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164-667: Daniel Harvey Hill (July 12, 1821 – September 24, 1889), commonly known as D. H. Hill , was a Confederate general who commanded infantry in the eastern and western theaters of the American Civil War . Hill was known as an aggressive leader, being severely strict, deeply religious, and having dry, sarcastic humor. He was brother-in-law to Stonewall Jackson and a close friend to both James Longstreet and Joseph E. Johnston , but disagreements with both Robert E. Lee and Braxton Bragg cost him favor with Confederate President Jefferson Davis . Although his military ability

328-406: A hospital , in medieval usage, "an institution supported by charity or taxes for the care of the needy". The subordination of the priory's religious order to the bishops of Bethlehem was further underlined in the foundational charter, which stipulated that the prior, canons, and inmates were to wear a star upon their cloaks and capes to symbolise their obedience to the church of Bethlehem. During

492-446: A chemical process, by which it would appear sound , and then sold it at an advanced price, clearing $ 450 by the fraud. The price at which he sold the pork per pound, multiplied by the cost per pound of the chemical process, was 3 cents. Required the price at which he sold it, and the cost of the chemical process. Ans. He sold it at 6 cents per pound, and the cost of the process was ½ cent per pound. ( Elements of Algebra , page 321.) In

656-496: A 1676 text eulogising the new Bethlem that their " Vast Length ... wearies the travelling eyes' of Strangers ". The galleries were constructed more for public display than for the care of patients as, at least initially, inmates were prohibited from them lest "such persons that come to see the said Lunatickes may goe in Danger of their Lives". The architectural design of the new Bethlem was primarily intended to project an image of

820-736: A 1946 film with Boris Karloff . The hospital is part of the South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust . It is closely associated with King's College London and, in partnership with the Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience , is a major centre for psychiatric research. It is part of the King's Health Partners academic health science centre and the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Biomedical Research Centre for Mental Health. Founded in 1247,

984-477: A Confederate colonel, as well as Joseph E. Johnston who wore a Colonel's insignia with a larger six pointed star in the center, similar to the stars worn by George Washington during the American Revolution. Wade Hampton additionally wore shoulder straps with general stars to denote his specific general's rank, and was apparently the only Confederate general to ever do so. The only visible difference

1148-455: A Vomit and a Purge over again, and sometimes a Bleeding, which is no great mystery Alexander Cruden, The London Citizen Exceedingly Injured , 1739. The medical regime, being married to a depletive or antiphlogistic physic until the early nineteenth century, had a reputation for conservatism that was neither unearned nor, given the questionable benefit of some therapeutic innovations, necessarily ill-conceived in every instance. Bathing

1312-587: A cost of £8,660: only a fraction of this sum was allocated and by the end of the decade it was clear that the problem had been largely unaddressed. Holland's successor to the post of Surveyor, James Lewis, was charged in 1799 with compiling a new report on the building's condition. Presenting his findings to the Governors the following year, Lewis declared the building "incurable" and opined that further investment in anything other than essential repairs would be financially imprudent. He was, however, careful to insulate

1476-435: A despairing medical system whose therapeutic transactions were both injudicious and unnecessarily violent. In contrast, Battie presented St Luke's as a progressive and innovative hospital, oriented towards the possibility of cure and scientific in approach. Monro responded promptly, publishing Remarks on Dr. Battie's Treatise on Madness in the same year. Although Bethlem had been enlarged by 1667 to accommodate 59 patients,

1640-534: A donation of personal property by the London alderman and former sheriff, Simon FitzMary. The original location was just beyond London's wall , in the parish of St Botolph-without-Bishopsgate , which for civil purposes was coterminous with the Bishopsgate Without area. The hospital was located where the south-east corner of Liverpool Street Station now stands. Bethlem was not initially intended as

1804-407: A fund-raising drive was initiated in 1804. In the interim, attempts were made to rehouse patients at local hospitals, and admissions to Bethlem, sections of which were deemed uninhabitable, were significantly curtailed such that the patient population fell from 266 in 1800 to 119 in 1814. Financial obstacles to the proposed move remained significant. A national press campaign to solicit donations from

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1968-658: A great influence in the former slave states . In 1877, he became one of the first presidents of the University of Arkansas , a post that he held until 1884, and, in 1885, president of the Military and Agricultural College of Milledgeville , Georgia until August 1889, when he resigned due to failing health. General Hill died at Charlotte the following month and was buried in Davidson College Cemetery. On November 2, 1848, he married Isabella Morrison, who

2132-605: A hospital, in the clinical sense, much less as a specialist institution for the insane, but as a centre for the collection of alms to support the Crusader Church and to link England to the Holy Land . De Prefetti's need to generate income for the Crusader Church and restore the financial fortunes of his see had been occasioned by two misfortunes: his bishopric had suffered significant losses following

2296-450: A long entry throughout the house, and 21 rooms wherein the poor distracted people lie, and above the stairs eight rooms more for servants and the poor to lie in". It is likely that this arrangement was not significantly different in the sixteenth century. Although inmates, if deemed dangerous or disturbing, were chained or locked up, Bethlem was an otherwise open building with its inhabitants at liberty to roam around its confines and possibly

2460-540: A moral exemplum of what might happen if the passions and appetites were allowed to dethrone reason. As one mid-eighteenth-century correspondent commented: "[there is no] better lesson [to] be taught us in any part of the globe than in this school of misery. Here we may see the mighty reasoners of the earth, below even the insects that crawl upon it; and from so humbling a sight we may learn to moderate our pride, and to keep those passions within bounds, which if too much indulged, would drive reason from her seat, and level us with

2624-404: A penny but if you happen to have no change and give him a silver coin, he will keep the whole sum and return you nothing Inveterate letter-writer César de Saussure's account of Bethlem during his 1725 tour of London's sights. The Governors actively sought out "people of note and quallitie" – the educated, wealthy and well-bred – as visitors. The limited evidence would suggest that

2788-417: A popular attraction, yet there is no credible basis to calculate the annual number of visitors. The claim, still sometimes made, that Bethlem received 96,000 visitors annually is speculative in the extreme. Nevertheless, it has been established that the pattern of visiting was highly seasonal and concentrated around holiday periods. As Sunday visiting was severely curtailed in 1650 and banned seven years later,

2952-441: A receptacle for the very disturbed and troublesome and this fact lends some credence to accounts such as that provided by Donald Lupton in the 1630s who described the "cryings, screechings, roarings, brawlings, shaking of chaines, swearings, frettings, chaffings" that he observed. Bethlem had been built over a sewer that served both the hospital and its precinct. This common drain regularly blocked, resulting in overflows of waste at

3116-413: A scale of equivalents, where an officer would be exchanged for a fixed number of enlisted men, and also allowed for the parole of prisoners, who would undertake not to serve in a military capacity until officially exchanged. (The cartel worked well for a few months but broke down when Confederates insisted on treating black prisoners of war as fugitive slaves and returning them to their previous owners.) In

3280-428: A significant role. The election of James Monro as physician in 1728 marked the beginning of a 125-year Monro family dynasty extending through four generations of fathers and sons. Family influence was also significant in the appointment of surgeons but absent in that of apothecaries. The office of physician was largely an honorary and charitable one with only a nominal salary. As with most hospital posts, attendance

3444-406: A sink and cold baths. Incontinent patients were kept on beds of straw in cells in the basement gallery; this space also contained rooms with fireplaces for attendants. A wing for the criminally insane  – a legal category newly minted in the wake of the trial of a delusional James Hadfield for attempted regicide  – was completed in 1816. This addition, which housed 45 men and 15 women,

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3608-454: A specialist institution for the confinement of the insane. This process was largely completed by 1460. From the fourteenth century, Bethlem had been referred to colloquially as "Bedleheem", "Bedleem" or "Bedlam". Initially "Bedlam" was an informal name but from approximately the Jacobean era the word entered everyday speech to signify a state of madness, chaos, and the irrational nature of

3772-625: A staff officer only. The post of adjutant general was filled by Samuel Cooper (the position he had held as a colonel in the U.S. Army from 1852 until resigning) and he held it throughout the Civil War, as well as the army's inspector general . Initially, the Confederate States Army commissioned only brigadier generals in both the volunteer and regular services; however, the Congress quickly passed legislation allowing for

3936-406: A strong iron bar about two inches wide was riveted; on each side of the bar was a circular projection, which being fashioned to and enclosing each of his arms, pinioned them close to his sides. This waist bar was secured by two similar iron bars which, passing over his shoulders, were riveted to the waist both before and behind. The iron ring about his neck was connected to the bars on his shoulders by

4100-473: A system whereby visitors required a ticket signed by a Governor. Visiting subjected Bethlem's patients to many abuses, including being poked with sticks by visitors or otherwise taunted, given drinks, and physically assaulted or sexually harassed, but its curtailment removed an important element of public oversight. In the period thereafter, with staff practices less open to public scrutiny, the worst patient abuses occurred. Despite its palatial pretensions, by

4264-458: A theatrical locale for the depiction of madness probably owes no little debt to the establishment in 1576 in nearby Moorfields of The Curtain and The Theatre , two of the main London playhouses ; it may also have been coincident with that other theatricalisation of madness as charitable object, the commencement of public visiting at Bethlem. The position of master was a sinecure largely regarded by its occupants as means of profiting at

4428-406: A variety of official positions that might have occasioned his calling to the hospital and as he lived nearby, his visit provides no compelling evidence that public visitation was widespread during the sixteenth century. The first apparently definitive documentation of public visiting derives from a 1610 record which details Lord Percy's payment of 10 shillings for the privilege of rambling through

4592-583: Is currently the same rank structure used by the U.S. Army (in use since shortly after the Civil War) and is also the system used by the U.S. Marine Corps (in use since World War II ). Bethlem Royal Hospital Bethlem Royal Hospital , also known as St Mary Bethlehem , Bethlehem Hospital and Bedlam , is a psychiatric hospital in Bromley, London . Its famous history has inspired several horror books, films, and TV series, most notably Bedlam ,

4756-426: Is not clear if any or all of these items were for the restraint of the inmates. While mechanical restraint and solitary confinement are likely to have been used for those regarded as dangerous, little else is known of the actual treatment of the insane for much of the medieval period . The presence of a small number of insane patients in 1403 marks Bethlem's gradual transition from a diminutive general hospital into

4920-592: Is speculated that the Bridewell Governors may have decided as early as 1598 to allow public visitors as means of raising hospital income. The only other reference to visiting in the sixteenth-century is provided in a comment in Thomas More 's 1522 treatise The Four Last Things , where he observed that "thou shalt in Bedleem see one laugh at the knocking of his head against a post". As More occupied

5084-479: Is unknown when Bethlem, or Bedlam, began to specialise in the care and control of the insane, but it has been frequently asserted that Bethlem was first used for the insane from 1377. This date is derived from the unsubstantiated conjecture of the Reverend Edward Geoffrey O'Donoghue, chaplain to the hospital, who published a monograph on its history in 1914. While it is possible that Bethlem

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5248-609: The American Revolutionary War , consistent with the U.S. Militia Act of 1792. They went by various names such as state "militia", "armies", or "guard" and were activated and expanded when the Civil War began. These units were commanded by "militia generals" to defend their particular state and sometimes did not leave the state to fight for the Confederate Army. The Confederate militias used the brigadier and major general officer ranks. The regulations in

5412-454: The Battle of Chancellorsville on the night of May 2, 1863. Replacing these fallen generals was an ongoing problem during the war, often having men promoted beyond their abilities (a common criticism of officers such as John Bell Hood and George Pickett , but an issue for both armies), or gravely wounded in combat but needed, such as Richard S. Ewell . The problem was made more difficult by

5576-854: The Confederate States War Department on February 21, 1861. The Confederate States Army was composed of three parts; the Army of the Confederate States of America (ACSA, intended to be the permanent, regular army), the Provisional Army of the Confederate States (PACS, or "volunteer" Army, to be disbanded after hostilities), and the various state militias. Graduates from United States Military Academy and Mexican–American War veterans were highly sought after by Jefferson Davis for military service, especially as general officers. Like their U.S. Army counterparts,

5740-550: The Foundling Hospital and Magdalen Hospital for Penitent Prostitutes. The donations expected of visitors to Bethlem – there never was an official fee  – probably grew out of the monastic custom of almsgiving to the poor. While a substantial proportion of such monies undoubtedly found their way into the hands of staff rather than the hospital poors' box, Bethlem profited considerably from such charity, collecting on average between £300 and £350 annually from

5904-574: The Great Fire of London (1666). It would be regarded, during this period at least, as one of the "Prime Ornaments of the City ... and a noble Monument to Charity". Not least due to the increase in visitor numbers that the new building allowed, the hospital's fame and latterly infamy grew and this magnificently expanded Bethlem shaped English and international depictions of madness and its treatment. Visits by friends and relatives were allowed and it

6068-723: The Ku Klux Klan terrorized his neighborhood. In February 1849, Daniel Harvey Hill resigned his commission and became a professor of mathematics at Washington College (now Washington and Lee University ), in Lexington, Virginia . While living in Lexington, he wrote a college textbook for the Southern United States market, Elements of Algebra , which "with quiet, sardonic humor, points a finger of ridicule or scorn at any and everything Northern." While not all of

6232-501: The Maryland Campaign of 1862, Hill's men fought at the Battle of South Mountain . Scattered as far north as Boonsboro, Maryland when the fighting began, the division fought tooth and nail, buying Lee's army enough time to concentrate at nearby Sharpsburg. Hill's division saw fierce action in the infamous sunken road ("Bloody Lane") at the Battle of Antietam , and he rallied a few detached men from different brigades to hold

6396-555: The Mexican–American War , being brevetted to captain for bravery at the Battle of Contreras and Battle of Churubusco , and brevetted to major for bravery at the Battle of Chapultepec . Among the people enslaved by the Hill family during Daniel Harvey's youth was Elias Hill . Daniel Harvey helped teach him to read and write. As a freedman after the war, Hill became a preacher and led his congregation in emigrating to Liberia after

6560-717: The Second Corps (following the reassignment of Lt. Gen. Richard S. Ewell to other duties) and led the Corps as an army into the third Confederate attack on the United States in July 1864 during the Battle of Monocacy near Frederick, Maryland and the Battle of Fort Stevens outside the U.S. capital city, Washington, D.C. , until December 1864, when he too reverted to a major general. Likewise, both Stephen D. Lee and Alexander P. Stewart were appointed to fill vacancies in

6724-504: The Tower , the Zoo , Bartholomew Fair , London Bridge and Whitehall . Curiosity about Bethlem's attractions, its "remarkable characters", including figures such as Nathaniel Lee , the dramatist, and Oliver Cromwell 's porter, Daniel, was, at least until the end of the eighteenth-century, quite a respectable motive for visiting. From 1770 free public access ended with the introduction of

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6888-585: The War of 1812 (1812–1815), and led an army in the field during the Mexican–American War (1846–1849), received a promotion to brevet lieutenant general by a special Act of Congress in 1855. Gen. Grant was the only U.S. Army lieutenant general in active service at the time of his promotion on March 9, 1864. Grant became General-in-Chief, commander of the United States Army (" Union Army "), answering directly to President Abraham Lincoln and charged with

7052-463: The Western Theater as "temporary" lieutenant generals and also reverted to their prior grades as major generals as those assignments ended. However, Lee was nominated a second time for lieutenant general on March 11, 1865. Originally five officers in the Confederate States Army were appointed to the rank of general, and only two more would follow. These generals occupied the senior posts in

7216-441: The 1720s until the curtailment of visiting in 1770. Thereafter the poors' box monies declined to about £20 or £30 per year. Aside from its fund-raising function, the spectacle of Bethlem offered moral instruction for visiting strangers. For the "educated" observer Bedlam's theatre of the disturbed might operate as a cautionary tale providing a deterrent example of the dangers of immorality and vice. The mad on display functioned as

7380-528: The 1780s occasioned by the bankruptcy of its treasurer; further monetary strains were imposed in the following decade by inflationary wage and provision costs in the context of the Revolutionary wars with France . In 1791, Bethlem's Surveyor, Henry Holland, presented a report to the Governors detailing an extensive list of the building's deficiencies including structural defects and uncleanliness and estimated that repairs would take five years to complete at

7544-691: The Bethlehemite bishops had relocated to Clamecy , France, under the surety of the Avignon papacy . This was significant as, throughout the reign of Edward III (1327–77), the English monarchy had extended its patronage over ecclesiastical positions through the seizure of priories under the control of non-English religious houses . As a dependent house of the Order of Saint Bethlehem in Clamecy, Bethlem

7708-608: The Board of Governors continued to refer to the inmates as "the poore" or "prisoners" and their first designation as patients appears to have been by the Privy Council in 1630. From 1619, Crooke unsuccessfully campaigned through petition to the king for Bethlem to become an independent institution from the Bridewell, a move that while likely meant to serve both monarchial and personal interest would bring him into conflict with

7872-416: The Bridewell Governors. Following a pattern of management laid down by early office-holders, his tenure as keeper was distinguished by his irregular attendance at the hospital and the avid appropriation of its funds as his own. Such were the depredations of his regime that an inspection by the Governors in 1631 reported that the patients were "likely to starve". Charges against his conduct were brought before

8036-675: The Chief Justice of the Arkansas Supreme Court from 1904 to 1909. Another military man who would become a Confederate Lieutenant General, Rufus Clay Barringer of Kannapolis married Eugenia Morrison in 1854. They had two children, Paul and Anna. Eugenia died of typhoid fever in 1858. In July 1857, Isabella's younger sister, Mary Anna , married Professor Thomas J. Jackson of the Virginia Military Institute . Hill and Jackson, who would later earn

8200-514: The Confederacy's depleting workforce, especially near the war's end. The last Confederate general in the field, Stand Watie , surrendered on June 23, 1865, and the war's last surviving Confederate full general, Edmund Kirby Smith , died on March 28, 1893. James Longstreet died on January 2, 1904, and was considered "the last of the high command of the Confederacy". The Confederate States Army's system of using four grades of general officers

8364-509: The Confederacy's military forces, these generals answered to their civilian leadership, in particular Jefferson Davis , the president of the Confederate States of America and therefore commander-in-chief of the military forces of the Confederate States . Much of the design of the Confederate States Army was based on the structure and customs of the United States Army when the Confederate States Congress established

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8528-449: The Confederate Army had both professional and political generals within it. Ranks throughout the CSA were roughly based on the U.S. Army in design and seniority. On February 27, 1861, a general staff for the army was authorized, consisting of four positions: an adjutant general , a quartermaster general , a commissary general , and a surgeon general . Initially, the last of these was to be

8692-529: The Confederate Army, mostly entire army or military department commanders and advisers to Jefferson Davis. This rank was equivalent to the general in the modern U.S. Army. The grade is often referred to in modern writings as "full general" to help differentiate it from the generic term "general", meaning simply "general officer". All Confederate generals were enrolled in the ACSA to ensure that they outranked all militia officers, except for Edmund Kirby Smith , who

8856-688: The Confederate Congress. This was in response to debates on February 17 about whether confirmations made by the provisional legislature needed re-confirmation by the permanent legislature, which was done by an Act of Congress issued two days later. The position of General in Chief of the Armies of the Confederate States was created on January 23, 1865. Gen. Robert E. Lee , the only officer appointed to it, served from February 6 until April 12. The Confederate states had maintained militias since

9020-478: The Confederate Senate. Major generals outranked brigadiers and all other lesser officers. This rank was not synonymous with use in the U.S. Army, where major generals led divisions, corps, and entire armies. This rank was equivalent in most respects to a major general in the modern U.S. Army. Not further promoted Evander McIver Law was promoted to the rank of major general on March 20, 1865, on

9184-508: The Confederate States Army and resented the ranks that President Davis had authorized. However, his previous position in the U.S. Army was staff , not line , which was a criterion for Davis regarding establishing seniority and rank in the subsequent Confederate States Army. On February 17, 1864, Congress passed legislation to allow President Davis to appoint an officer to command the Trans-Mississippi Department in

9348-526: The Confederate generals wore uniforms like this regardless of their general grade, and all with gold-colored embroidering. The general officers of the Confederate States Army were paid for their services, and exactly how much (in Confederate dollars (CSD) ) depended on their rank and whether they held a field command or not. On March 6, 1861, when the army only contained brigadier generals, their pay

9512-576: The Confederate lieutenant generals were in the PACS. The Confederate Congress legalized the creation of army corps on September 18, 1862, and directed that lieutenant generals lead them. These generals were to be nominated by President Davis and confirmed by the C.S. Senate. Lieutenant generals outranked major generals and all other lesser officers. Most were graduates of the United States Military Academy and were former officers in

9676-592: The Court of Governors of Bethlem and Bridewell observed at the start of 1674 that "the Hospitall House of Bethlem is very olde, weake & ruinous and to[o] small and streight for keepeing the greater numb[e]r of lunaticks therein att p[re]sent". With the increasing demand for admission and the inadequate and dilapidated state of the building it was decided to rebuild the hospital in Moorfields , just north of

9840-528: The Far West, with the rank of general in the PACS. Edmund Kirby Smith was the only officer appointed to this position. Braxton Bragg was appointed a general in the ACSA with a date of rank of April 6, 1862, the day his commanding officer Gen. Albert Sidney Johnston died in combat at Shiloh/Pittsburg Landing . The Confederate Congress passed legislation in May 1864 to allow for "temporary" general officers in

10004-675: The Governors engaged in protracted negotiations with the City to swap the Moorfields site for another municipally-owned location at St George's Fields in Southwark , south of the Thames. The swap was concluded in 1810 and provided the Governors with a 12 acres (4.9 ha; 0.019 sq mi) site in a swamp-like, impoverished, highly populated, and industrialised area where the Dog and Duck tavern and St George's Spa had been. A competition

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10168-485: The Governors enjoyed some success in attracting such visitors of "quality". In this elite and idealised model of charity and moral benevolence the necessity of spectacle, the showing of the mad so as to excite compassion , was a central component in the elicitation of donations, benefactions, and legacies. Nor was the practice of showing the poor and unfortunate to potential donators exclusive to Bethlem as similar spectacles of misfortune were performed for public visitors to

10332-504: The Governors from any criticism concerning Bethlem's physical dilapidation as, rather than decrying either Hooke's design or the structural impact of additions, he castigated the slipshod nature of its rapid construction. Lewis observed that it had been partly built on land called "the Town Ditch", a receptacle for rubbish, and this provided little support for a building whose span extended to over 500 feet (150 m). He also noted that

10496-463: The Governors in 1632. Crooke's royal favour having dissolved with the death of James I, Charles I instigated an investigation against him in the same year. This established his absenteeism and embezzlement of hospital resources and charged him with failing to pursue "any endeavour for the curing of the distracted persons". It also revealed that charitable goods and hospital-purchased foodstuffs intended for patients had been typically misappropriated by

10660-435: The Governors to increase hospital revenues by opening it up to general visitors as a spectacle. After this inspection, the Governors initiated some repairs and visited the hospital at more frequent intervals. During one such visit in 1607, they ordered the purchase of clothing and eating vessels for the inmates, presumably indicating the lack of such basic items. At the bidding of James VI and I , Helkiah Crooke (1576–1648)

10824-461: The Lord Mayor of London, Sir John Gresham , petitioned the crown to grant Bethlem to the city. This petition was partially successful and Henry VIII reluctantly ceded to the City of London "the custody, order and governance" of the hospital and of its "occupants and revenues". This charter came into effect in 1547. The crown retained possession of the hospital while its administration fell to

10988-564: The PACS and three in the ACSA: Samuel Cooper , Robert E. Lee , and Joseph E. Johnston . The Confederate States Congress authorized the organization of regiments into brigades on March 6, 1861. Brigadier generals commanded them, and these generals were nominated by Davis and confirmed by the Confederate Senate. Though close to the U.S. Army in assignments, Confederate brigadiers mainly commanded brigades, while U.S. brigadiers sometimes led divisions and brigades, particularly in

11152-646: The PACS, to be appointed by Davis and confirmed by the C.S. Senate and given a non-permanent command by Davis. John Bell Hood was appointed a "temporary" general on July 18, 1864, the date he took command of the Army of Tennessee in the Atlanta Campaign , but the Congress did not later confirm this appointment, and he reverted to his rank of lieutenant general in January 1865. Later in March 1865, shortly before

11316-631: The Richmond area while the rest of the army went north and did not participate in the Northern Virginia Campaign . "It wasn't war; it was murder." D.H. Hill following the Battle of Malvern Hill (Seven Days Battles) On July 22, 1862, Hill and U.S. Maj. Gen. John Adams Dix agreed in the general exchange of prisoners between the United States and Confederate armies, known as the Dix-Hill Cartel . This established

11480-590: The Richmond area. By the spring of 1862, he was a major general and division commander in the Army of Northern Virginia. He participated in the Yorktown and Williamsburg operations that started the Peninsula Campaign in the spring of 1862, and as a major general , led a division with great distinction in the Battle of Seven Pines and the Seven Days Battles . Hill's division was left in

11644-403: The United States Army throughout the war, in the ratio of about 5-to-1 for the Confederacy compared to roughly 12-to-1 for the United States. The most famous of them is General Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson , among the best-known Confederate commanders, after General Robert E. Lee. Jackson's death was the result of pneumonia which emerged subsequently after a friendly fire incident had occurred at

11808-496: The United States Army, with the exceptions of Richard Taylor , Wade Hampton , and Nathan Bedford Forrest . This rank was not synonymous with the U.S. Army's use of it; Ulysses S. Grant (1822–1885) was one of only two U.S. lieutenant generals during the war, the other being Winfield Scott (1786–1866), General-in-Chief of the United States Army 1841–1861, at the beginning of the American Civil War who also served in

11972-472: The Women's Rights Convention, held at Syracuse, New York, composed of 150 delegates, the old maids, childless-wives, and bedlamites were to each other as the number 5, 7, and 3. How many were there of each class? Answer. 50, 70, and 30. By contrast, "Southerners in his problems invariably appear in a favorable light." A gentleman in Richmond expressed a willingness to liberate his slave, valued at $ 1000, upon

12136-404: The act of 1792 provided for two classes of militia, divided by age. Class one included men from 22 to 30 years old, and class two consisted of men from 18 to 20 years and from 31 to 45 years old. The various Confederate states used this system during the war. All Confederate generals wore the same uniform insignia regardless of their general rank, except for Robert E. Lee, who wore the uniform of

12300-485: The appointment of major generals as well as generals, thus providing clear and distinct seniority over the existing major generals in the various state militias. On May 16, 1861, when there were only five officers at the grade of brigadier general, this legislation was passed, which stated in part: That the five general officers provided by existing laws for the Confederate States shall have the rank and denomination of 'general', instead of 'brigadier-general', which shall be

12464-403: The brickwork was not on any foundation but laid "on the surface of the soil, a few inches below the present floor", while the walls, overburdened by the weight of the roofs, were "neither sound, upright nor level". While the logic of Lewis's report was clear, the Court of Governors, facing continuing financial difficulties, only resolved in 1803 behind the project of rebuilding on a new site, and

12628-500: The chained and naked state of many patients, Wakefield sought to describe their conditions in such a way as to maximise the horror of the scene while decrying the apparently bestial treatment of inmates and the thuggish nature of the asylum keepers. Wakefield's account focused on one patient in particular, James Norris, an American marine reported to be 55 years of age who had been detained in Bethlem since 1 February 1800. Housed in

12792-432: The city authorities seeking protection; thereafter metropolitan office-holders claimed power to oversee the appointment of masters and demanded in return an annual payment of 40 shillings. It is doubtful whether the city really provided substantial protection and much less that the mastership fell within their patronage but, dating from the 1346 petition, it played a role in the management of Bethlem's finances. By this time,

12956-444: The city authorities. Following a brief interval when it was placed under the management of the governors of Christ's Hospital , from 1557 it was administered by the governors of Bridewell , a prototype house of correction at Blackfriars . Having been thus one of the few metropolitan hospitals to have survived the dissolution of the monasteries physically intact, this joint administration continued, not without interference by both

13120-459: The city proper and one of the largest open spaces in London. The architect chosen for the new hospital, which was built rapidly and at great expense between 1675 and 1676, was the natural philosopher and City Surveyor Robert Hooke . He constructed an edifice that was monumental in scale at over 500 feet (150 m) wide and some 40 feet (12 m) deep. The surrounding walls were some 680 feet (210 m) long and 70 feet (21 m) deep while

13284-448: The city were of much more modest status. In 1561, the Lord Mayor succeeded in having his former porter, Richard Munnes, a draper by trade, appointed to the position. The sole qualification of his successor in 1565, a man by the name of Edward Rest, appears to have been his occupation as a grocer. