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143-587: In May 1933, Schulze-Boysen trained as a pilot and started working in Ministry of Aviation . In the summer of 1934, he met the aristocrat Libertas Haas-Heye and married her in July 1936. The couple held regular dinner parties and evening-picnics that became formal meetings where many people from different stratas of society met and who were confessed anti-Nazis. By 1936, their house in Charlottenburg had become

286-400: A Volkwerdung , or a people becoming itself. The Volk were not just a people; a mystical soul united them, and propaganda continually portrayed individuals as part of a great whole, worth dying for. A common Nazi mantra declared that ethnic Germans must put "collective need ahead of individual greed" and oppose class conflict, materialism, and profiteering in order to ensure the survival of

429-452: A Siegfried forced to shed blood to preserve Germany. Devotion to this Volk is common in Nazi propaganda. An account, for instance, of a SA brawl depicted its leader as uncouth and therefore a simple, strong, and honest man of the people. Sturmabteilung speakers were used, in part, for the appeal of their folksy manner. One element of Horst Wessel 's life that was fictionalized out of

572-545: A libertine and the couple had an open marriage . In 1935, Walter Küchenmeister joined the group. Küchenmeister had known Schulze-Boysen since 1930, but had been reintroduced to him through Kurt Schumacher. Küchenmeister very quickly became an important member of the group and assumed the position of writer. In the same year, Schulze-Boysen visited Geneva, disguised as a private trip, for a series of lectures on international legal issues. The playwright Günther Weisenborn had known Schulze-Boysen since 1932 when he had met him at

715-700: A "technical-tactical" department would do in other nations' military aviation bureaus, the Luftwaffenverwaltungsamt (LD) for construction, Luftwaffenpersonalamt (LP) for training and staffing, and the Zentralabteilung (ZA), central command. In 1934, an additional department was added, the Luftzeugmeister (LZM) in charge of logistics . With the rapid growth of the Luftwaffe following the outbreak of World War II in 1939,

858-656: A German submarine base in the Canary Islands . On his 30th birthday on 2 September 1939, Schulze-Boysen had talked with German industrialist Hugo Buschmann , with whom he had agreed to receive literature on the Russian Revolution , Lenin, Stalin, and Leon Trotsky . Schulze-Boysen was primarily concerned with questions of what alternatives there were to the capitalist system of the Western European countries, and he considered writing his thesis on

1001-401: A black swastika. The reverse looked almost the same as the obverse but a black swastika replaced the eagle and eagles replaced the four swastikas. The flag was in use until the end of 1935. On 26 February 1935 Hitler officially created the Luftwaffe with Hermann Göring as its Commander-in-Chief ( German : Oberbefehlshaber der Luftwaffe ). Late in 1935 a flag was instituted that consisted of

1144-490: A compromise to be reached between them, which enabled Heilmann to turn away from Nazism . At Schulze-Boysen and Haushofer's first meeting, also attended by Rainer Hildebrandt whose apartment they were using, they discussed the possibility of cooperation between Germany and the Soviet Union. Haushofer was antipathetic towards the Soviet Union and believed that the only way to establish mutual agreement with Stalin's regime

1287-527: A further gain in votes by the Nazis would lead to a sharp intensification and polarization in society. In July 1931, during a stay in France, Schulze-Boysen met French intellectuals associated with the magazine Plans , which sought the establishment of a Europe-wide collective economic system and whose influence resulted in him being reorientated politically to the left, though he still maintained his contacts with

1430-754: A golden Luftwaffe eagle in the centre and four golden swastikas set in each corner of the flag. Suspended from the base of the silver laurel was a true representation of the Pour le Mérite . When Göring was promoted to "Generalfeldmarschall" a pair of Luftwaffe field marshal's batons were added to the flag's reverse design and shown crossed above the "Pour le Mérite". The obverse remained the same as before. This alteration took place on 28 April 1938. 52°30′31.31″N 13°23′2.4″E  /  52.5086972°N 13.384000°E  / 52.5086972; 13.384000 Volksgemeinschaft Volksgemeinschaft ( German pronunciation: [ˈfɔlksɡəˌmaɪnʃaft] )

1573-606: A house in Brussels where Wenzel was transmitting that was found to contain a large number of coded messages. When Wilhelm Vauck , principal cryptographer of the Funkabwehr , the radio counterintelligence department of the Abwehr received the ciphers from Wenzel, he was able to decipher some of the older messages. Vauck found a message that was dated 10 October 1941. The message was addressed to KENT ( Anatoly Gurevich ) and had

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1716-482: A language study trip for his employer and he submitted a confidential report upon his return. Haas-Heye was an impulsive woman of great personal ambition: she held evening discussions at her house, where she sought to influence her guests on behalf of Schulze-Boysen. She was fully aware of his activities in the resistance and supported the group by taking part in writing pamphlets, acting as a courier and helping to establish social contacts. Schulze-Boysen considered himself

1859-479: A leave of absence from his studies because he had come to the conclusion that the contents discussed here had nothing to do with the daily political disputes. In February 1932, Schulze-Boysen, in coordination with his French partners of Plans , organized the Treffen der revolutionären Jugend Europas or Meeting of Europe's Revolutionary Youth . A total of about 1,000 young people attended the meeting and he formulated

2002-765: A left-wing student gathering and had become good friends. In 1937 Weisenborn had introduced the actor Marta Wolter to Schulze-Boysen and became part of the group. Walter Husemann , who at the time was in the Buchenwald concentration camp, would marry Marta Wolter and join the group. Other friends were found by Schulze-Boysen among former students of a reform school on the island of Scharfenberg in Berlin-Tegel . They often came from communist or social democratic workers' families, e.g. Hans and Hilde Coppi , Heinrich Scheel , Hermann Natterodt and Hans Lautenschlager. Some of these contacts existed before 1933, for example through

2145-605: A new policy approach: "Opponents of today – comrades of tomorrow". He had become the leading head and the centre of the "enemy circle". Schulze-Boysen considered the seizure of power by Adolf Hitler to be probable at that time, but believed that he would soon be overthrown by a general strike. After the seizure of power by the Nazis and the Reichstag fire in Berlin, Schulze-Boysen helped several friends and colleagues who were being threatened to escape abroad. As early as February 1933

2288-535: A paper called The Soviets and Versailles that was presented at a political seminar for the Hitler Youth being attended by Schulze-Boysen. Heilmann was introduced to Albrecht Haushofer through Schulze-Boysen; it was not the first meeting between Schulze-Boysen and Haushofer but was perhaps the first political one. According to new evidence that was presented in 2010, Schulze-Boysen and Haushofer met at least twice before, understood each other's motives, and allowed

