvær / bæði tvö ("all two") but alle tre / allir þrír / allar þrjár / öll þrjú ("all three"). In German,

7332-459: The region); this spread continues to this day, with Qimant set to disappear in another generation. Arabic is currently the native language of majorities from Mauritania to Oman , and from Iraq to Sudan . Classical Arabic is the language of the Quran . It is also studied widely in the non-Arabic-speaking Muslim world . The Maltese language is a descendant of the extinct Siculo-Arabic ,

7426-615: The root meaning "write" has the form k-t-b . From this root, words are formed by filling in the vowels and sometimes adding consonants, e.g. كِتاب k i t ā b "book", كُتُب k u t u b "books", كاتِب k ā t i b "writer", كُتّاب k u tt ā b "writers", كَتَب k a t a b a "he wrote", يكتُب ya kt u b u "he writes", etc.. The similarity of the Hebrew, Arabic and Aramaic languages has been accepted by all scholars since medieval times. The languages were familiar to Western European scholars due to historical contact with neighbouring Near Eastern countries and through Biblical studies , and

7520-459: The same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Haramayn . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Haramayn&oldid=1255460279 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Articles containing Arabic-language text Short description

7614-453: The scarcity of evidence, the reconstruction of dual endings for Proto-Indo-European is difficult, but at least formally according to the comparative method it can be ascertained that no more than three dual endings are reconstructible for nominal inflection. Mallory & Adams (2006) reconstruct the dual endings as: The Proto-Indo-European category of dual did not only denote two of something: it could also be used as an associative marker,

7708-559: The singular, but in the plural eyes will take the dual form of ʿenayim whilst springs are ʿeynot . Adjectives, verbs, and pronouns have only singular and plural, with the plural forms of these being used with dual nouns. In Modern Hebrew as used in Israel , there is also a dual number, but its use is very restricted. The dual form is usually used in expressions of time and number. These nouns have plurals as well, which are used for numbers higher than two, for example: The pseudo-dual

7802-583: The singular, dual and plural forms of "I say" and "we say", vayaṃ brūmaḥ can be used in the singular and dual sense as well. The dual can be found in Ancient Greek Homeric texts such as the Iliad and the Odyssey , although its use is only sporadic, owing as much to artistic prerogatives as dictional and metrical requirements within the hexametric meter . There were only two distinct forms of

7896-513: The so-called elliptical dual . For example, the Vedic deity Mitrá , when appearing in dual form Mitrā́ , refers to both Mitra and his companion Varuṇa . Homeric dual Αἴαντε refers to Ajax the Greater and his fighting companion Teucer , and Latin plural Castorēs is used to denote both the semi-god Castor and his twin brother Pollux . Beside nominal (nouns, adjectives and pronouns),

7990-556: The still spoken Aramaic , and Ugaritic during the 2nd millennium BC. Most scripts used to write Semitic languages are abjads  – a type of alphabetic script that omits some or all of the vowels, which is feasible for these languages because the consonants are the primary carriers of meaning in the Semitic languages. These include the Ugaritic , Phoenician , Aramaic , Hebrew , Syriac , Arabic , and ancient South Arabian alphabets. The Geʽez script , used for writing

8084-557: The surrounding Arabic dialects and from the languages of the Old South Arabian inscriptions. Historically linked to the peninsular homeland of Old South Arabian, of which only one language, Razihi , remains, Ethiopia and Eritrea contain a substantial number of Semitic languages; the most widely spoken are Amharic in Ethiopia, Tigre in Eritrea , and Tigrinya in both. Amharic is the official language of Ethiopia. Tigrinya

8178-694: The terminology against criticism that Hebrew and Canaanite were the same language despite Canaan being " Hamitic " in the Table of Nations : In the Mosaic Table of Nations , those names which are listed as Semites are purely names of tribes who speak the so-called Oriental languages and live in Southwest Asia. As far as we can trace the history of these very languages back in time, they have always been written with syllabograms or with alphabetic script (never with hieroglyphs or pictograms ); and

8272-479: The third person dual form of verbs was also lost. The dual therefore remained only in the first and second person pronouns and their accompanying verb forms. Old English further lost all remaining dual verbs, keeping only first and second person dual pronouns. The Old English first person dual pronoun was wit in the nominative and unc in the accusative , and the second person equivalents were git and inc respectively. The West Saxon dialect also had

8366-504: The two') and dore ( どれ , 'which of the three or more'), etc. Among living languages, Modern Standard Arabic has a mandatory dual number, marked on nouns, verbs, adjectives, and pronouns. (First-person dual forms, however, do not exist; compare this to the lack of third-person dual forms in the old Germanic languages.) Many of the spoken Arabic dialects have a dual marking for nouns (only), and its use can be mandatory in some dialects, and not mandatory in others. Likewise, Akkadian had

8460-448: The use of the dual is mandatory except for nouns that are natural pairs, such as trousers, eyes, ears, lips, hands, arms, legs, feet, kidneys, breasts, lungs, etc., for which the plural form has to be used unless one wants to stress that something is true for both one and the other part. For example, one says oči me bolijo ('my eyes hurt'), but if they want to stress that both their eyes hurt, they say obe očesi me bolita . When using

8554-526: The words ambo / ambae (both, compare Slavic oba ), duo / duae with a dual declension. Reconstructed Proto-Celtic nominal and adjectival declensions contain distinct dual forms; pronouns and verbs do not. In Old Irish , nouns and the definite article still have dual forms, but only when accompanied by the numeral * da "two". Traces of the dual remain in Middle Welsh , in nouns denoting pairs of body parts that incorporate

8648-409: Was a common feature of all early Slavic languages around the year 1000. In Modern Standard Arabic , as well as in Classical Arabic , the use of dual is compulsory when describing two units. For this purpose, ان -ān is added to the end of any noun or adjective regardless of gender or of how the plural is formed. In the case of feminine nouns ending with ة ta marbuta , this letter becomes

8742-577: Was first used in the 1780s by members of the Göttingen school of history , who derived the name from Shem , one of the three sons of Noah in the Book of Genesis . Semitic languages occur in written form from a very early historical date in West Asia , with East Semitic Akkadian (also known as Assyrian and Babylonian ) and Eblaite texts (written in a script adapted from Sumerian cuneiform ) appearing from c.  2600 BCE in Mesopotamia and

8836-434: Was revived in spoken form at the end of the 19th century. Modern Hebrew is the main language of Israel , with Biblical Hebrew remaining as the language of liturgy and religious scholarship of Jews worldwide. In Arab-dominated Yemen and Oman, on the southern rim of the Arabian Peninsula, a few tribes continue to speak Modern South Arabian languages such as Mahri and Soqotri . These languages differ greatly from both

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