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85-633: Harnoncourt-Unverzagt is the name of an old Austrian noble family , which came to Austria from the Duchy of Lorraine , but originated from Luxembourg . Counts d'Harnoncourt intermarried with Unverzagt family in the 18th century when Joseph Ludwig Matthias de la Fontaine, Count of Harnoncourt (1736–1816) married Countess Maria Leopoldine Unverzagt (1754–1835), who was the last of her line. Their son Count Herbert Ludwig de la Fontaigne, Count of Harnoncourt (1789–1846), took over her coat of arms in 1839 and called himself Graf von Harnoncourt-Unverzagt. All members of

170-570: A 20% death rate in the new hospital; the city nevertheless became preeminent in the medical field in the next century. Joseph's policy of religious "toleration" was the most aggressive of any state in Europe. Probably the most unpopular of all his reforms was his attempted modernization of the highly traditional Catholic Church , which in medieval times had helped establish the Holy Roman Empire beginning with Charlemagne . Calling himself

255-561: A Lodge himself. Freemasonry attracted many anticlericals and was condemned by the Church. Joseph's feelings towards religion are reflected in a witticism he once spoke in Paris. While being given a tour of the Sorbonne 's library, the archivist took Joseph to a dark room containing religious documents and lamented the lack of light which prevented Joseph from being able to read them. Joseph put

340-562: A best friend and confidant in her husband's sister, Maria Christina, Duchess of Teschen . The marriage of Joseph and Isabella resulted in the birth of a daughter, Maria Theresa . Isabella was fearful of pregnancy and early death, largely a result of the early loss of her mother. Her own pregnancy proved especially difficult as she suffered symptoms of pain, illness and melancholy both during and afterward, though Joseph attended to her and tried to comfort her. She remained bedridden for six weeks after their daughter's birth. Almost immediately on

425-577: A definite system for the good of all. He undertook the spread of education, the secularization of church lands, the reduction of the religious orders and the clergy, in general, to complete submission to the lay state, the issue of the Patent of Toleration (1781) providing limited guarantee of freedom of worship , and the promotion of unity by the compulsory use of the German language (replacing Latin or in some instances local languages)—everything which from

510-564: A family with the title Ritter however were often addressed as " Edle von ", which was incorrect unless the family already carried the Edler honour before being raised to the Ritter class. The rank of Edler carried no official style, but "Gnädiger Herr" or "Gnädige Frau" were common forms of address. This title belonged to the patricians of the free city of Werl , in Germany, who had

595-495: A hierarchy under himself as a supreme autocrat. The personnel of government was expected to be imbued with the same dedicated spirit of service to the state that he himself had. It was recruited without favor for a class or ethnic origins, and promotion was solely by merit. To further uniformity, the emperor made German the compulsory language of official business throughout the Habsburg Monarchy, which affected especially

680-417: A literate citizenry, elementary education was made compulsory for all boys and girls, and higher education on practical lines was offered for a select few. Joseph created scholarships for talented poor students and allowed the establishment of schools for Jews and other religious minorities. In 1784 he ordered that the country change its language of instruction from Latin to German, a highly controversial step in

765-473: A man of the Enlightenment he ridiculed the contemplative monastic orders, which he considered unproductive. Accordingly, he suppressed a third of the monasteries (over 700 were closed) and reduced the number of monks and nuns from 65,000 to 27,000. The Church's ecclesiastical tribunals were abolished and marriage was defined as a civil contract outside the jurisdiction of the Church. Joseph sharply cut

850-569: A multilingual empire. By the 18th century, centralization was the trend in medicine because more and better-educated doctors were requesting improved facilities. Cities lacked the budgets to fund local hospitals, and the monarchy wanted to end costly epidemics and quarantines. Joseph attempted to centralize medical care in Vienna through the construction of a single, large hospital, the famous Allgemeines Krankenhaus , which opened in 1784. Centralization worsened sanitation problems, causing epidemics and

935-404: A rise in social status , it did not alter the fact that Jews were, for the most part, still only "tolerated" at best. Jews could not freely choose the place and duration of their stay and had to regularly ask for permission from the authorities . This placed a huge burden on Jewish families; if the head of the family died, all his relatives had to leave the city. The right to purchase real estate

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1020-424: A single and egalitarian tax on land. The goal was to modernize the relationship of dependence between the landowners and peasantry, relieve some of the tax burden on the peasantry, and increase state revenues. Joseph looked on the tax and land reforms as being interconnected and strove to implement them at the same time. The various commissions he established to formulate and carry out the reforms met resistance among

1105-536: A visit to his sister the queen of France, Marie Antoinette of Austria , traveling under the name of "Count Falkenstein". He was well received and much flattered by the Encyclopedists, but his observations led him to predict the approaching downfall of the French monarchy, and he was not impressed favorably by the French army or navy. In 1778, he commanded the troops collected to oppose Frederick, who supported

1190-743: A visit with the Russian empress Catherine, which started talks that would later lead to the Austro-Russian Alliance (1781) , including an offensive clause to be used against the Ottomans. This was a significant diplomatic development, as it neutralised the previous Russian-Prussian alliance which had threatened the monarchy into peace during the War of the Bavarian Succession. The agreement with Russia would later lead Austria into

1275-414: The 1756 defensive pact between France and Austria. (The bride's mother, Princess Louise Élisabeth , was the eldest daughter of Louis XV of France and his popular wife, Queen Marie Leczinska . Isabella's father was Philip, Duke of Parma .) Joseph loved his bride, Isabella, finding her both stimulating and charming, and she sought with special care to cultivate his favor and affection. Isabella also found

1360-749: The Archduke of Austria had the right to bestow titles and ranks upon non-nobles, as did the Archbishop of Salzburg , as Salzburg remained an independent territory. Besides the Holy Roman Emperor (an office which was almost uninterruptedly held by the Archduke (of the House of Habsburg ) from 1438 to 1806), only a few territorial rulers within the Empire had this right. In an era of Absolutism ,

1445-503: The House of Liechtenstein as Herzog von Jägerndorf und Troppau , and the House of Croÿ as Herzog von Croÿ ). The princely title was the most prestigious of the Austrian nobility, usually borne by heads of families whose cadets were generally counts/countesses, although in some mediatized princely families ( Reichsfürsten ) members were allowed to bear the same title as cadets of royalty: prince/princess ( Prinz/Prinzessin ) with

1530-467: The Kingdom of Hungary . The Diet of Hungary was stripped of its prerogatives, and not even called together. As privy finance minister, Count Karl von Zinzendorf (1739–1813) introduced a uniform system of accounting for state revenues, expenditures, and debts of the territories of the Austrian crown. Austria was more successful than France in meeting regular expenditures and in gaining credit. However,

1615-524: The emperor because of merit. Titles , styles , and rights could only be conferred by the monarch. In some cases, they could even be revoked because of fall from favour. The style of address was usually " Serene Highness " ( Durchlaucht ) or the lower style of "Princely Grace" ( Fürstliche Gnaden ). Although Herzog ("duke") was officially a higher title than Fürst , the former was rare in Austria, except among sovereign and mediatized houses (e.g.,

1700-489: The power of the state when directed by reason . As an absolutist ruler, however, he was also convinced of his right to speak for the state uncontrolled by laws, and of the wisdom of his own rule. He had also inherited from his mother the belief of the House of Austria in its "August" quality and its claim to acquire whatever it found desirable for its power or profit. He was unable to understand that his philosophical plans for

1785-546: The Abolition of Nobility") abolished nobility as well as all noble privileges, titles and names in Austria. In other monarchies of Europe, Austrian noble families may use their noble titles as well as nobiliary particles such as von and zu in their names and they still retain noble status there. This may sometimes be confusing, as descendants of nobles are sometimes referred to with noble names abroad. Also, members of noble families often hold multiple citizenships, as

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1870-403: The Austrian dominions. As emperor, he had little true power, and his mother had resolved that neither her husband nor her son should ever deprive her of sovereign control in her hereditary dominions. Joseph, by threatening to resign his place as co-regent, could induce his mother to abate her dislike for religious toleration. He could and did place a great strain on her patience and temper, as in

1955-629: The Austrian nobility. Two categories among the Austrian nobility may be distinguished: the historic nobility that lived in the territories of the Habsburg Empire and who owed allegiance to the head of that dynasty until 1918, and the post-1918 descendants of Austrian nobility—specifically, those who retain Austrian citizenship, whose family originally come from Austria proper, South Tyrol , northern Italy and Burgenland , or who were ennobled at any point under Habsburg rule and identify themselves as belonging to that status group. From 1453,

2040-478: The Austrian republican government in 1919). Social measures were introduced by the republican government in order to create more equality amongst the citizens and finance public projects, which put a strain on the traditional land-holding gentry and aristocracy, resulting in the forced sale of many palaces and lands due to the expense of their upkeep. However, there was no measure by the government specifically to target nobility and take away their possessions. Still,

2125-454: The Emperor was obvious to Frederick II of Prussia, who, after their first interview in 1769, described him as ambitious, and as capable of setting the world on fire. The French minister Vergennes , who met Joseph when he was traveling incognito in 1777, judged him to be "ambitious and despotic". After the death of his father in 1765, he became emperor and was made co-regent by his mother in

2210-489: The Great of Russia and Frederick the Great of Prussia as one of the three great Enlightenment monarchs. False but influential letters depict him as a somewhat more radical philosophe than he probably was. His policies are now known as Josephinism . He was a supporter of the arts, particularly of composers such as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Antonio Salieri . He died with no known surviving legitimate offspring and

2295-620: The Habsburg dominions. Attempting to differentiate between ethnicities can be difficult, especially for nobles during the eras of the Holy Roman Empire and the Austro-Hungarian monarchy (1867–1918). A noble from Galicia , for instance, such as the Count Jordan-Rozwadowski (see section "Noble titles" below under Graf/Gräfin (count/countess)), could call himself a Polish noble, but he also rightfully belonged to

2380-560: The Habsburg monarchy the greatest of the European powers. His main goal was to acquire Bavaria, if necessary in exchange for the Austrian Netherlands , but in 1778 and again in 1785 he was thwarted by King Frederick II of Prussia, whom he feared greatly; on the second occasion, a number of other German princes, wary of Joseph's designs on their lands, joined Frederick's side. Joseph's travels through Russia in 1780 included

2465-704: The Jewish von Neumann family were elevated into the nobility. The elevation into the nobility of wealthy Jews also started the process of assimilation of Jewish families into the Austrian upper class . With the same date, the Habsburgergesetz of 1919 ("Habsburg Law"), which legally dethroned, exiled and confiscated the properties of the Imperial House of Habsburg, the Adelsaufhebungsgesetz (Arbitration Act) of 3 April 1919 ("Law on

2550-727: The authorities and were allowed to keep their titles and rights. On the former status of nobility in Burgenland , which was part of the Kingdom of Hungary until 1921, see Hungarian nobility . A few very wealthy Jewish families were ennobled after the Toleranzedikt vom 1782 ("1782 Edict of Tolerance") decreed by Emperor Joseph II . Under this Edict, very wealthy Jewish bankers, and later entrepreneurs and industrialists—some of them court Jews —could also be ennobled for their services. Jews had been ennobled mostly, as

2635-635: The back of their newfound parenthood, the couple then endured two consecutive miscarriages—an ordeal particularly hard on Isabella—followed quickly by another pregnancy. Pregnancy was again provoking melancholy, fears and dread in Isabella. In November 1763, while six months pregnant, Isabella fell ill with smallpox and went into premature labor, resulting in the birth of their second child, Archduchess Maria Christina (b.d November 22 1763), who died shortly after being born. Progressively ill with smallpox and strained by sudden childbirth and tragedy, Isabella died

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2720-672: The brother of Marie Antoinette , Leopold II , Maria Carolina of Austria , and Maria Amalia, Duchess of Parma . He was thus the first ruler in the Austrian dominions of the union of the Houses of Habsburg and Lorraine , styled Habsburg-Lorraine . Joseph was a proponent of enlightened absolutism ; however, his commitment to secularizing, liberalizing and modernizing reforms resulted in significant opposition, which resulted in failure to fully implement his programs. Meanwhile, despite making some territorial gains, his reckless foreign policy badly isolated Austria. He has been ranked with Catherine

