Spanish Civil War
138-647: World War II Martin Harlinghausen (17 January 1902 – 22 March 1986) was a German military aviator and general. Harlinghausen specialised in maritime interdiction and anti-warship operations . During World War II Harlinghausen was the leading exponent of anti-ship warfare with the destruction of 22 ships credited to him. Born in 1902 Harlinghausen joined the Reichsmarine , the Weimar navy. In 1931 he transitioned from sailor to pilot. After formation of
276-659: A Neutrality Pact in April 1941, and Japan adopted the doctrine of Nanshin-ron , promoted by the Navy, which took its focus southward and eventually led to war with the United States and the Western Allies. In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive. In March 1938, Germany annexed Austria , again provoking little response from other European powers. Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on
414-578: A cautious French probe into the Saarland . The Western Allies also began a naval blockade of Germany , which aimed to damage the country's economy and war effort. Germany responded by ordering U-boat warfare against Allied merchant and warships, which would later escalate into the Battle of the Atlantic . On 8 September, German troops reached the suburbs of Warsaw . The Polish counter-offensive to
552-773: A staff officer . On 5 May 1940 he was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross for commanding anti-shipping units in the Norwegian Campaign . In mid–1940 Fliegerkorps X transferred to German-occupied France. The command supported the Kriegsmarine in the Battle of the Atlantic and the Battle of Britain . In January 1941 he was awarded the Oak Leaves to the Knight's Cross. In February 1941, Harlinghausen
690-543: A He 111 from the Korpsführungkette (Corps Command Section)/ Fliegerkorps X with Harlinghausen aboard, sank the 1,388 grt Norwegian freighter, Vestfoss south-east of Copinsay Island. On 20 March he sank the transport Barn Hill (5,439 grt) on a southward armed reconnaissance mission into the English Channel . The ship sank off Brighton . The vessel settled on a sand bank in shallow water and her cargo
828-584: A further eight. Shipping operations were extended to Scotland in 1940. In March 1940 German aircraft attacked 57 merchant ships and 38 Trawlers. Seven of the former and one of the latter were seriously damaged. Despite being the chief of staff in Fliegerkorps X, Harlinghausen flew missions and sank two merchant ships of 6,827 gross register tons (GRT), and severely damaged the 8,441 grt passenger ship Domala . The attack, carried out off St Catherine's Point , killed 98 people. On 1 March 1940,
966-469: A major anchorage for the Royal Navy. Nazi propaganda wrongly claimed the aircraft carrier Ark Royal sunk. Operations in the north sea over the course of 17-19 December 1939 sank 10 vessels, all fishing trawlers, for a meagre 2,949 tons. On 17 December 1939, five trawlers were sunk, with at least two dead and five wounded. The following day there were three deaths aboard two sunken trawlers. Another
1104-524: A pretext to initiate the invasion. The first German attack of the war came against the Polish defences at Westerplatte . The United Kingdom responded with an ultimatum for Germany to cease military operations, and on 3 September, after the ultimatum was ignored, Britain and France declared war on Germany. During the Phoney War period, the alliance provided no direct military support to Poland, outside of
1242-781: A pretext to worsen relations. On 29 August, Hitler demanded that a Polish plenipotentiary immediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover of Danzig , and to allow a plebiscite in the Polish Corridor in which the German minority would vote on secession. The Poles refused to comply with the German demands, and on the night of 30–31 August in a confrontational meeting with the British ambassador Nevile Henderson , Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims rejected. On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland after having staged several false flag border incidents as
1380-598: A process that lasted three months and often left the unit severely under resourced. In his first combat mission he destroyed the Campsa fuel depots in Valencia which had been a priority target for some time. Harlinghausen became the first pilot to sink a ship using an air-dropped torpedo when he sank a cargo ship off Valencia harbour on 21 July 1938. The 4,798-ton freighter was named Thorpeness and British. It sank one nautical mile from Valencia. Francisco Franco informed
1518-681: A proper investigation. Harlinghausen died in Gütersloh in March 1986. World War II Asia-Pacific Mediterranean and Middle East Other campaigns Coups World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies and the Axis powers . Nearly all the world's countries —including all
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#17327662505511656-487: A radical change. The transfer of Condors to other theatres, according to OKL wartime report, in mid-December 1941 brought air-submarine cooperation to "a standstill". Harlinghausen's insistence on flying combat operations left his command leaderless after he was shot down and wounded without his usual pilot Robert Kowaleski on 13 October while attacking a transport ship in the Irish Sea . The crew managed to slip back to
1794-475: A secret protocol that defined German and Soviet "spheres of influence" (western Poland and Lithuania for Germany; eastern Poland , Finland, Estonia , Latvia and Bessarabia for the Soviet Union), and raised the question of continuing Polish independence. The pact neutralised the possibility of Soviet opposition to a campaign against Poland and assured that Germany would not have to face the prospect of
1932-554: A significant operational contribution to the German victory in the Norwegian Campaign by rendering Allied sea communications insecure. On 18 May 1940 Harlinghausen probably sank the 55-year old 988 brt Sirius —claimed as a 1,500 grt freighter. The campaign ended on 9 June with the Allied evacuation from Norway . The Luftwaffe tipped the balance, compensating for the weakness of Wehrmacht sea power. Interdicting shipping lanes, air superiority and transport operations were crucial to
2070-722: A similar pact and rejected ceding part of its territory to the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union invaded Finland in November 1939, and was subsequently expelled from the League of Nations for this crime of aggression. Despite overwhelming numerical superiority, Soviet military success during the Winter War was modest, and the Finno-Soviet war ended in March 1940 with some Finnish concessions of territory . In June 1940,
2208-538: A small convoy and claimed six ships totalling 20,000 grt. 6./KG 26, recalled from the Soviet Union , claimed two freighters from the infamous Pedestal convoy in mid–August. From May 1942, KG 26 engaged targets from Norway and sank a significant number of ships. Convoy PQ 10 and Convoy PQ 14 by KG 26 and 30 resulted in the sinking of two by air and two by submarine attack. It attacked Convoy PQ 16 and achieved success. In September 1942, I./KG 26 were involved in
2346-521: A strong influence on the invasion plans. Operation Weserübung began on 9 April 1940. Denmark was in German hands within the day. Airborne forces assiste in the Capture of Egersund , Kristiansand and the Oslo Airport, Fornebu . All ports, from Stavanger in the south to Trondheim in the north were to be reinforced by air once captured. From the second week, Fliegerkorps X turned to defeating
2484-531: A two-front war, as it had in World War I. Immediately afterwards, Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August, but upon hearing that the United Kingdom had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it. In response to British requests for direct negotiations to avoid war, Germany made demands on Poland, which served as
2622-546: A war with the British Empire . Harlinghausen left AS/88 to return the air war school at Gatow in December 1938. In April 1939 he became the operations officer for Luftflotte 2 (Air Fleet 2) known at the time as Luftflottenkommando 2 (Air Fleet Command 2). On 3 September 1939—two days after the invasion of Poland —Hans Geisler was removed the staff of Luftflotte 2 and given command of Fliegerkorps X, which
2760-701: The Wehrmacht (Nazi German Armed Forces) in October 1933. At this time Harlinghausen held the lowly rank of Leutnant zur See (Lt zS or LZS). In 1934 he began work as an instructor in training schools. After training as an observer in October 1934 he joined the training section of the Reichsluftfahrtministerium . At the ministry became an associate of Hans Geisler . The two men became the foremost anti-shipping experts in Germany. He served at
2898-604: The Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the German–Polish declaration of non-aggression . The situation became a crisis in late August as German troops continued to mobilise against the Polish border. On 23 August the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact with Germany, after tripartite negotiations for a military alliance between France, the United Kingdom, and Soviet Union had stalled. This pact had
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#17327662505513036-626: The British Empire , with fighting in the Balkans , Mediterranean, and Middle East , the aerial Battle of Britain and the Blitz , and naval Battle of the Atlantic . Through a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany took control of much of continental Europe and formed the Axis alliance with Italy , Japan , and other countries. In June 1941, Germany led the European Axis in an invasion of
3174-661: The Condor Legion . The frequency of bombing operations against merchant ships increased under his command. The squadron had been engaged in the Spanish Civil War since its outbreak. The main weapon of this unit was the Heinkel He 59 . From January 1937 the type began experimenting with air-dropped torpedoes against transport and warships. Harlinghausen expanded the target list to include coastal communications with bombs and small-arms fire. Harlinghausen preferred
3312-581: The German Revolution of 1918–1919 , and a democratic government, later known as the Weimar Republic , was created. The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the political right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had made some post-war territorial gains; however, Italian nationalists were angered that the promises made by the United Kingdom and France to secure Italian entrance into
3450-853: The German invasion of Poland and the United Kingdom and France 's declaration of war on Germany two days later on 3 September 1939. Dates for the beginning of the Pacific War include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or the earlier Japanese invasion of Manchuria , on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor , who stated that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously, and
3588-576: The Italian mainland , and Allied offensives in the Pacific—cost the Axis powers their initiative and forced them into strategic retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France at Normandy , while the Soviet Union regained its territorial losses and pushed Germany and its allies westward. At the same time, Japan suffered reversals in mainland Asia, while the Allies crippled
3726-553: The Japanese Navy and captured key islands . The war in Europe concluded with the liberation of German-occupied territories ; the invasion of Germany by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, culminating in the fall of Berlin to Soviet troops; Hitler's suicide ; and the German unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945 . Following the refusal of Japan to surrender on the terms of the Potsdam Declaration ,
3864-473: The Junkers Ju 52 . Kampfgeschwader 4 , 26 and 30 provided its bombing power. Harlinghausen remained chief of staff. The long coastline allowed for the use of longer range aircraft. Only weak dive-bomber units were allocated. Fliegerkorps X was given 500 aircraft; just 40 were dive-bombers. The air corps issued an order to all naval and land forces with the finalised plans, suggesting the air staff had
4002-695: The League of Nations as a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations, but the League did little when the former clearly violated Article X of the League's Covenant . The United Kingdom and France supported imposing sanctions on Italy for the invasion, but the sanctions were not fully enforced and failed to end the Italian invasion. Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany's goal of absorbing Austria . When civil war broke out in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to
4140-511: The Luftwaffe , refused citing the intent to transfer all offensive operations over to Fliegerkorps X, along with all new types. The He 115 was allocated to the navy instead. Harlinghausen was influential in ending production of the He 115 in favour of the He 111 for naval operations. For Harlinghausen, the war began in the autumn. On 17 October 1939, elements of the air corps attacked Scapa Flow ,
4278-572: The Mediterranean Theatre of Operations while managing the staff of X Fliegerkorps , delayed his command until 31 March 1941. He agreed with the operational methods of Karl Donitz at BdU , who favoured using the four-engine Focke-Wulf Fw 200 "Condors" to shadow convoys and direct U-Boats to their quarry; then to begin a coordinated air-sea attack to defeat the convoy. Harlinghausen was given meagre forces to achieve these ends owing to Hermann Göring 's intransigence. Among his duties
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4416-731: The Nationalist rebels , led by General Francisco Franco . Italy supported the Nationalists to a greater extent than the Nazis: Mussolini sent more than 70,000 ground troops, 6,000 aviation personnel, and 720 aircraft to Spain. The Soviet Union supported the existing government of the Spanish Republic . More than 30,000 foreign volunteers, known as the International Brigades , also fought against
4554-549: The North Sea . The air corps sat out the Battle of Britain until mid-August 1940, while Luftlfotte 2 and 3 carried out the main effort in southern Englanḍ. On 15 August 1940, Luftflotte 5 carried out its only large scale bombing attack of the battle on land-based targets. The OKL hoped to divide Fighter Command's fighter squadrons and destroy them by attacking the British Isles from all directions. The operation
4692-665: The Orkney islands from 8–10 April, made as a precursor to the invasions of Norway and Denmark. Anti-shipping operations were interrupted. On 5 March 1940, Harlinghausen and Geisler travelled to Berlin . They were informed of the intention to invade Denmark and Norway . The planning for these invasions ended the prospect of intensive operations in the North Sea. In April 1940 the air corps' order of battle showed considerable reinforcement. The Luftwaffe order of battle April 1940 included transport groups KGr zbv 101–108, equipped with
4830-690: The Rome–Berlin Axis . A month later, Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact , which Italy joined the following year. The Kuomintang (KMT) party in China launched a unification campaign against regional warlords and nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled in a civil war against its former Chinese Communist Party (CCP) allies and new regional warlords . In 1931, an increasingly militaristic Empire of Japan , which had long sought influence in China as
4968-590: The Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1941. By contrast, the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massing forces on the Soviet border. Hitler believed that the United Kingdom's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany sooner or later. On 31 July 1940, Hitler decided that
5106-543: The Stresa Front in April 1935 in order to contain Germany, a key step towards military globalisation ; however, that June, the United Kingdom made an independent naval agreement with Germany, easing prior restrictions. The Soviet Union, concerned by Germany's goals of capturing vast areas of Eastern Europe , drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France. Before taking effect, though, the Franco-Soviet pact
5244-709: The Sudetenland , an area of Czechoslovakia with a predominantly ethnic German population. Soon the United Kingdom and France followed the appeasement policy of British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and conceded this territory to Germany in the Munich Agreement , which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands. Soon afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia to cede additional territory to Hungary, and Poland annexed
5382-428: The Tanggu Truce was signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression in Manchuria , and Chahar and Suiyuan . After the 1936 Xi'an Incident , the Kuomintang and CCP forces agreed on a ceasefire to present a united front to oppose Japan. The Second Italo-Ethiopian War was a brief colonial war that began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war began with
5520-475: The Third Reich in 1933, Harlinghausen was compelled to join the Luftwaffe . In 1936 he was selected to command an anti-shipping unit in the Condor Legion and subsequently served in the Spanish Civil War . Harlinghausen developed effective combat tactics and was highly decorated by Nationalist Spain . Harlinghausen was appointed chief of staff of the anti-shipping Fliegerkorps X in 1939. During World War II Harlinghausen flew combat missions even while
5658-466: The Trans-Olza region of Czechoslovakia. Although all of Germany's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement, privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish "war-mongers" and in January 1939 secretly ordered a major build-up of the German navy to challenge British naval supremacy. In March 1939, Germany invaded
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5796-506: The Treaty of Craiova . The loss of one-third of Romania's 1939 territory caused a coup against King Carol II, turning Romania into a fascist dictatorship under Marshal Ion Antonescu , with a course set towards the Axis in the hopes of a German guarantee. Meanwhile, German-Soviet political relations and economic co-operation gradually stalled, and both states began preparations for war. In April 1940, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to protect shipments of iron ore from Sweden , which
5934-401: The United Kingdom and France to declare war on Germany. Poland was divided between Germany and the Soviet Union under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact , in which they had agreed on " spheres of influence " in Eastern Europe. In 1940, the Soviets annexed the Baltic states and parts of Finland and Romania . After the fall of France in June 1940, the war continued mainly between Germany and
6072-409: The University of Göttingen . He joined the Reichsmarine (German Navy) on 1 April 1923 and trained on torpedo boats . In 1931 Harlinghausen began pilot training. He received his commission as Leutnant zur See in 1927 and the Oberleutnant zur See in 1929. With the Nazi seizure of power, and the founding of the Third Reich , he transferred to the Luftwaffe , the aerial warfare branch of
6210-426: The Wehrmacht rapidly advanced to the Channel and cut off the Allied forces in Belgium, trapping the bulk of the Allied armies in a cauldron on the Franco-Belgian border near Lille. The United Kingdom was able to evacuate a significant number of Allied troops from the continent by early June, although they had to abandon almost all their equipment. On 10 June, Italy invaded France , declaring war on both France and
6348-451: The aftermath of World War I and the rise of fascism in Europe and militarism in Japan . Key events leading up to the war included Japan's invasion of Manchuria , the Spanish Civil War , the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War , and Germany's annexations of Austria and the Sudetenland . World War II is generally considered to have begun on 1 September 1939, when Nazi Germany , under Adolf Hitler , invaded Poland , prompting
6486-430: The anti-submarine warfare trawlers Siretoko , Jardine and Warwickshire . HMS Bittern was also badly damaged necessitating her scuttling by HMS Juno . Harlinghausen was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ) on 5 May 1940 for his service piloting Heinkel He 115s and commanding an ad hoc group named Fliegerführer Stavanger . Harlinghausen's command made
6624-402: The great powers —participated, with many investing all available economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities in pursuit of total war , blurring the distinction between military and civilian resources. Tanks and aircraft played major roles , with the latter enabling the strategic bombing of population centres and delivery of the only two nuclear weapons ever used in war. World War II
6762-423: The intensively bombed British base at Malta and to support the Axis powers in the Battle of the Mediterranean . The air corps moved to Axis-held Greece in June 1941, by which time Harlinghausen had left the corps. During its operations in the first half of 1941, the air corps effectively suppressed the Royal Navy Submarine Service , and its 10th Submarine Flotilla . Even with two antishipping experts occupying
6900-404: The reunification of East and West Germany to take place and resolved most post–World War II issues. No formal peace treaty between Japan and the Soviet Union was ever signed, although the state of war between the two countries was terminated by the Soviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956 , which also restored full diplomatic relations between them. World War I had radically altered
7038-458: The Åndalsnes landings and supported the Battle of Dombås and Namsos campaign . Southern and central Norway was secured within days. In the north, the Royal Navy prevented the capture of Narvik and the subsequent Battles of Narvik ended in a series of German naval defeats. Harlinghausen earned a reputation as one of the more aggressive commanders and excelled in his command of the ad hoc Fliegerführer Trondheim . The Royal Navy acknowledged
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#17327662505517176-439: The "Areopag" was held at the Luftkriegsakademie (air war academy) at Berlin-Gatow . This Luftwaffe version of the Greek Areopagus —a court of justice—aimed at finding solutions to the deteriorating air was situation over Germany. In December 1944 Harlinghausen was appointed Chef des Luftwaffenkommandos "West" , a position he held until the cessation of hostilities. He was captured by American troops, and illegally held after
7314-431: The 13 ships were sunk by air attack. KG 26 and 30 had a hand in sinking a further three; all in 300 sorties. But the cost was high; 44 aircraft. The operations, despite the losses, were a vindication of Harlinghausen and the use of torpedo bombers. In November 1942 the Axis front in North Africa began to collapse. The Second Battle of El Alamein destroyed their foothold in Egypt and led to their pursuit across Libya by
7452-536: The Air War academy at Berlin–Gatow for much of 1935 through to 1937. Harlinghausen served under Geisler at Warnemünde naval base in 1931. Harlinghausen was given command of 1 seestaffel in 1937, an elevated to the position of Staffelkapitän . In October 1937 he was appointed to command küsten mehrzweck staffel 3./506 (coastal squadron of the 506th air group). In January 1938, Harlinghausen, then ranked as Hauptmann (Captain) took command of AS/88 ( Seefliegerstaffel —sea flying squadron), an anti-shipping unit in
7590-409: The Allies were attempting to cut off . Denmark capitulated after six hours , and despite Allied support , Norway was conquered within two months. British discontent over the Norwegian campaign led to the resignation of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain , who was replaced by Winston Churchill on 10 May 1940. On the same day, Germany launched an offensive against France . To circumvent
7728-611: The Atlantic again, leaving only the U-boat war in operation. The last half of 1941 had been a severe blow to Fliegerführer Atlantik . It had sunk just four ships (10,298 tons) and damaged two for the loss of 16 Condors, including seven to convoy defences. From 15 March to 31 October 1941 Fliegerführer Atlantik reported 57 convoys. Through cooperation with U-boats 74 ships, totalling 390,000 tons, one aircraft carrier , and one destroyer were sunk. The command sank 161 vessels for 903,000 grt, probably sank seven for 31,000 grt, damaged 113 for 590,000 grt. Within six months, this trend underwent
7866-400: The Axis war against the Soviet Union, in Romania's case partially to recapture territory ceded to the Soviet Union . In early June 1940, the Italian Regia Aeronautica attacked and besieged Malta , a British possession. From late summer to early autumn, Italy conquered British Somaliland and made an incursion into British-held Egypt . In October, Italy attacked Greece , but the attack
8004-421: The Blitz , but largely ended in May 1941 after failing to significantly disrupt the British war effort. Using newly captured French ports, the German Navy enjoyed success against an over-extended Royal Navy , using U-boats against British shipping in the Atlantic . The British Home Fleet scored a significant victory on 27 May 1941 by sinking the German battleship Bismarck . In November 1939,
8142-420: The British; Operation Torch had seized Algeria , Morocco and threatened to take Tunisia . The OKW reacted swiftly and dispatched air and land forces to Tunisia to maintain a bridge head. The Run for Tunis was narrowly won by the Axis beginning the Tunisian Campaign . Harlinghausen was appointed Fliegerführer Tunesien . Harlinghausen was responsible to the Commander in Chief South, Albert Kesselring , in
8280-461: The Bundesluftwaffe from 1957 to 1961. Harlinghausen either resigned his commission or was forced into retirement after disputes with superiors. Harlinghausen was born in Rheda , the German Empire in 1902. Son of industrialist Wilhelm Harlinghausen (1866–1942) and Therese Zurmühlen. He married Inge Ruhenstroth in 1940. Harlinghausen received his elementary and secondary education in 1922. After completing his Abitur he studied law for one semester at
8418-411: The Eastern Front in April, only to return in early August. Harlinghausen remained wing commander through the intensive attacks on Malta convoys in February 1942. Among their successes was the Rowallan Castle , which sank after her escorts scuttled her. III./KG 26 moved to France near Rennes from Norway. Southwest of the Scilly Isles on 3 and 4 August it carried out its first torpedo attack against
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#17327662505518556-437: The English that the ship had struck a mine . On 1 August 1938 Harlinghausen was promoted to Major . In commanding in Spain, Harlinghausen became a pioneer of attacking ships accurately with bombs. German aircraft—mainly Heinkel He 59 and Heinkel He 60s —sank 144 ships out of the 554 lost by the Republican forces . Before the fall of Barcelona in 1939, for example, German aircraft sank 30 ships and damaged scores more in
8694-405: The European Axis declaring war on the US. Japan conquered much of coastal China and Southeast Asia , but its advances in the Pacific were halted in mid-1942 after its defeat in the naval Battle of Midway ; Germany and Italy were defeated in North Africa and at Stalingrad in the Soviet Union. Key setbacks in 1943—including German defeats on the Eastern Front, the Allied invasions of Sicily and
8832-442: The French coast near Vannes , where they were rescued by fishermen. He spent the next three months in hospital. In January 1942 he was replaced by Ulrich Kessler as Fliegerführer Atlantik . In January 1942 Harlinghausen was appointed Geschwaderkommodore of Kampfgeschwader 26 , an anti-shipping bomber wing. KG 26 operated three Gruppen , groups, simultaneously but often they operated in different theatres. Harlinghausen and
8970-410: The French possessions of Syria and Lebanon , assisted by the Free French . With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union made preparations for war. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany, and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions in Southeast Asia , the two powers signed
9108-421: The Germans saw as legitimate targets. The number of ships attacked and damaged in 1940 rose to 127 in 1940 and to a peak of 164 in 1941. On 3 November 1940 Harlinghausen was credited with sinking a 6,000 grt ship, probably the 3,871 grt Kildale off Kinnaird Head bringing his claim total to approximately 100,000 grt. The air corps was sent to Sicily , Italy in late 1940. It formed the first wave of attacks on
9246-426: The Germans, and the last large operational unit of the Polish Army surrendered on 6 October . Despite the military defeat, Poland never surrendered; instead, it formed the Polish government-in-exile and a clandestine state apparatus remained in occupied Poland. A significant part of Polish military personnel evacuated to Romania and Latvia; many of them later fought against the Axis in other theatres of
9384-408: The He 59 for the aircraft's ability to sustain severe damage and remain airborne. On one such mission over Barcelona , the aircraft was damaged by the blast from the bombs he had just dropped. The He 59 survive with a twisted fuselage and the lower wings broken in several places. Under his direction AS/88 developed ship and coastal-attack tactics. A particularly well-used approach against land targets
9522-450: The Nationalists. Both Germany and the Soviet Union used this proxy war as an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, remained officially neutral during World War II but generally favoured the Axis . His greatest collaboration with Germany was the sending of volunteers to fight on the Eastern Front . In July 1937, Japan captured
9660-452: The Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission after a carrier attack at Taranto , and neutralising several more warships at the Battle of Cape Matapan . Italian defeats prompted Germany to deploy an expeditionary force to North Africa; at the end of March 1941, Rommel 's Afrika Korps launched an offensive which drove back Commonwealth forces. In less than a month, Axis forces advanced to western Egypt and besieged
9798-423: The Soviet Union occupied the entire territories of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, as well as the Romanian regions of Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region . In August 1940, Hitler imposed the Second Vienna Award on Romania which led to the transfer of Northern Transylvania to Hungary. In September 1940, Bulgaria demanded Southern Dobruja from Romania with German and Italian support, leading to
9936-877: The Soviet Union , opening the Eastern Front and initially making large territorial gains. Japan aimed to dominate East Asia and the Asia-Pacific , and by 1937 was at war with the Republic of China . In December 1941, Japan attacked American and British territories in Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific , including Pearl Harbor in Hawaii , which resulted in the US and the UK declaring war against Japan, and
10074-641: The Soviet Union and Mongolia . The Japanese doctrine of Hokushin-ron , which emphasised Japan's expansion northward, was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time. This policy would prove difficult to maintain in light of the Japanese defeat at Khalkin Gol in 1939, the ongoing Second Sino-Japanese War and ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets. Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed
10212-756: The Soviet Union should be eliminated and aimed for the conquest of Ukraine , the Baltic states and Byelorussia . However, other senior German officials like Ribbentrop saw an opportunity to create a Euro-Asian bloc against the British Empire by inviting the Soviet Union into the Tripartite Pact. In November 1940, negotiations took place to determine if the Soviet Union would join the pact. The Soviets showed some interest but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued
10350-402: The US dropped the first atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki on 6 and 9 August. Faced with an imminent invasion of the Japanese archipelago , the possibility of further atomic bombings, and the Soviet declaration of war against Japan and its invasion of Manchuria , Japan announced its unconditional surrender on 15 August and signed a surrender document on 2 September 1945 , marking
10488-581: The United Kingdom and France guaranteed their support for Polish independence ; when Italy conquered Albania in April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to the Kingdoms of Romania and Greece . Shortly after the Franco - British pledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with the Pact of Steel . Hitler accused the United Kingdom and Poland of trying to "encircle" Germany and renounced
10626-542: The United Kingdom attacked on 3 July in an attempt to prevent its seizure by Germany. The air Battle of Britain began in early July with Luftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours . The German campaign for air superiority started in August but its failure to defeat RAF Fighter Command forced the indefinite postponement of the proposed German invasion of Britain . The German strategic bombing offensive intensified with night attacks on London and other cities in
10764-461: The United Kingdom. The Germans turned south against the weakened French army, and Paris fell to them on 14 June. Eight days later France signed an armistice with Germany ; it was divided into German and Italian occupation zones , and an unoccupied rump state under the Vichy Regime , which, though officially neutral, was generally aligned with Germany. France kept its fleet, which
10902-660: The United States was assisting China and the Western Allies, and had amended the Neutrality Act to allow "cash and carry" purchases by the Allies. In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of the United States Navy was significantly increased . In September the United States further agreed to a trade of American destroyers for British bases . Still, a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention in
11040-606: The Yellow River ; this manoeuvre bought time for the Chinese to prepare their defences at Wuhan , but the city was taken by October. Japanese military victories did not bring about the collapse of Chinese resistance that Japan had hoped to achieve; instead, the Chinese government relocated inland to Chongqing and continued the war. In the mid-to-late 1930s, Japanese forces in Manchukuo had sporadic border clashes with
11178-627: The air corps' effectiveness. Admiral Charles Forbes kept his distance from the Norwegian coast after a series of damaging air attacks on his Home Fleet . Forbes was especially concerned about his smaller ships; his cruiser and destroyers after the loss of Gurkha . Harlinghausen's air corps flew in supplies to Eduard Dietl in the days following the invasion, as his forces fought the Battles of Narvik . The snow and weather conditions made landing and take off difficult. Aircraft were vulnerable in
11316-568: The beginning of the failed air lift during the Battle of Stalingrad . Harlinghausen escaped the 13 May capitulation in which 130,000 soldiers, starved of food, fuel and ammunition, surrendered. Harlinghausen survived a month longer until dismissed from command on 10 June 1943 following a series of disputes with Kesselring. Harlinghausen's desire to rest and rebuild his Kampfgruppen was overruled by Göring. The Reichsmarschall demanded air attacks on Allied ports at night in strength. Harlinghausen's complaints to Kesslering were counter productive and
11454-454: The capital Nanking in December 1937. After the fall of Nanking, tens or hundreds of thousands of Chinese civilians and disarmed combatants were murdered by the Japanese . In March 1938, Nationalist Chinese forces won their first major victory at Taierzhuang , but then the city of Xuzhou was taken by the Japanese in May. In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance by flooding
11592-403: The conflict well into 1941. In December 1940, Roosevelt accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out any negotiations as useless, calling for the United States to become an " arsenal of democracy " and promoting Lend-Lease programmes of military and humanitarian aid to support the British war effort; Lend-Lease was later extended to the other Allies, including the Soviet Union after it
11730-526: The creation of a " New Roman Empire ". Adolf Hitler , after an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German government in 1923, eventually became the Chancellor of Germany in 1933 when Paul von Hindenburg and the Reichstag appointed him. Following Hindenburg's death in 1934, Hitler proclaimed himself Führer of Germany and abolished democracy, espousing a radical, racially motivated revision of
11868-678: The desert 280 km south east of Benghazi . They were rescued after five days; three crew were captured. On 28 February 1941 Harlinghausen was appointed Fliegerführer Atlantik (Flying Leader Atlantic). As a ship-attack expert, he was a logical choice to lead Atlantic air operations. His headquarters were stationed in the village of Brandérion . Harlinghausen was responsible for organising fleet and U-boat support, meteorological missions and even coastal protection, although Küstenfliegergruppe (KuFlGr) (coastal aircraft group), Minensuchgruppe (MSGr—minesearch group) existed for that purpose. He had barely 100 aircraft operational. His commitment to
12006-530: The destruction of Convoy PQ 17 and attacks on Convoy PQ 18 , during the Arctic convoys . In the later operation, the III./KG 26 lost 52 crew missing, seven wounded and five killed. Against PQ17, aircraft sank 10 of the 24 ships; though U-boats claimed ships that had already been crippled by air attack. This amounted to 56,000 of the 142,000 grt sunk. KG 26 were supported by torpedo-equipped He 115s. Against PQ18 ten of
12144-709: The directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union. Leutnant zur See Leutnant zur See is a military rank, used in a number of navies. Leutnant zur See ( Lt zS or LZS ) is the lowest officer rank in the German Navy , grouped as OF1 in NATO . The rank was introduced in the German Imperial Navy by renaming the former rank of Sekonde Lieutenant in 1890. In navy context officers of this rank were simply addressed as Herr Leutnant . To distinguish naval officers from officers of
12282-757: The dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian Empires. To prevent a future world war, the League of Nations was established in 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference . The organisation's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military, and naval disarmament , as well as settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration. Despite strong pacifist sentiment after World War I , irredentist and revanchist nationalism had emerged in several European states. These sentiments were especially marked in Germany because of
12420-499: The duration of the battle. The Norwegian and Danish-based German aircraft resumed the war against the Royal Navy and merchant traffic. Harlinghausen refined and developed ship-attack tactics that the Luftwaffe used over Great Britain in 1940. The bomber approached on the beam at low-level and released bombs to damage the ship's hull below the water line. The types of vessels targeted extended to Lightships and fishing boats which
12558-662: The end of May completed the German conquest of the Balkans. Partisan warfare subsequently broke out against the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia , which continued until the end of the war. In the Middle East in May, Commonwealth forces quashed an uprising in Iraq which had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlled Syria . Between June and July, British-led forces invaded and occupied
12696-463: The end of the war. World War II changed the political alignment and social structure of the world, and it set the foundation of international relations for the rest of the 20th century and into the 21st century. The United Nations was established to foster international cooperation and prevent conflicts, with the victorious great powers—China, France, the Soviet Union, the UK, and the US—becoming
12834-432: The enemy. The Italians could shadow the enemy until daybreak when his air power could be used against them. His efforts were in vain. The major success in this region was achieved on 11 January with the sinking of the cruiser Southampton and damaging of Gloucester . He was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub ) 30 January 1941. Harlinghausen
12972-454: The eventual German victory. The invasion cost Fliegerkorps X 1,130 air crew; 341 killed in action and 448 missing in action . Fliegerkorps X remained in Norway. It formed the only combat formation of Luftflotte 5 (Air Fleet 5). KG 26 and 30, the anti-shipping specialists were the only bomber units under its command. KG 4 was reassigned to Fliegerivision 9, the minelaying unit, which
13110-575: The first step of what its government saw as the country's right to rule Asia , staged the Mukden incident as a pretext to invade Manchuria and establish the puppet state of Manchukuo . China appealed to the League of Nations to stop the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after being condemned for its incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought several battles, in Shanghai , Rehe and Hebei , until
13248-864: The former Chinese imperial capital of Peking after instigating the Marco Polo Bridge incident , which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China. The Soviets quickly signed a non-aggression pact with China to lend materiel support, effectively ending China's prior cooperation with Germany . From September to November, the Japanese attacked Taiyuan , engaged the Kuomintang Army around Xinkou , and fought Communist forces in Pingxingguan . Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek deployed his best army to defend Shanghai , but after three months of fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push Chinese forces back, capturing
13386-495: The harbour. At the end of the war, which ended in a Nationalist victory for Franco, Hitler and Mussolini, AS/88 had been credited with 52 ships sunk. Nevertheless, the anti-shipping arm failed to achieve any strategic results in Spain. Harlinghausen continued to develop this neglected sphere in opposition to the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe . The high command remained aloof from naval air power matters because it did not foresee
13524-701: The initial stages, who was given complete command of the Tunisian bridgehead. The limited forces available forced the Axis to establish their lines on defencible terrain with the shortest logistics line, one as far inland from the main supply ports as Axis forces could maintain. Harlinghausen led three companies of 1st Tunis Field Battalion, one company of paratroopers, one antiaircraft artillery company, 14th Company, 104th Panzer Grenadier Regiment, advance detachment of the 5th Parachute Regiment of the Hermann Göring Panzer Division (3 officers and 150 enlisted men). Harlinghausen's forces seized
13662-525: The invasion of the Ethiopian Empire (also known as Abyssinia ) by the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy ( Regno d'Italia ), which was launched from Italian Somaliland and Eritrea . The war resulted in the military occupation of Ethiopia and its annexation into the newly created colony of Italian East Africa ( Africa Orientale Italiana , or AOI); in addition it exposed the weakness of
13800-919: The key positions in Tunis with his troops after the bulk of the Vichy French forces had withdrawn from the city on the night of 13–14 November. Harlinghausen had 140 aircraft, including 109 fighters. Harlinghausen was given command of Fliegerkorps II from February to May 1943. The air corps fought a defensive battle over Tunisia into 1943. Axis air forces in Tunisia were under constant threat of fuel and ammunition starvation. Supplies that reached Tunis were immediately used up. From March to April Allied naval and air forces sank 108 ship—41 percent of all Axis supply shipping. In contrast, Harlinghausen ordered his anti shipping units to abandon forward bases in Sardinia for
13938-564: The main reason for his dismissal. After his dismissal, Harlinghausen briefly returned to Fliegerführer Atlantik as a member of Kessler's staff but was placed in reserve on 26 June 1943. In October 1943 he was appointed General der Kampfflieger . On 11 November, Reichsmarschall (Marshal of the Realm) Hermann Göring , in his role as commander-in-chief of the Luftwaffe, organized a meeting of high-ranking Luftwaffe officers, including Nordmann. The meeting, also referred to as
14076-424: The mainland, due to Allied air raids. The daily sorties against Allied warships fell from 11 to two. In April 1943 Operation Flax permanently disrupted the air bridge from Sicily to Tunisia. At the end of April there was no fuel left to run radar sets, or move tanks from workshops. The vain effort to supply Tunisia was disastrous. In April and first week of May, 1943, 177 Junkers Ju 52s were lost; six months after
14214-432: The narrow fjords . The supply operations had limited effect; they improved morale but did not improve the battle-readiness of Dietl's forces. On 30 April 1940 Harlinghausen flew a patrol between Trondheim and Namsos in one of two staffel KüFlGr (Coastal Flying Group) 506's He 115s. Over Namsfjord he discovered many targets. His reconnaissance mission guided 3./ StG 1 to the area and the Junkers Ju 87 Stukas sank
14352-502: The permanent members of its security council . The Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers , setting the stage for the Cold War . In the wake of European devastation, the influence of its great powers waned, triggering the decolonisation of Africa and Asia . Most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery and expansion . World War II began in Europe on 1 September 1939 with
14490-589: The political European map with the defeat of the Central Powers —including Austria-Hungary , Germany , Bulgaria , and the Ottoman Empire —and the 1917 Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia , which led to the founding of the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the victorious Allies of World War I , such as France, Belgium, Italy, Romania, and Greece, gained territory, and new nation-states were created out of
14628-599: The port of Tobruk . By late March 1941, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia signed the Tripartite Pact ; however, the Yugoslav government was overthrown two days later by pro-British nationalists. Germany and Italy responded with simultaneous invasions of both Yugoslavia and Greece , commencing on 6 April 1941; both nations were forced to surrender within the month. The airborne invasion of the Greek island of Crete at
14766-580: The position of commander, and chief of staff, the air corps failed to neutralise or paralyse the island's defences. The staff blamed limited supplies and the distractions on other fronts for the failure to achieve more; and above all, closing the Strait of Sicily to British naval forces. Harlinghausen tried to secure assistance from the Regia Marina to help shut the straits. His idea was for naval forces to patrol in darkness for his air corps could not see
14904-722: The remainder of Czechoslovakia and subsequently split it into the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and a pro-German client state , the Slovak Republic . Hitler also delivered an ultimatum to Lithuania on 20 March 1939, forcing the concession of the Klaipėda Region , formerly the German Memelland . Greatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on the Free City of Danzig ,
15042-547: The shifting of air operations to interdict Gibraltar sea lanes as opposed to the Western Approaches . Harlinghausen's appointment coincided with the " First Happy Time ", which was already rapidly approaching its end when Harlinghausen took charge. By Christmas 1940, KG 40 , for example, had sunk 19 ships of approximately 100,000 tons and damaged 37– 180,000–tons worth of shipping. In January 1941, 17 ships were sunk amounting to 65,000 tons and five damaged. February
15180-462: The significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses imposed by the Treaty of Versailles . Under the treaty, Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and all its overseas possessions , while German annexation of other states was prohibited, reparations were imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country's armed forces . The German Empire was dissolved in
15318-633: The staff command remained based in the Mediterranean. Harlinghausen had long been a supporter of torpedo bomber development. Along with the operational command, he was appointed Bevollmächtigten for das Lufttorpedowesen —Plenipotentiary for airborne torpedoes. KG 26 relocated to Italy in early 1942, and began torpedo training at Grosseto . Harlinghausen soon lost one Staffeln (6) to the Black Sea campaigns . I and III./KG 26 were ready for operations and deployed to Norway while II./KG 26 transferred to
15456-498: The start or prelude to World War II. The exact date of the war's end also is not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 15 August 1945 ( V-J Day ), rather than with the formal surrender of Japan on 2 September 1945, which officially ended the war in Asia . A peace treaty between Japan and the Allies was signed in 1951. A 1990 treaty regarding Germany's future allowed
15594-593: The strong Maginot Line fortifications on the Franco-German border, Germany directed its attack at the neutral nations of Belgium , the Netherlands , and Luxembourg . The Germans carried out a flanking manoeuvre through the Ardennes region, which was mistakenly perceived by the Allies as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles. By successfully implementing new Blitzkrieg tactics,
15732-479: The time of light Condor losses ended. Three months into his leadership, Harlinghausen was held responsible for the Luftwaffe' s failure to prevent the loss of the battleship Bismarck , which sank on 27 May 1941. His command was reinforced by II./ KG 1 , II./ KG 54 and I./ KG 77 , to help the Bismarck , but the air effort failed to reach the combat area before the ship sank. No German Capital ship sailed into
15870-415: The two wars became World War II in 1941. Other proposed starting dates for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939. Others view the Spanish Civil War as
16008-598: The unit operated two Heinkel He 115s and evaluated them. AS/88 operations in Spain were undermined by a lack of support services. The He 59 units had been transferred to the Luftwaffe by the Kriegsmarine yet the navy still stored the spares for the complex machine. The only engineering unit was based in Seville , permanently and was not transferred to meet operational needs. The aircraft had to be sent back to Germany. They were flown to Cadiz , dismantled and shipped;
16146-430: The war ended. He was finally released in 1947. Harlinghausen served in the new West German Air Force from 1957 to 1961. He was sent into retirement, having been politically uncomfortable during his post-war career, after demanding a proper investigation in the 1961 F-84 Thunderstreak incident , after which Oberstleutnant Siegfried Barth , commander of Jagdbombergeschwader (JaBoG) 32 , was removed from his post without
16284-513: The war were not fulfilled in the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, the Fascist movement led by Benito Mussolini seized power in Italy with a nationalist, totalitarian , and class collaborationist agenda that abolished representative democracy, repressed socialist, left-wing, and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power, promising
16422-475: The war. Germany annexed western Poland and occupied central Poland ; the Soviet Union annexed eastern Poland ; small shares of Polish territory were transferred to Lithuania and Slovakia . On 6 October, Hitler made a public peace overture to the United Kingdom and France but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union. The proposal was rejected and Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France, which
16560-457: The west halted the German advance for several days, but it was outflanked and encircled by the Wehrmacht . Remnants of the Polish army broke through to besieged Warsaw . On 17 September 1939, two days after signing a cease-fire with Japan , the Soviet Union invaded Poland under the supposed pretext that the Polish state had ceased to exist. On 27 September, the Warsaw garrison surrendered to
16698-707: The world order , and soon began a massive rearmament campaign . France, seeking to secure its alliance with Italy, allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia , which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when the Territory of the Saar Basin was legally reunited with Germany, and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme, and introduced conscription. The United Kingdom, France and Italy formed
16836-614: Was invaded by Germany. The United States started strategic planning to prepare for a full-scale offensive against Germany. At the end of September 1940, the Tripartite Pact formally united Japan, Italy, and Germany as the Axis powers . The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country—with the exception of the Soviet Union—that attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three. The Axis expanded in November 1940 when Hungary , Slovakia , and Romania joined. Romania and Hungary later made major contributions to