2431-631: A plutocracy also emphasized how the German, being able to participate in his Volk , is freer than the Briton. In his pamphlet State, Volk and Movement , Carl Schmitt praised the expulsion of Jews from political life without ever using the term "Jew" and using "non-Aryan" only rarely, by praising the homogeneity of the people and the Volksgemeinschaft ensuing; merely Gleichschaltung was not sufficient, but Nazi principles must continue to make

2574-579: A popular meeting place and by 1937 the group began to resist. During the Spanish Civil War , Schulze-Boysen began collecting details of the Wehrmacht's involvement in the war from the ministry. He arranged for the documents to be passed to Soviet embassy by Gisela von Pöllnitz . As he was promoted in the Ministry, Schulze-Boysen collected information that he used to write savage indictments of

2717-535: A popular meeting place for people who wanted to maintain social interactions with one another. A second discussion group developed in Libertas' parents' estate, in Liebenberg. Many former acquaintances from Der Gegner were also present. To safeguard these covered activities, some basic conspiratorial rules were agreed. Schulze-Boysen's code name was Hans when he attended these regular discussion groups. During

2860-470: A pseudonym (presumably under the abbreviation E.R. for Erich Röth), Schulze-Boysen wrote individual editorials and essays. It was important for him to explore what possibilities of influence existed with regard to the new situation. From 10 April 1934 onwards, he was employed as an auxiliary officer in the fifth department, in the section Foreign Air Powers of the Ministry of Aviation ( German : Reichsluftfahrtministerium ) (RLM) in Berlin. As an adjutant of

3003-481: A resistance organisation into an espionage network from a small cadre of close friends, that began to collaborate with Soviet intelligence. The espionage network, led by Schulze-Boysen lasted slightly longer than a year, from just before June 1941 to August 1942 before a blunder by Soviet intelligence exposed their names and addresses to the German Funkabwehr , which resulted in the arrest of many members of

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3146-466: A ritual to generate public feeling. These efforts also served to reinforce the racial ideology of the Nazis and the idea that the Volksgemeinschaft was a racial community, because Jews and other non-Aryans were excluded from social welfare benefits, as were Germans who opposed Nazism or who were deemed "unfit" for other reasons. The Volksgemeinschaft was intended to create a sense of uniformity amongst its members; Fritz Reinhardt, state secretary for

3289-423: A self-confessed anti-Nazi that he had to find new ways to implement his convictions. A chance encounter in the street led to Schulze-Boysen meeting the sculptor Kurt Schumacher, who had been working on Gegner with him. This was the beginning of the intellectual discussion group that would change into a direct-action, anti-fascist resistance group. In May 1933, his father organized a pilot training course for him at

3432-536: A set of instructions for the Schulze-Boysens, Harnacks and Kuckhoffs to re-establish communications. Although it took several weeks for Gurevich to reach Berlin, the visit was largely a failure and the groups remained independent. Gurevich received intelligence from Schulze-Boysen at a four-hour meeting they held at his apartment. In December 1941 or January 1942 (sources vary), the Schulze-Boysens met psychoanalyst John Rittmeister and his wife Eva. Rittmeister

3575-863: A short information document about a sabotage enterprise planned in Barcelona by the German Wehrmacht . It was an action from "Special Staff W", an organisation established by Luftwaffe general Helmuth Wilberg to study and analyse the tactical lessons learned by the Legion Condor during the Spanish Civil War. The unit also directed the German relief operations that consisted of volunteers, weapons and ammunition for General Francisco Franco 's FET y de las JONS . The information that Schulze-Boysen collected included details about German transports, deployment of units and companies involved in

3718-544: A socialist state that would form alliances with the USSR and progressive forces in Europe. It also offered advice to the individual resistor: "do the opposite of what is asked of you". The group produced hundreds of pamphlets that were spread over Berlin, in phone boxes, and sent to selected addresses. Producing the leaflets required a small army of people and a complex approach to organisation to avoid being discovered. In May 1942,

3861-462: A square of bright red silk. The flag was similar to some extent to that used before. The differences of the obverse were that now there was placed in the centre a gold swastika and instead of the four black swastikas four golden Luftwaffe eagles were added. The wings were left out. Moreover, the flag was edged on all four sides with a gold-braided border, which incorporated a row of 76 small gold swastikas all standing on their points. The reverse displayed

4004-419: A worthless, unthrifty or disorderly life and are thereby a burden or danger to the community: Or Display a habit of, or inclination towards beggary or vagrancy, idling at work, larceny, swindling or other less seriously offences, or engage in excessive drunkenness, or for any such reasons are in breach of their obligation to support themselves. Or (b) through persistent ill-temper or quarrelsomeness disturb

4147-478: A year. In 1941, Schulze-Boysen had access to other resistance groups and began to cooperate with them. The most important of these was a group run by Arvid Harnack who had known Schulze-Boysen since 1935, but was reintroduced to him sometime in late 1939 or early 1940 through Greta Kuckhoff . Kuckhoff knew Arvid and Mildred Harnack when the latter was studying in America at the end of the 1920s, and had brought

4290-490: Is a German expression meaning "people's community", "folk community", "national community", or "racial community", depending on the translation of its component term Volk ( cognate with the English word "folk"). This expression originally became popular during World War I as Germans rallied in support of the war, and many experienced "relief that at one fell swoop all social and political divisions could be solved in

4433-847: Is also the original name of the Detlev-Rohwedder-Haus building on the Wilhelmstrasse in central Berlin , Germany , which today houses the German Finance Ministry ( German : Bundesministerium der Finanzen ). The Ministry was in charge of development and production of all aircraft developed, designed, and built in Germany during the existence of the Third Reich, overseeing all matters concerning both military and civilian designs – it handled military aviation matters as its top priority, particularly for

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4576-403: Is an ongoing debate among historians as to whether a Volksgemeinschaft was or was not successfully established between 1933 and 1945. This is a notably controversial topic of debate for ethical and political reasons, and is made difficult by the ambiguous language employed by Hitler and the Nazis when talking about the Volksgemeinschaft . Final solution Parties In the aftermath of

4719-472: Is now Humboldt University , to be dissected for research. When Stieve was finished with them, their remains were taken to the Zehlendorf crematorium. Their final resting place is unknown. Ministry of Aviation (Nazi Germany) The Ministry of Aviation ( German : Reichsluftfahrtministerium , abbreviated RLM ) was a government department during the period of Nazi Germany (1933–45). It

4862-554: The Abitur with the overall rating "good". His dexterity was particularly emphasized in the written and oral expression. At the time his spiritual attitude was in agreement with the values and traditions of the family. From then on, he appeared in public and in written statements with the double name Schulze-Boysen. In April 1928 he studied law and political science at the University of Freiburg and later Berlin, without finishing. In

5005-590: The Bund Deutscher Mädel were educated in the skills needed for domestic chores, nursing, and hygiene. In the early years of the Nazi regime, bonfires were made of school children's differently colored caps as symbolic of the abolition of class differences. But by the end of the 1930s, most Hitler Youth officials were recruited from wealthier families, and the use of differently colored sashes had returned to schools. Daily life in Nazi Germany