2805-452: The by now completely estranged French Queen. When Maria Theresa died, Joseph started issuing edicts, over 6,000 in all, plus 11,000 new laws designed to regulate and reorder every aspect of the empire. The spirit of Josephinism was benevolent and paternal. He intended to make his people happy, but strictly in accordance with his own criteria. Joseph set about building a rationalized, centralized, and uniform government for his diverse lands,

2890-713: The case of the First Partition of Poland and the War of the Bavarian Succession of 1778–1779, but in the last resort the empress spoke the final word. Therefore, until the death of his mother in 1780, Joseph was never quite free to follow his own instincts. During these years, Joseph traveled much. He met Frederick the Great privately at Neisse in 1769 (later painted in The Meeting of Frederick II and Joseph II in Neisse in 1769 ), and again at Mährisch-Neustadt in 1770;

2975-470: The crown and taxes were levied upon all income derived from land. The landlords, however, found their economic position threatened, and eventually reversed the policy. Indeed, in Hungary and Transylvania, the resistance of the magnates was such that Joseph had to content himself for a while with halfway measures. Of the five million Hungarians, 40,000 were nobles, of whom 4,000 were magnates who owned and ruled

3060-401: The destruction of the autonomous guilds, already weakened during the age of mercantilism. Joseph II's tax reforms and the institution of Katastralgemeinde (tax districts for the large estates) served this purpose, and new factory privileges ended guild rights while customs laws aimed at economic unity. Physiocratic influence also led to the inclusion of agriculture in these reforms. To produce

3145-593: The end of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the Habsburg rulers, who were Emperors of Austria from 1804 onwards, continued to elevate individuals to nobility until the end of the monarchy in 1918. Some of the noble families even obtained the right to be seated in the Herrenhaus (House of Lords), the upper house of the Reichsrat (Imperial Council). Nobles from previously sovereign states such as those in northern Italy (Venice, Mantua, Milan) were also recognized by

3230-484: The event of Frederick's death, was to advance into Prussia and demand Silesia (a territory Frederick had conquered from Maria Theresa in the War of the Austrian Succession ). However, Frederick recovered, and thereafter became wary and mistrustful of Joseph. Joseph was also eager to enforce Austria's claim on Bavaria upon the death of the elector Maximilian III in 1777. In April of that year, he paid

3315-404: The events of Joseph II's last years also suggest that the government was financially vulnerable to the European wars that ensued after 1792. The Emperor also attempted to simplify the administration of his dominions, often a patchwork of states united in personal union by the Habsburg monarch. As an example, in 1786 he abolished the separate administration of the Duchy of Mantua , merging it with

3400-463: The example of his contemporary (and sometimes rival) King Frederick II of Prussia . His practical training was conferred by government officials, who were directed to instruct him in the mechanical details of the administration of the numerous states composing the Austrian dominions and the Holy Roman Empire. Joseph married Princess Isabella of Parma in October 1760, a union fashioned to bolster

3485-503: The expensive and largely futile Austro-Turkish War (1787–1791) . Joseph II travelled with only a few servants on horseback as "Count Falkenstein". He preferred to stop at a regular inn—forcing Catherine II to convert a wing of her palace, cajoling her gardener to act as inn-keeper. Joseph's participation in the Ottoman war was reluctant, attributable not to his usual acquisitiveness, but rather to his close ties to Russia, which he saw as

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3570-514: The family have descended from him and his wife, Countess Sophie von Haugwitz (1798–1859). Austrian nobility Any noble living in the Habsburg -ruled lands, and who owed allegiance to the dynasty and therefore to the emperor , was also considered part of the Austrian aristocracy . This applied to any member of the Bohemian , Hungarian , Polish , Croatian , and other nobilities in

3655-681: The following week. The loss of his beloved wife and their newborn child was devastating for Joseph, after which he felt keenly reluctant to remarry, though he dearly loved his daughter and remained a devoted father to Maria Theresa. For political reasons, and under constant pressure, in 1765, he relented and married his second cousin , Princess Maria Josepha of Bavaria , the daughter of Charles VII, Holy Roman Emperor , and Archduchess Maria Amalia of Austria . This marriage proved extremely unhappy, albeit brief, as it lasted only two years. Though Maria Josepha loved her husband, she felt timid and inferior in his company. Lacking common interests or pleasures,

3740-526: The guardian of Catholicism, Joseph II struck vigorously at papal power . He tried to make the Catholic Church in his territories the tool of the state, independent of Rome. Clergymen were deprived of the tithe and ordered to study in seminaries under government supervision, while bishops had to take a formal oath of loyalty to the crown. He financed the large increase in bishoprics, parishes, and secular clergy by extensive sales of monastic lands. As

3825-451: The hereditary (erb-) right to exploit the nearby salt mines ( salz ). Thus this title was not granted in Austria, but merely recognized there. Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II (13 March 1741 – 20 February 1790) was Holy Roman Emperor from 18 August 1765 and sole ruler of the Habsburg monarchy from 29 November 1780 until his death. He was the eldest son of Empress Maria Theresa and her husband, Emperor Francis I , and

3910-410: The imperial family held various titles: Legitimate but morganatic descendants of the imperial family were excluded from the line of succession , but might sometimes receive lesser titles with noble rather than royal prerogatives, e.g.: (English titles with German equivalents) (English titles with German equivalents) (English titles with German equivalents) Use of nobiliary particles , such as

3995-408: The land; most of the remainder were serfs legally tied to particular estates. After the collapse of the peasant revolt of Horea , 1784–1785, in which over a hundred nobles were killed, the emperor acted. His Imperial Patent of 1785 abolished serfdom but did not give the peasants ownership of the land or freedom from dues owed to the landowning nobles. It did give them personal freedom. Emancipation of

4080-471: The lower nobility especially (such as civil servants ) found this radical step of abolition degrading and humiliating, since working towards and finally earning a noble title was a way for them and their families to rise within society. Members of the higher nobility were able to absorb the formal abolition more easily. They lost their titles and privileges, but kept their social networks, manners, standing and riches. Federal President Michael Hainisch called

4165-478: The man at rest by saying "Ah, when it comes to theology, there is never much light." Thus, Joseph was undoubtedly a much laxer Catholic than his mother. In 1789 he issued a charter of religious toleration for the Jews of Galicia , a region with a large Yiddish-speaking traditional Jewish population. The charter abolished communal autonomy whereby the Jews controlled their internal affairs; it promoted Germanization and

4250-428: The moulding of humanity could meet with pardonable opposition. Joseph was documented by contemporaries as being impressive, but not necessarily likable. In 1760, his arranged consort , the well educated Isabella of Parma, was handed over to him. Joseph appears to have been completely in love with her, but Isabella preferred the companionship of Joseph's sister, Marie Christine of Austria . The overweening character of

4335-649: The necessary price to be paid for the security of his people. After initial defeats, the Austrians won a string of victories in 1789, including the capture of Belgrade , a key Turkish fortress in the Balkans. These victories however would not amount to any significant gains for the monarchy. Under the threat of Prussian intervention and with the worrying state of the revolution in France, the Treaty of Sistova of 1791 ended

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4420-540: The neighbouring Duchy of Milan . Local opposition to the change forced his successor Leopold II to reverse this measure and restore the duchy in 1791. The busy Joseph inspired a complete reform of the legal system, abolished brutal punishments and the death penalty in most instances, and imposed the principle of complete equality of treatment for all offenders. He lightened censorship of the press and theatre. In 1781–1782, he extended full legal freedom to serfs . Rentals paid by peasants were to be regulated by officials of

4505-469: The nobility residing in the cities slowly turned itself into the court nobility ( Hofadel ). Service at the court became the primary goal of the nobility. This in turn initiated an interest in education and the interests of the court. Within the court, a close inner circle, called the 100 Familien (100 families), possessed enormous riches and lands. They also had great influence at the court and thus played an important role in politics and diplomacy. After

4590-445: The nobility today are sometimes nonetheless treated slightly differently from other citizens. Austrian nobility still plays a large part in movies made after World War II (for example, Sissi and The Sound of Music ), and is still featured regularly in the media and literature. The social events of nobles are still covered extensively in tabloids . Apart from the prohibition of their titles, some former nobles still make up some of

4675-468: The nobility, clergy, merchants and the peasants, since their barter economy lacked money. Joseph also abolished the death penalty in 1787, a reform that remained until 1795. After the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, Joseph sought to help the family of his estranged sister Queen Marie Antoinette of France and her husband King Louis XVI . Joseph kept an eye on the development of

4760-425: The nobility, the peasantry, and some officials. Most of the reforms were abrogated shortly before or after Joseph's death in 1790; they were doomed to failure from the start because they tried to change too much in too short a time, and tried to radically alter the traditional customs and relationships that the villagers had long depended upon. In the cities, the new economic principles of the Enlightenment called for

4845-498: The number of holy days to be observed in the Habsburg monarchy and ordered ornamentation in churches to be reduced. He forcibly simplified the manner in which the Mass (the central Catholic act of worship) was celebrated. Opponents of the reforms blamed them for revealing Protestant tendencies, with the rise of Enlightenment rationalism and the emergence of a liberal class of bourgeois officials. Anti-clericalism emerged and persisted, while

4930-464: The official abolition ...childish, because it did not hit those that it was supposed to hit. I once talked to the very fine and very intelligent Princess Fanny Starhemberg about this. "To us," she said, "the official abolition is quite irrelevant, because with or without the titles, we will always remain the Starhembergs." The law abolishing nobility and titles was never repealed, even during

5015-463: The peasantry of feudal burdens, and to remove restrictions on trade and knowledge. In these, he did not differ from Frederick, or his own brother and successor Leopold II, all enlightened rulers of the 18th century. He tried to liberate serfs , but that did not last after his death. Where Joseph differed from great contemporary rulers, and was akin to the Jacobins in the intensity of his belief in

5100-410: The peasants from the Kingdom of Hungary promoted the growth of a new class of taxable landholders, but it did not abolish the deep-seated ills of feudalism and the exploitation of the landless squatters. Feudalism in the Habsburg monarchy finally ended in 1848. To equalize the incidence of taxation, Joseph caused an appraisal of all the lands of the Habsburg monarchy to be made so that he might impose

5185-463: The period of Austrofascism (1934–1938). Following the Anschluss to Nazi Germany (1938–1945), this law remained on the books, although it was not enforced, allowing Austrian nobles to use titles freely again. Although noble titles and the particles von and zu are no longer legal, some persons are still unofficially referred to by their titles. For example, the late Karl Schwarzenberg

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5270-513: The point of view of 18th-century philosophy, the Age of Enlightenment , appeared "reasonable". He strove for administrative unity with characteristic haste to reach results without preparation. Joseph carried out measures of the emancipation of the peasantry , which his mother had begun, and abolished serfdom in 1781. In 1789, he decreed that peasants must be paid in cash payments rather than labor obligations. These policies were violently rejected by

5355-402: The prepositions "von", "zu", variations such as "van" and "vom", or combinations ("von und zu"), common until after World War I (non-German-speaking nobility preferred to use "de"), were also banned by the 1919 Law on the Abolition of Nobility. Below is an incomplete list of Austrian noble families, listed by rank of title. Note that some members of a family were sometimes given higher titles by

5440-634: The relationship offered little for Joseph, who confessed he felt no love (nor attraction) for her in return. He adapted by distancing himself from his wife to the point of near total avoidance, seeing her only at meals and upon retiring to bed. Maria Josepha, in turn, suffered considerable misery in finding herself locked in a cold, loveless union. Four months after the second anniversary of their wedding, Maria Josepha grew ill and died from smallpox. Joseph neither visited her during her illness nor attended her funeral, though he later expressed regret for not having shown her more kindness, respect, or warmth. One thing

5525-413: The revolution, and became actively involved in the planning of a rescue attempt. These plans failed, however, either due to Marie Antoinette's refusal to leave her children behind in favor of a faster carriage or Louis XVI's reluctance to become a fugitive king. Joseph died in 1790, making negotiations with Austria about possible rescue attempts more difficult. It was not until 21 June 1791 that an attempt

5610-613: The richest families in Austria, such as the Esterházy , Mayr-Melnhof and Mautner-Markhof. Many members of the Austrian nobility today work in the traditional fields of diplomacy, politics, have business and financial interests, or are philanthropists or socialites . It was estimated that there were about 20,000 Austrian nobles in 2005. That year, an association was founded, the Vereinigung der Edelleute in Österreich (Association of Austrian Nobles, or V.E.Ö.), which sees itself as

5695-403: The rival claimant to Bavaria. This was the War of the Bavarian Succession . Real fighting was averted by the unwillingness of Frederick to embark on a new war and by Maria Theresa's determination to maintain peace. However, the war cost Joseph most of his influence over the other German princes, who were wary of his potential designs on their lands, and looked to Frederick as their protector. As

5780-462: The son of Francis I, Joseph succeeded him as titular Duke of Lorraine and Bar , which had been surrendered to France on his father's marriage, and titular King of Jerusalem and Duke of Calabria (as a proxy for the Kingdom of Naples ). The death of Maria Theresa on 29 November 1780 left Joseph free to pursue his own policy, and he immediately directed his government on a new course, attempting to realize his ideal of enlightened despotism acting on

5865-574: The style of Serene Highness. Mediatized counts were often entitled to the style of "Illustrious Highness" ( Erlaucht ). Ranking below them were the comital families of ancient lineage, wealth and influence who were recognized as such in Austria, but had not been Counts of the Empire ( Reichsgrafen ) prior to 1806; these counts bore the lower style of "High-born" ( Hochgeboren ). There was no official style, but "Gnädiger Herr" (Gracious Lord), "Gnädige Frau" , or "Gnädiges Fräulein" (Gracious Lady) were common forms of address. Although strictly speaking

5950-573: The successor of the Vereinigung katholischer Edelleute in Österreich (Catholic Association of Austrian Nobles, or V.E.Ö.), founded in 1922 but banned under the Nazis in 1938 . This was challenged under the Nobility Abolition Act . Austria's nobility was divided into three categories: the mediatized nobility ( standesherrlicht ), the higher nobility ( hoher Adel ), and the lower nobility ( niederer Adel ): Non-ruling members of

6035-449: The title was Freiherr , the usage of "Baron" in written and verbal communication was very common, even if incorrect. The title Freiin was also often replaced for " geborene ( née ) Baronin ", which was strictly speaking also incorrect since a Baronin would have been married already. There was no official style, but "Gnädiger Herr" was a common form of address. The title was for males only; no female version existed. Female members of

6120-474: The traditional Catholics were energized in opposition to the emperor. Joseph's Patent of Toleration in 1781 was a major shift away from the inquisitive religious policies of the Counter Reformation that were previously predominant in the monarchy. Limited religious freedom of worship was given to major non-Catholic Christian sects, although conversion from Catholicism was still restricted. This

6205-543: The two rulers initially got along well. On the second occasion, he was accompanied by Prince Kaunitz , whose conversation with Frederick may be said to mark the starting point of the First Partition of Poland. To this and to every other measure which promised to extend the dominions of his house, Joseph gave hearty approval. Thus, when Frederick fell severely ill in 1775, Joseph assembled an army in Bohemia which, in

6290-430: The union did provide him was the improved possibility of laying claim to a portion of Bavaria, though this would ultimately lead to the War of the Bavarian Succession . Joseph never remarried. In 1770, Joseph's only surviving child, the seven-year-old Maria Theresa, became ill with pleurisy and died. The loss of his daughter was deeply traumatic for him and left him grief-stricken and scarred. Lacking children, Joseph II

6375-531: The wearing of non-Jewish clothing. The Habsburg Empire also had a policy of war, expansion, colonization and trade as well as exporting intellectual influences. While opposing Prussia and Turkey, Austria maintained its defensive alliance with France and was friendly to Russia though trying to remove the Danubian Principalities from Russian influence. Mayer argues that Joseph was an excessively belligerent, expansionist leader, who sought to make

6460-530: Was a center of the fine arts and he was a close friend of Mozart , as his son Alexander was of Ludwig van Beethoven . Despite these difficulties, by 1821 there were at least eleven ennobled Jewish families living in Vienna alone: the Rothschild , Arnstein , Eskeles , Gomperz , Kuffner , Lieben, Auspitz , Schey von Koromla , Todesco , Goluchowski-Glochowsky, Wertheimstein, and Wiernes families. In 1830

6545-417: Was common with all newly ennobled families, with lesser noble ranks, but also with peerages such as Freiherr ( Baron ). The few Jewish families elevated into the nobility were not required to forswear their faith, but some of these families converted to Christianity in order to become more accepted. Although elevation into the nobility meant recognition for civic contributions and services, and entailed

6630-627: Was followed by the Edict of Tolerance in 1782, removing many restrictions and regulations on Jews. The Secularization Decree issued on 12 January 1782 banned several monastic orders not involved in teaching or healing and liquidated 140 monasteries (home to 1484 monks and 190 nuns). The banned monastic orders: Jesuits, Camaldolese , Order of Friars Minor Capuchin , Carmelites , Carthusians , Poor Clares , Order of Saint Benedict , Cistercians , Dominican Order (Order of Preachers), Franciscans , Pauline Fathers and Premonstratensians , and their wealth

6715-489: Was forbidden to Jews, even if they belonged to the nobility. This regulation stayed in place until 1860 , when it was abolished by Emperor Franz Joseph I and Jewish citizens were given equal rights. When the banker and protector of arts Raymund Karl Wetzler von Plankenstern was created a Reichsfreiherr (Baron of the Empire) by Empress Maria Theresia , he converted to Catholicism while still young. His mansion in Vienna

6800-479: Was made , with the help of Count Fersen , a Swedish general who had been favored at the courts of both Marie Antoinette and Joseph. The attempt failed after the King was recognized from the back of a coin. Marie Antoinette became increasingly desperate for help from her homeland, even giving French military secrets to Austria. Nevertheless, even though Austria was at war with France at the time, it refused to directly help

6885-480: Was occasionally still referred to as Fürst zu Schwarzenberg (Prince zu Schwarzenberg) in the media; he held Czech and Swiss citizenship, not Austrian. Unlike the nobility in Bohemia (Czechoslovakia), Poland, Russia, or the former Prussian territories, the Austrian nobility never had its lands and riches confiscated in Austria (except the Imperial House of Habsburg, which had its properties legally confiscated by

6970-488: Was succeeded by his younger brother Leopold II . He was baptised under the full name Josephus Benedictus Joannes Antonius Michael Adamus, born an archduke of Austria. Joseph was born in the midst of the early upheavals of the War of the Austrian Succession . His formal education was provided through the writings of David Hume , Edward Gibbon , Voltaire , Jean-Jacques Rousseau , and the Encyclopédistes , and by

7055-577: Was taken over by the Religious Fund. His anticlerical and liberal innovations induced Pope Pius VI to pay him a visit in March 1782. Joseph received the Pope politely and showed himself a good Catholic, but refused to be influenced. On the other hand, Joseph was very friendly to Freemasonry , as he found it highly compatible with his own Enlightenment philosophy, although he apparently never joined

7140-433: Was the case for Otto von Habsburg (eldest son of the last Emperor of Austria-Hungary and father of Karl Habsburg-Lothringen), who was also a citizen of Germany. The Austrian law does not apply to artistic, performer or stage names , where von is sometimes used, as in the case of conductor Herbert von Karajan or the musician Hubert von Goisern. However, stage names are never recognized for official purposes. Members of

7225-402: Was ultimately succeeded by his younger brother, who became Leopold II . Joseph was made a member of the constituted council of state ( Staatsrat ) and began to draw up minutes for his mother to read. These papers contain the germs of his later policy, and of all the disasters that finally overtook him. He was a friend to religious toleration, anxious to reduce the power of the church, to relieve

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