16974-454: Was a failure and the air corps suffered heavy losses among bombers and long range fighter escorts. The air fleet (effectively Fliegerkorps X) lost 10 percent of its strength on one sortie . ZG 76 suffered one-third losses; some 19 aircraft over the North Sea and English Channel. The German air fleets lost 77 aircraft that day. Operations against the mainland were out of the question thereafter. The air fleet did not venture over Britain again for
17112-565: Was appointed commanding officer of the newly established Fliegerführer Atlantik . Harlinghausen lobbied hard for the expansion of his forces but other military theatres received priority. In October 1941 he was wounded in action while attacking a convoy leaving the command leaderless. On 5 January 1942 Ulrich Kessler replaced Harlinghausen. Harlinghausen was simultaneously appointed Geschwaderkommodore of Kampfgeschwader 26 and Bevollmächtigter for das Lufttorpedowesen (Plenipotentiary for airborne torpedoes). In January 1943 Harlinghausen
17250-408: Was damaged and lost three crew killed. On 19 December, Star of Scotland suffered three dead in an attempt to sink her. From 9–30 January 1940 , the air corps sank 12 freighters for 23, 994 gross register tons off eastern England. Specifically, KG 26 and 30 sank four ships and damaged four more in a single operation on 29 January. The following day, 35 Heinkel He 111s sank a further two and damaged
17388-478: Was formed into a flying corps of the same number in October 1940. While Fall Gelb was put into effect—the Battle of the Netherlands , Battle of Belgium and Battle of France — Fliegerkorps X continued in attacks on British coastal shipping. By the conclusion of the campaigns in June 1940, JG 77 provided the only single-engineḍ fighter group. ZG 76 was the long-range fighter group present for fighter escort over
17526-493: Was given command of Fliegerkorps II and relieved five months later on 10 June. He returned to duty in October 1943 as chief of staff to the General der Kampfflieger . His last command was Luftgau XIV from 21 August 1944 through to April 1945. During the appointment Harlinghausen was promoted to Generalleutnant on 1 December 1944. Harlinghausen was captured in 1945 and remained a prisoner of war until 1947. He served in
17664-578: Was initially named Fliegerdivision 10 upon formation on 5 September. Harlinghausen was appointed as chief of staff, effective from 1 November 1939. The headquarters located to Blankenese , Hamburg . The OKL regarded the war at sea and the destruction of British sea communications as secondary to the defeat of the Royal Air Force (RAF) and the British aviation industry. In September 1939, Harlinghausen's Fliegerkorps carried out sporadic operations off Eastern England with some success. After it
17802-571: Was part of the disastrous raid on British convoys moving through the Suez Canal . After four hours they reached the southernmost region, but found nothing. Harlinghausen ordered the other seven to seek alternative targets. After attacking a Ferry , Harlinghausen spotted the scattered convoy in the Great Bitter Lake . The head winds were double than expected, and all the He 111s ran out of fuel. Harlinghausen and Kowalewski crash landed in
17940-456: Was postponed until the spring of 1940 due to bad weather. After the outbreak of war in Poland, Stalin threatened Estonia , Latvia , and Lithuania with military invasion, forcing the three Baltic countries to sign pacts allowing the creation of Soviet military bases in these countries; in October 1939, significant Soviet military contingents were moved there. Finland refused to sign
18078-502: Was renamed and formed from a division to a corps on 3 October 1939 the command was given I./ Kampfgeschwader 30 and I./ Kampfgeschwader 26 , equipped with the Junkers Ju 88 and Heinkel He 111 . The air corps operated in the North Sea during the Phoney War period. In a memorandum, dated 15 January 1940, the navy wished to procure the Dornier Do 217 bomber, then under development, but Hermann Göring , commander-in-chief of
18216-709: Was repulsed with heavy Italian casualties; the campaign ended within months with minor territorial changes. To assist Italy and prevent Britain from gaining a foothold, Germany prepared to invade the Balkans, which would threaten Romanian oil fields and strike against British dominance of the Mediterranean. In December 1940, British Empire forces began counter-offensives against Italian forces in Egypt and Italian East Africa . The offensives were successful; by early February 1941, Italy had lost control of eastern Libya, and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner. The Italian Navy also suffered significant defeats, with
18354-441: Was required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it essentially toothless. The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed the Neutrality Act in August of the same year. Hitler defied the Versailles and Locarno Treaties by remilitarising the Rhineland in March 1936, encountering little opposition due to the policy of appeasement . In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed
18492-460: Was salvaged. Operations incurred casualties. No. 12 Group RAF and No. 13 Group RAF moved into Scottish and Northumbrian airfields in greater strength. With this move, the number of interceptions by RAF Fighter Command increased. 10 KG 26 bombers were lost from 17 October 1939 to 15 August 1940 over Northumbria and Durham . KG 30 lost a further aircraft; all but one to fighter aircraft. A number of these interceptions were made during attacks on
18630-480: Was the deadliest conflict in history, resulting in 70 to 85 million deaths , more than half being civilians. Millions died in genocides , including the Holocaust of European Jews, as well as from massacres, starvation, and disease. Following the Allied powers' victory, Germany , Austria , Japan , and Korea were occupied, and war crimes tribunals were conducted against German and Japanese leaders . The causes of World War II included unresolved tensions in
18768-435: Was to coordinate attacks on convoys with the Kriegsmarine's U-Boats. Harlinghausen's command was effective, and often transmitted accurate locations of convoys but because of a paucity in submarines, they failed to respond. Harlinghausen remonstrated with Dönitz who decided a more flexible approach was needed, rather than close cooperation. Harlinghausen frequently clashed with the Admiral over operational deployments, and opposed
18906-437: Was to fly at high altitude with engines switched off, then dive and release the bombs at 1,000 ft (300 metres), then start the engines for a hasty departure. By August 1938 16 sorties per week were flown, in small formations of three with each aircraft carrying a ton of bombs. 12 He 59s were lost in 1938 and 1939—three to night fighters . Losses were replaced by aircraft flown in from Mallorca , via Sardinia . At this time
19044-487: Was worse for the British, losing 21 ships to Fw 200s, totalling 84,301 tons. During the first quarter of 1941, the Condors sank 171,000 GRT, the vast majority being lone ships. In one case, a sustained attack upon convoy OB 290 on 26 February 1941 accounted for seven to nine vessels (49,865 GRT), all sunk by KG 40 Fw 200s. However, with never more than eight aircraft operational, this was an exception. Soon, British CAM ship (catapult aircraft merchantmen) appeared, and
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