5148-611: The Junkers Ju 52 aircraft. Defence Minister General Werner von Blomberg decided that the importance of aviation was such that it should no longer be subordinate to the German Army ( Heer ). In May 1933 he transferred the army's Department of Military Aviation (the Luftschutzamt ), to the Ministry. This is often considered the birth of the Luftwaffe. The Ministry was now much larger, consisting of two large departments:

5291-511: The Luftwaffe . As was characteristic of government departments in the Nazi era, the Ministry was personality-driven and formal procedures were often ignored in favour of the whims of the Minister, Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring . As a result, early successes in aircraft development progressed only slowly and erratically during World War II . The Ministry was formed on 27 April 1933 from

5434-712: The November Revolution of 1918 that marked the end of the German Empire and the beginning of the Weimar Republic , there was strong animosity amongst many Germans towards the Weimar Republic and the social democrats who sponsored its creation. This was combined with anxiety in the 1930s and with the severe economic crisis in Germany and abroad, in which many Germans faced unemployment. This situation resulted in increasing popularity for

5577-549: The Reichskriegsgericht , the highest military court in Nazi Germany . The group was prosecuted by Manfred Roeder and tried by five military judges consisting of a vice admiral , two generals and two professional judges. Evidence was presented to the court by Roeder along with an indictment that contained a juridical estimation of the case. There was no jury and prosecution witnesses were Gestapo agents. At

5720-582: The Soviet invasion began on 22 June 1941, the Soviet embassy closed and due to the radio transmitters that had become defective, intelligence from the group failed to reach the Soviet Union. However, they still gathered information and collated it. The couple had read about the Franz Six murders in the Soviet Union and the group was aware of the capture of millions of Russian soldiers. Schulze-Boysens position in

5863-596: The Spartan King Agis IV , who fought against corruption. Rittmeister, Schulze-Boysen, Heinz Strelow , and Küchenmeister among others wrote them with titles like The becoming of the Nazi movement , Call for opposition , Freedom and violence and Appeal to All Callings and Organisations to resist the government . On 15 February 1942, Schulze-Boysen led the group to write the six-page pamphlet called Die Sorge Um Deutschlands Zukunft geht durch das Volk! (English: "The Concern for Germany's Future Goes Through

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6006-578: The Volk —a widespread sentiment in this era. To exemplify and encourage such views, when the Hitlerjugend and Bund Deutscher Mädel collected donations for Winterhilfswerk (Winter Relief), totals were not reported for any individuals, only what the branch raised. The Winterhilfswerk campaigns themselves acted as a ritual to generate public feeling. Organisations and institutions such as Hitlerjugend, Bund Deutscher Mädel, Winterhilfswerk, but also

6149-670: The Volksgenossen ("National Comrades") who belonged to the Volksgemeinschaft and the Gemeinschaftsfremde ("Community Aliens") who did not. In addition to the duties and responsibilities shared by those in the community, the National Comrades were expected to build and create a " Volksgeist " (" Volk spirit") that would encompass the best aspects of the German people. As such, community aliens could not belong, since they were deemed an undermining element in

6292-738: The right wing of German politics, in opposition to the class struggle advocated by Marxist parties like the Social Democrats and the Communists . The German Conservative Party became the German National People's Party and the National Liberal Party reorganized itself into the German People's Party , with the new names intended partly as references to Volksgemeinschaft . The concept

6435-400: The "Pour le Mérite". Extending from the left and right side of the wreath were a pair of stylised wings each consisting of four ascending "feathers". Also extending from the wreath towards the four corners of the flag were four black-edged white inactive wedges, a feature that was to be incorporated in the design of the future unit Colours of the new Luftwaffe. In each of the four corners was set

6578-402: The 19 members, travelling over five Berlin neighbourhoods at different times to paste the stickers over the original exhibition posters. The message read: The Harnacks were dismayed at Schulze-Boysen's actions and decided not to participate in the exploit, believing it to be reckless and unnecessarily dangerous. The discovery of the illegal radio transmissions by Soviet agent Johann Wenzel by

6721-688: The Foreign Air Powers Department and shortly afterwards in August a combat exercise took place in the Wildpark-Werder area that is directly southwest of Potsdam . The Gestapo also prepared for the impending war and, with orders from Heinrich Himmler , updated their registers of potential enemies of the state. Schulze-Boysen was classified as a former editor of the Gegner and they were aware of his status. On 20 April 1939, he

6864-517: The French, Schulze-Boysen was the actor for Germany in this field. He tried to develop an independent German youth movement with the "Gegner-Kreis", which included Robert Jungk , Erwin Gehrts , Kurt Schumacher and Gisela von Pöllnitz and began to organize Enemy Evenings in Berlin cafés. "There was hardly an opposition youth group with which he did not keep in touch with." At the end of 1931, he took

7007-537: The German Aviation School in Warnemünde as a sea observer to remove his son from the political front line in Berlin. The place was far away from Berlin and provided enough opportunity to allow Schulze-Boysen to reflect on his past and enable him to prepare plans for the future. Before his departure, he advised his friends and colleagues to look around Nazi Germany and to go into the institutions of

7150-533: The German Society of Intellectuals. John Rittmeister's wife Eva was a good friend of Liane Berkowitz , Ursula Goetze , Friedrich Rehmer , Maria Terwiel and Fritz Thiel who met in the 1939 abitur class at the secondary private school, Heil'schen Abendschule at Berlin W 50, Augsburger Straße 60 in Schöneberg . The Romanist Werner Krauss also joined. Through discussions, an active resistance to

7293-585: The German defence. The group around Schulze-Boysen did not know how to deliver the information to the Soviets, but discovered that Schulze-Boysen's cousin, Gisela von Pöllnitz , was planning to visit the Exposition Internationale des Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Moderne that was held in Paris from 25 May to 25 November 1937. After extensive discussion the group decided that she would deliver

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7436-413: The German people pure. Even Carl Jung 's "collective unconscious" was preferred to Freudian concepts because of its communal element. The Volksgemeinschaft was also depicted in films on the home-front during World War II, with the war uniting all levels of society, as in the two most popular films of the Nazi era, Die grosse Liebe and Wunschkonzert . The Request Concert radio show, on which

7579-589: The Germans were still indecisive. He stated that German generals in North Africa were hopeful of a victory over Great Britain, but the preparations for the invasion continued. In mid-April, in an attempt to increase the influx of intelligence, the Soviets ordered Korotkov to create a Berlin espionage operation. Harnack was asked to run the operation and the groups were given two radio transmitters. Schulze-Boysen selected Kurt Schumacher as their radio operator. In

7722-695: The Gestapo had rated the actions of the magazine as "radical" in an official communication, and in April 1933, the offices of Der Gegner were destroyed by the Sturmabteilung in a raid and detained all those present. The editorial staff were deported to a special camp of the 6th SS-Standarte . Schulze-Boysen himself was severely abused and detained for several days. The Sturmabteilung tortured his Jewish friend and colleague Henry Erlanger before his eyes, who died shortly afterwards. It had become clear to him, as

7865-534: The LB, and make them full departments on their own. The result was a collection of six: Luftkommandoamt (LA), Allgemeines Luftamt (LB), Technisches Amt (LC, but more often referred to as the C-amt ) in charge of all research and development, but having no clear way of receiving and acting on requests from front-line combat personnel of the Luftwaffe during the war years, to improve their aviation and weapons technology as

8008-484: The Luftwaffe attachés working in the individual embassies. At the same time, Harnack learned from him that the Reich Aviation Ministry was also involved in preparations for an invasion of the Soviet Union , and that the Luftwaffe was conducting reconnaissance flights over Soviet territory. On 27 March 1941 in a meeting at the apartment of Arvid Harnack, Schulze-Boysen met the third secretary member of

8151-453: The Luftwaffe gave them a more detailed perspective than most Berliners and by September 1941, they realised that the fate of Russians and Jews had begun to converge. At the same time, the combined group started to collect military intelligence in a careful, systematic manner that could be used to overthrow the Nazis. Members of both groups were convinced that only by the military defeat of the Nazis could Germany be liberated and that by shortening

8294-507: The May Day celebrations, not just workers, in the hope that this would help break down class hostility between workers and burghers . Songs in praise of labour and workers were played by state radio throughout May Day 1933, as well as an airshow in Berlin and fireworks. The Nazis added strongly nationalist themes to the celebrations, and Hitler spoke of workers as patriots who had built Germany's industrial strength and had honourably served in

8437-414: The Ministry grew so large that Göring was no longer able to maintain control. This period was marked by an increasing inability to deliver the new aircraft designs that were desperately needed, as well as continued shortages of aircraft and engines. In 1943 Albert Speer took over from Milch, and things immediately improved. Production reached their highest levels in 1943 and 1944, and though Speer introduced

8580-492: The Nazi Party, including amongst workers, small business owners, and others who desired a government that would resolve the economic crisis. While ascending to power, Hitler promised to restore faith in the Volk and to bring wholeness while accusing other politicians of tearing at German unity. Upon rising to power in 1933, the Nazis sought to gain support of various elements of society. Their concept of Volksgemeinschaft

8723-412: The Nazi plans. Their first leaflet was "Der Stoßtrupp" ("The Shock Troop") that criticised the plan for the invasion of Sudetenland . At the time, the documents were taken abroad. At the beginning of the war, Schulze-Boysen met Arvid Harnack who was the leader of another political faction and they started to work together. As the war progressed their combined undercover political faction, developed from

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8866-460: The Nazi regime grew. Ursula Goetze , who was part of the group, provided contacts with the communist groups in Neukölln . In January 1936, Schule-Boyzen completed basic military training in the 3rd Radio Intelligence Teaching Company in Halle and was promoted to corporal. In order to be promoted, he had to either prove an academic degree or take part in a reservist exercise. However, the Luftwaffe Personnel Office blocked this possibility because he

9009-557: The Nazi regime. He read books that the rulers appealed to and tried to return with due caution to his published work. In the spring of 1934, this resulted in an opportunity through a contact with the publisher Erich Röth . He published the magazine Wille zum Reich under a pseudonym and dealt with cultural policy issues but with the goal of undermining the Nazi movement with its own themes. Every fortnight he held picnic-evenings in his apartment with interested parties in which they discussed philosophical and well as political questions. Under

9152-466: The Nazis publicised propaganda as an exhibit known as The Soviet Paradise . Massive photo panels depicting Russian Slavs as subhuman beasts who lived in squalid conditions and pictures of firing squads shooting young children and others who were hung were shown at the exhibit. Greta Kuckhoff was horrified by the exhibition. The group decided to respond and created a number of stickers to paste onto walls. On 17 May 1942, Schulze Boysen stood guard on each of

9295-441: The Nazis sought to gain the support of workers by declaring May Day , a day celebrated by organized labour , to be a paid holiday named the "Day of National Work" and held celebrations on 1 May 1933 to honour German workers. The regime believed that the only way to avoid a repeat of the disaster of 1918 was to secure workers' support for the German government. The regime also insisted through propaganda that all Germans take part in

9438-419: The People!"). Co-authored by Rittmeister, the master copy was arranged by the potter Cato Bontjes van Beek , a friend of Libertas, and the pamphlet was written up by Maria Terwiel on her typewriter. One copy survives today. The pamphlet posited the idea of active defeatism, which was a compromise between principled pacifism and practical political resistance. It stated the future for Germany lay in establishing

9581-426: The RLM, he studied at the Deutsche Hochschule für Politik of the Humboldt University of Berlin for a doctorate. Towards the end of his studies, he led a seminar on foreign studies as an employee of SS Major Franz Six who was director of the Hochschule. In 1941, Libertas Schulze-Boysen became an English language lecturer to teach translators the language. Schulze-Boysen who also lectured there and met three people at

9724-402: The Reich Commissariat for Aviation ( German : Reichskommissariat für die Luftfahrt ), which had been established two months earlier with Göring at its head. In this early phase the Ministry was little more than Göring's personal staff. One of its first actions was to requisition control of all patents and companies of Hugo Junkers , the German aeronautical engineer. These included all rights to

9867-411: The Reich Labour Service and, above all, the Nazi party were portrayed as exemplifications and concrete manifestations of the "Volksgemeinschaft". Hitler declared that he knew nothing of bourgeois or proletarian, only Germans. Volksgemeinschaft was portrayed as overcoming distinctions of party and social class. The commonality this created across classes was among the great appeals of Nazism. After

10010-413: The Schulze-Boysens were introduced to Maria Terwiel and her future fiance, the dentist Helmut Himpel . In January 1941, Schulze-Boysen, promoted to lieutenant, was assigned to the attaché group of the 5th department of the Reich Aviation Ministry. His new place of work was in Wildpark in Potsdam , where the headquarters of the Luftwaffe was located. His job there was to process the incoming reports from

10153-439: The Soviet Union during his studies. Schulze-Boysen invalidated the concerns that Buschmann had regarding the literature handover by remarking, "I regularly receive Pravda and Izvestia and have to read them because I am a rapporteur on Russian issues. My department requires a thorough study of this literature. Besides, we are allies of Soviet Russia". Schulze-Boysen spent much of 1940 looking for new contacts. Besides his work in

10296-492: The Soviet embassy, Alexander Korotkov , who was known to Harnack as Alexander Erdberg. Korotkov was a Soviet intelligence agent who had been operating clandestinely in Europe for much of the 1930s as an employee of the foreign intelligence service of the Soviet People's Commissariat for State Security (NKGB). Korotkov assigned the code name Starshina , a Soviet military rank, to Schulze-Boysen as Harnack brought him into

10439-403: The advice of Elisabeth Schumacher —wife of Kurt Schumacher —sought out Elfriede Paul , a doctor, who became a core member of the group. The Spanish Civil War galvanised the inner circle of Schulze-Boysen's group. Kurt Schumacher demanded that action should be taken and a plan that took advantage of Schulze-Boysen's position at the ministry was formed. In February 1937, Schulze-Boysen compiled

10582-572: The anti-Semitism. Even once in power, his immediate speeches spoke of serving Germany. While the Reichstag fire was used to justify anti-Communist and anti-Semitic violence, Hitler himself spoke on a new life, honor, and unity in Germany. Similarly, the Night of the Long Knives was justified as a peril to the people so great that only decisive action would save them. Goebbels described Hitler after that event as suffering "tragic loneliness" and as

10725-545: The associated practice of kissing a lady's hand, but Hitler was routinely shown engaging in that same practice in press photographs. Old titles of nobility were shunned, but the Nazi Party hierarchy created numerous new titles. Elegant evening dress and other public displays of wealth were sometimes derided and sometimes encouraged. The Nazi Party claimed to administer justice impartially to all ethnic Germans regardless of their social origins, and Nazi propaganda emphasized instances where upper class individuals were found guilty by

10868-675: The autumn. As a student at the Steinbart Gymnasium in Duisburg, he participated in the underground struggle against the French occupation of the Ruhr in 1923 and was temporarily imprisoned by the French and Belgian occupying forces. To get him out of this political firing line, his parents organized a slightly longer stay in Sweden. Harro's trip to England in 1926 had inspired comparison and reflection. He had found that his experiences in

11011-507: The country did not match the perception of England within Germany. In 1927 he wrote his first major newspaper report about a scandal in Duisburg to erect a monument to the sculptor Wilhelm Lehmbruck . On the occasion of the 80th birthday of the Reich President Paul von Hindenburg , Schulze-Boysen gave a commemorative speech at the school. His political involvement in high school was perceived as unusually intense. He passed

11154-419: The courts as evidence of this, but at the same time the Nazi Party provided many opportunities for corruption and vested interests among its members. On one occasion the arrest of a Reichsbank director was widely publicized by the Nazi press, while his subsequent release was never mentioned. Nazis gave a great deal of prominence to this new "folk community" in their propaganda, depicting the events of 1933 as

11297-620: The different economic and social classes to live together harmoniously and work for the nation. There was also an important racial aspect to the Nazi Volksgemeinschaft : only "people of Aryan blood" could be members. The word "Volksgemeinschaft" was probably first used in Gottlob August Tittel 's 1791 translation of a text written by John Locke , synthesising the expression "in any [particular] place, generally". Among 19th century scholars who used

11440-483: The end of the trial, Roeder demanded the death sentence. On 19 December, the couple were sentenced to death for "preparation for high treason" and "war treason". Harro Schulze-Boysen was executed by hanging on 22 December 1942 at 19:05 in Plötzensee Prison in Berlin. Libertas Schulze-Boysen was executed 90 minutes after her husband. Their bodies were released to Hermann Stieve , an anatomist at what

11583-479: The failure of the Beer Hall Putsch , Hitler, in the trial, omitted his usual pre-putsch anti-Semitism and centered his defense on his selfless devotion to the good of the Volk and the need for bold action to save them. The Versailles settlement had betrayed Germany, which they had tried to save. Thereafter, his speeches concentrated on his boundless devotion to the Volk , though not entirely eliminating

11726-579: The family moved to Berlin when his father received a posting. He had two siblings: a sister Helga, and a brother, Hartmut (1922-2013). In 1913, Schulze-Boysen attended primary school and later the Heinrich-von-Kleist-Gymnasium in the district of Schmargendorf in Berlin. From 1920, he regularly spent his summer holidays with the Hasselrot family in Sweden. In 1922 his father was transferred to Duisburg , and Harro followed him in

11869-571: The finance ministry, introduced numerous tax breaks for lower and middle class Germans, narrowed pension gaps between blue and white collar workers, and lowered the entrance standards for civil service exams. The ubiquitous uniforms within Nazi organisations were intended to suppress visible class differences in dress and create an image of unity. Between 1933 and 1939, upward mobility was twice as likely as between 1927 and 1933. The Second World War assisted in this, as social status and class did not affect whether one received Reich services. Wartime rationing

12012-520: The governments of the Weimar Republic and mobilized volunteers to assist those impoverished, "racially-worthy" Germans through the National Socialist People's Welfare organization. This organization oversaw charitable activities, and became the largest civic organization in Nazi Germany . Successful efforts were made to get middle-class women involved in social work assisting large families. The Winter Relief campaigns acted as

12155-493: The great national equation". The idea of a Volksgemeinschaft was rooted in the notion of uniting people across class divides to achieve a national purpose, and the hope that national unity would "obliterate all conflicts - between employers and employees, town and countryside, producers and consumers, industry and craft". After Germany's defeat in World War I, the concept of Volksgemeinschaft remained popular especially on

12298-481: The group, including Schulze-Boysen who was arrested on 31 August 1942 and executed later the same year. Schulze-Boysen was born in Kiel as the son of decorated naval officer Erich Edgar Schulze  [ de ] and Marie-Luise (née Boysen). On his paternal side he was the grandnephew of Grand Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz and on the maternal side, the German economist and philosopher Ferdinand Tönnies . In 1913,

12441-497: The head of maritime aviation intelligence, he was responsible for evaluating the foreign literature and press on the subject of air armament. He analysed tactics, organisation, training and technology by studying foreign magazines, lectures, photo collections and journals. To protect himself from further persecution, Schulze-Boysen surrounded himself with a group of politically incorruptible friends who were left-leaning anti-fascists, among them artists , pacifists and Communists . In

12584-697: The header format: KL3 3 DE RTX 1010-1725 WDS GBD FROM DIREKTOR PERSONAL . When it was decrypted, it gave the location of three addresses in Berlin: The first address, 19 Altenburger Allee, Neu-Westend, third floor right and addressed to CORO was the Schulze-Boysens apartment. The two other addresses were the Kuckhoffs' and the Harnacks' apartments. When Vauck decrypted this message, it was forwarded to Reich Security Main Office IV 2A, where they identified

12727-488: The idea of a united youth fighting the older generations. In May 1932, an investigation was opened against Jung and the office premises of the Der Gegner were sealed. Schulze-Boysen took over the business as the new editor and gave the publication a new name, Gegner (English: " opponent "), but with the same network of the most diverse political camps. At the depths of the crisis, he saw a clear opportunity to implement

12870-719: The imminent affiliation of the Sudetenland . Around 50 copies were mimeographed and distributed. In the spring of 1939, Paul, the Schumachers and Küchenmeister travelled to Switzerland, ostensibly to treat Küchenmeister's tuberculosis but also to contact the KPD director Wolfgang Langhoff to exchange information. In August, Schumacher along withKüchenmeister helped Rudolf Bergtel  [ de ] reach Switzerland. He also provided him with information on current German aircraft and tank production, as well as deployment plans for

13013-400: The institute that became important members of his group: student and interpreter Eva-Maria Buch ; confirmed Nazi and Hitler Youth member Horst Heilmann and Luftwaffe officer Herbert Gollnow . Buch translated the resistance magazine Die Innere Front (English: "The Internal Front" or "The Home Front") into French. Little was known about Gollnow. Heilmann met Schulze-Boysen when he wrote

13156-436: The intentions of Nazi social policy: Article I. Community Aliens ( Gemeinschaftsfremde ) 1. "Community Aliens" are such persons who: 1, Show themselves, in their personality or in the conduct of their life, and especially in light of any unusual deficiency of mind or character, unable to comply by their own efforts with the minimum requirements of the national community. 2.(a) owing to work-shyness or slovenliness, lead

13299-475: The latter film was based, achieved great popularity by broadcasting music claimed to be requested by men in the armed forces. Attempts to get women of "better classes" to take factory jobs were presented as breaking down class barriers and so helping create a true people's community. Failure to support the war was an anti-social act; this propaganda managed to bring arms production to a peak in 1944. Nazi legal theory divided all Germans into two categories, namely

13442-581: The letter to the Soviet Embassy in Paris. Von Pöllnitz fulfilled her mission and placed the letter in the mailbox of the Soviet Embassy on the Bois de Boulogne . However, the building was being watched by the Gestapo and after posting the letter they arrested her in November 1937. To prepare for the upcoming military occupation of Czechoslovakia , just after 5 June 1938, a game of planning took place in

13585-477: The military Luftschutzamt (LA) and the civilian Allgemeines Luftamt (LB). Erhard Milch , the former head of Deutsche Luft Hansa , was placed in direct control of the LA, in his function as Secretary of State for Aviation. In September 1933, a reorganization was undertaken to reduce duplication of effort between departments. The primary changes were to move the staffing and technical development organizations out of

13728-411: The movie Hans Westmar was the willful provoking of violent conflicts with Communists; Westmar preaches class reconciliation, and his death unifies students and workers. These ideas were also propagandized to the Sturmabteilung , whose violent, rebellious and confrontational past had to be transformed into a community organization to be useful in a Germany where Nazis held official power. This unity

13871-422: The nascent Nazis enough. In March 1932, he wrote his first article, "Der Neue Gegner" (English: "The New Opponent") that defined his concept of publication goals, stating: "Let us serve the invisible alliance of thousands, who today are still divided." In April 1932, he wrote a letter to his mother that stated his goal was the intellectual reconciliation of the young generation. Essentially his politics were driven by

14014-484: The nationalists. As time went on, he increasingly distanced himself from the views of the Young German Order as he realised that the daily struggle in Germany should primarily be directed against the emerging fascism and all reactionaries. In 1932 and 1933, he published the left-liberal political magazine Der Gegner (English: "The Opponent"),that sought an alternative between capitalism and communism. It

14157-446: The operation. Without being aware of the exact activity of his counterpart at the time, Schulze-Boysen informed him in the conversation that the attack on the Soviet Union had been decided and would take place in the shortest possible time. On 2 April 1941, Schulze-Boysen informed Korotkov that the invasion plans were complete and provided Korotkov with an initial list of bombing targets of railways. On 17 April, Schulze-Boysen reported that

14300-460: The peace of the community; 3. show themselves, in their personality or the conduct of their life, mentally disposed towards the commission of serious offences (community-hostile criminals [ gemeinschaftsfeindliche Verbrecher ]) and criminals by inclination [ Neigungsverbrecher ]). Article II Police Measures Against Community Aliens 2. 1. Community aliens should be subject towards police supervision. 2. If supervisory measures are insufficient,

14443-525: The people living at the three addresses. The three couples were put under surveillance on 16 July 1942. There was a member of Schulze-Boysen's group working in Referat 12 in Vauck's team: Horst Heilmann, who was supplying Schulze-Boysen with intelligence. Heilmann tried to contact Schulze-Boysen but was unsuccessful and left a message with him to phone him back. Schulze-Boysen returned the call, but Vauck answered

14586-543: The people's community, were severely punished, even executed for crimes that did not provide for the death penalty, such as doubling the sentence the prosecution asked for when a defendant had not helped put out a fire, thus showing a disregard for the life of his "Volksgenossen" and community. In support of this, Peukert quoted two articles from the projected "Law for the Treatment of Community Aliens" of 1944, which though never implemented owing to bureaucratic quarrels showed

14729-407: The people's community. The Nazis solidified support amongst nationalists and conservatives by presenting themselves as allied with President Paul von Hindenburg , who was considered a war hero of World War I in Germany. On 21 March 1933, special celebrations were held to mark the re-opening of the Reichstag following the Reichstag fire , and the Nazis called this event Potsdam Day . Potsdam Day

14872-517: The phone and when he requested the name of the caller to take a message, and was met with Schulze-Boysen, the deception was revealed. On 31 August 1942, Schulze-Boysen was arrested in his office in the RLM, and his wife Libertas a few days later when she panicked and fled to a friend's house. On 15 December 1942, Harro and Libertas, along with many close friends including the Harnacks, the Schumachers, Hans Coppi, John Graudenz and Horst Heilmann, were tried in

15015-575: The poet Adam Kuckhoff together with the couple. The Kuckhoffs had known the Schulz-Boysens since 1938, having met them at a dinner party hosted by film producer Herbert Engelsing and his wife Ingeborg Engelsing, a close friend of Libertas and started to engage them socially in late 1939 or early 1940 by bringing Mildred and Libertas together while on holiday in Saxony. Through the Engelsing's,

15158-482: The police shall transfer the community aliens to the Gau (or Land ) welfare authorities. 3. If, in the case of any community alien persons, a stricter degree of custody is required than is possible within the institutions of the Gau (or Land ) welfare authorities, the police shall place them in a police camp." In their desire to establish a total state, the Nazis understood the importance of “selling” their ideology to

15301-472: The political goals for the German delegation. In view of the crisis in Germany, these consisted of the abolition of the capitalist system and also the assertion of Germany's own role without foreign diktat and interference. In the search for alternatives to crisis-ridden Western Europe, he became more interested in the Soviet system, which was influenced by his disappointment with the national and conservative parties in Germany, who in his opinion did not fight

15444-661: The radio counterintelligence organization Funkabwehr and his capture by the Gestapo on 29–30 June 1942 eventually revealed the Red Orchestra, and led to the arrest of the Schulze-Boysens. Wenzel decided to cooperate after he was tortured. His exposure of the radio codes enabled Referat 12 , the cipher bureaux of the Funkabwehr, to decipher Red Orchestra message traffic. The unit had been tracking Red Orchestra radio transmissions since June 1941 and in December they raided

15587-574: The regional differences between the different states of the Reich ; between rich, middle class and poor; between Roman Catholics and Protestants; and between rural and urban no longer existed and the German people were all one for the duration of the war. During the war, many Germans longed to have the sense of unity that the Burgfrieden inspired continue after the war, and it was during this period that many ideas started to circulate about how to convert

15730-484: The resistance organisation. Both Harnack and Coppi were trained by a contact of Korotkov, in how to encode text and transmit it, but Coppi failed to send any messages due to inexperience and technical problems with the radio. Harnack managed to transmit messages but the operation was largely a failure. Around 13 June 1941, Schulze-Boysen prepared a report that gave the final details of the Soviet invasion including details of Hungarian airfields containing German planes. When

15873-497: The rise of Nazism and protest against their use of his concept. He had his honorary professorship removed when Adolf Hitler came to power . In 1914, at the beginning of World War I, the Emperor Wilhelm II proclaimed before the Reichstag the Burgfrieden ("peace in the castle" or "truce in the castle", a kind of "unity within a besieged castle" for the duration of the conflict), announcing that henceforward all of

16016-450: The same measures of self-regulation that he had introduced in other areas of industry, and tried to take credit for the so-called Armaments Miracle , contemporary German statistics show that the real reason for increased production were measures and investments made by Milch and his staff in 1941 and 1942. Though German aircraft production had briefly caught up with that of the Soviet Union in 1944, it collapsed in 1945. The RLM never overcame

16159-495: The same month, Korotkov began to pressure both groups to break contact with any communist friends and cease any kind of political activity. Schulze-Boysen had a number of friends with links to the Communist Party of Germany including Küchenmeister with whom he cut contact, but he continued to engage in politics. In May 1941, a suitcase-based radio transmitter was delivered to Harnack via Greta Kuckhoff. Eventually, Libertas

16302-607: The same period he joined the Studentenverbindung Albingia and the Young German Order , a paramilitary organisation that influenced him ideologically at the time. Its goal was to ethically revive the "comradeship from the trenches of the First World War" as a model for the Volksgemeinschaft to be developed. It rejected any form of dictatorship from the ideological left or right. In the summer of 1929 he participated in an academic fencing club at

16445-548: The same time, however, the Nazis sought to destroy independent working class organizations, seeing them as incompatible with the trans-class unity of the Volksgemeinschaft . On 2 May 1933, one day after the celebrations, the trade union movement was banned, and "stormtroopers sealed off and took over the operations of the socialist Free Trade Unions and incorporated them into what became the German Labor Front". The Nazis continued social welfare policies initiated by

16588-499: The shortage of raw materials and fuel supply, lack of experienced pilots and deficits in technology and know-how that had handicapped it since the beginning of the war. The Ministry building was one of the few public edifices in central Berlin to survive the severe Allied bombings in 1944–45. On 5 May 1933 the German Air Ministry, with Hermann Göring as Reich Minister for Aviation ( German : Reichsluftfahrtminister )

16731-582: The summer of 1934, he met 20-year-old Libertas Haas-Heye while they were sailing on the Wannsee , who worked at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer in Berlin as a press officer. They married on 26 July 1936. The wedding took place in the chapel of Liebenberg Castle  [ de ] under a painting of Guido Reni , with Hermann Göring giving away the bride. Liebenberg Castle was the ancestral estate of her parents. Schulze-Boysen spent his honeymoon in Stockholm as

16874-702: The summer of 1936, Schulze-Boysen had become preoccupied by the Popular Front in Spain and through his position at the Reich Aviation Ministry, had collected detailed information of the support that Germany was providing. The documents were passed to the Antimilitarist Apparatus or AM Apparat (Intelligence organisation) of the German Communist Party . At the end of 1936, Libertas Schulze-Boysen and Walter Küchenmeister , on

17017-728: The university and a course from the Hochsee-Wehrsportverein high sea defense sailing club in Neustadt . In November he moved to the Humboldt University of Berlin to continue his studies in law and joined its International Students' Association. In 1930, Schulze-Boysen supported the intellectual-nationalist group called the Volksnationale Reichsvereinigung ("People's National Reich Association"). During this period, Schulze-Boysen

17160-411: The very foundations of the "Volksgemeinschaft". The modern German historian Detlev Peukert wrote the following about the purpose of Nazi social policy: The goal was an utopian Volksgemeinschaft , totally under police surveillance, in which any attempt at nonconformist behaviour, or even any hint or intention of such behaviour, would be visited with terror. Criminals, if deemed unable to be part of

17303-514: The war dead. Most importantly, the Hitler Youth did their utmost to indoctrinate the youth of Germany with the ideological values of Nazism. Youth leaders bore into the youth a sense of fervent patriotism and utter devotion to Hitler, including military training so as to be ready to join the Wehrmacht . By 1939, when membership in the Hitler Youth became compulsory, each new member of the Jungvolk

17446-415: The war, perhaps millions of people could be saved. Only in that way would Germany be able to be saved as an independent state at the centre of Europe. On 18 October 1941, the Soviet agent Anatoly Gurevich was ordered by Leopold Trepper , the director of Soviet Intelligence in Europe, to drive to Berlin and find out why the group were no longer transmitting. Trepper received a message on 26 August 1941 with

17589-571: The war, while claiming that they had been oppressed under economic liberalism . Hitler praised the virtues of labor, and was quoted in the Völkischer Beobachter as declaring that "I only acknowledge one nobility—that of labour." The event proved convincing, as the next day the Berliner Morgenpost , a newspaper which had been associated with the political left in the past, praised the regime's May Day celebrations. At

17732-478: The wartime Burgfrieden into a peacetime Volksgemeinschaft . In the aftermath of World War I, the idea of Volksgemeinschaft was used to interpret economic catastrophes and hardship facing Germans during the Weimar Republic era as a common experience of the German nation and to argue for German unity to bring about renewal to end the crisis. It was invoked by the Jewish social anarchists Gustav Landauer (who

17875-507: The word "Volksgemeinschaft" were Friedrich Schleiermacher , Friedrich Carl von Savigny , Carl Theodor Welcker , Johann Caspar Bluntschli , Hermann Schulze , Wilhelm Dilthey , and Wilhelm Wundt . Most influential was perhaps Ferdinand Tönnies ' theory in his work Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft ("Community and Society") of 1887. Decades later, in 1932, Tönnies joined the Social Democratic Party of Germany to oppose

18018-698: The youth. To accomplish this, Hitler established Nazi youth groups. Young boys from 6–10 years old participated in the Pimpfen , similar to the cub scouts . Boys from 10–14 years old participated in the Deutsches Jungvolk , and boys 14–18 years old participated in the Hitler Jugend (Hitler Youth). The two older groups fostered military values and virtues, such as duty, obedience, honor, courage, strength, and ruthlessness. Uniforms and regular military drills were supplemented by ceremonies honoring

18161-702: Was also a member of the National Socialist Black Front . For the first time during this period he dealt intensively with Nazi ideology and searched for the causes of the sudden victory of the Nazi Party in Reichstag elections in March 1933. He studied the Nazi Party's programme and read Mein Kampf in search of answers, describing it as a "jumble of platitudes" and commenting: "There's nothing here but nonsense". It became clear to him that

18304-644: Was being planned. These two meetings created a level of trust between the two men that reduced their risk of exposure when trying to turn the Wehrmacht officer. In August 1941, after a weekend sailing on the Großer Wannsee , on Schulze-Boysen's boat, the Duschika , Schulze-Boysen confided in Heilmann that he was working for the Russians as an agent. Heilmann supplied intelligence to Schulze-Boysen for almost

18447-475: Was drawn into the espionage operation. As the month progressed, the reports provided to the Soviets became more important, as they in turn devoted more time to ensure the supply of information continued. On 6 June 1941, Schumacher was drafted into the German army and Schulze-Boysen found a replacement radio operator in Hans Coppi . Schulze-Boysen persuaded Coppi to establish a radio link to the Soviet Union for

18590-508: Was founded in 1931 by Franz Jung and modelled on the Plans magazine. The poet Ernst Fuhrmann , the artist Raoul Hausmann , the writers Ernst von Salomon and Adrien Turel and the Marxist theoretician Karl Korsch , among others collaborated in writing the magazine. Their aim was to build a unified front of young people against the "liberal, capitalist and nationalist spirit" in Europe. For

18733-420: Was founded. This event came along with the introduction of a command flag that was produced in different sizes, ranging from 200 to 30 cm (79 to 12 in). The flag consisted of bright red material on which was placed in the centre of the obverse a wreath of silver coloured laurel leaves. In the centre of the leaves was a black eagle. Suspended from the base of the wreath was a true-coloured representation of

18876-484: Was happy to hear from the reports that informed him of the German military setback on the Eastern Front and convinced Schulze-Boysen that the reports should be shared with the German people, which would destroy the myth of German propaganda. However, Rittmeister did not share the activist politics of Schulze-Boysen, nor did he know about his espionage activities. The AGIS leaflet was created, named in reference to

19019-595: Was implemented in an egalitarian manner, which greatly pleased the working class – a secret wartime report by the Social Democrats stated that "the working classes thoroughly welcome the fact that 'the better off' have, in practical terms, ceased to be that." Nevertheless, in many ways the Nazi Volksgemeinschaft served only as a symbolic unity, while real differences of status and wealth continued to dominate daily life. The Nazis disparaged sophisticated forms of address such as gnädige Frau ("gracious lady") and

19162-703: Was killed for his participation in the Bavarian Soviet Republic ) and Erich Mühsam (who died in Oranienburg concentration camp ) in articulating their vision of a peaceful, non-coercive mutualist society. However, it was subsequently adopted by the Nazi Party to justify actions against Jews , profiteers , Marxists , and the Allies of World War I , whom the Nazis accused of obstructing German national regeneration, causing national disintegration in 1918 and Germany's defeat in World War I. There

19305-399: Was notoriously embraced by the newly founded Nazi Party in the 1920s, and eventually became strongly associated with Nazism after Adolf Hitler's rise to power . In the Nazi vision of Volksgemeinschaft , society would continue to be organized into classes (based upon talent, property, or profession), but there would be no class conflict, because a common national consciousness would inspire

19448-425: Was promoted to lieutenant and promptly called upon to perform a study on the comparison of air armaments between France, England and Germany. The overall situation in Germany, which was moving more and more towards the state of war, did not leave the actors associated with Schulze-Boysen idle. In October 1938 Küchenmeister and Schulze-Boysen wrote the leaflet entitled Der Stoßtrupp (English: "The Shock Troop") for

19591-451: Was racially unified and organized hierarchically. This involved a mystical unity, a form of racial soul uniting all Germans, including those living abroad. Nevertheless, this soul was regarded as related to the land, in the doctrine of " blood and soil ". Indeed, one reason for "blood and soil" was the belief that landowner and peasant lived in an organic harmony. Aryan Germans who had sexual relations with non-Germanics were excluded from

19734-721: Was registered in the files as "politically unreliable". In September 1936 Hermann Göring asked the head of the human resources department, Colonel General Hans-Jürgen Stumpff , what reports they had on Schulze-Boysen. When he learned that Schulze-Boysen's political activities from the Weimar Era "would offer no guarantee of a positive attitude towards the National State", Göring replied that "the old calibre of new appointments should be accepted" and sent him on an aviator course. He completed his course in November in List on Sylt and

19877-636: Was required to take an oath to the Führer swearing total allegiance. Young girls were also a part of the Hitler Youth in Nazi Germany. Girls from 10 to 14 years old were members of the Jungmädelbund , while girls fourteen to eighteen belonged to the Bund Deutscher Mädel . Hitler youth girls were instructed in the principles of service, regimentation, obedience, and discipline. Girls were taught to be dutiful wives and mothers. Members of

20020-708: Was subsequently promoted to sergeant of the Reserve. Further courses followed in May and July 1936. In the meantime, he was also commissioned by the Reich Aviation Ministry to work on the handbook of the military sciences and the Luftwaffe magazine. While he was taking his basic military training in Halle, he learned of the ban on the magazine Wille zum Reich . The atelier that he and Libertas had purchased together in Charlottenburg as their wedding apartment gradually became

20163-425: Was to confront Soviet power with Europe's right to self-assertion. Schulze-Boysen pleaded for mutual collaboration between the two countries and believed that German communism would emerge as an independent political doctrine, while he anticipated a role for the Soviet Union in Europe. At a second meeting, with trust established between two sides, Haushofer told Schulze-Boysen that an assassination attempt against Hitler

20306-530: Was used to celebrate military tradition, the Hohenzollern dynasty of Prussia , the sacrifices of World War I and the "hero of Tannenberg," President Hindenburg. The image of Hitler and Hindenburg shaking hands was reproduced on thousands of postcards, representing "the union of the new and old Germany," a way for the Nazis to portray themselves as connected to the aristocratic traditions of the past. Having organized Potsdam Day to gain conservative support,

20449-402: Was what justified Nazi propaganda; its pejorative connotation had sprung solely from its selfish use, and the Nazis' honorable goal, the unity of the German people, made it honorable for them. It also justified the one-party state as all that was needed in a society with a united will, where Hitler implemented the will of the Volk more directly than in a democracy. Attacks on Great Britain as

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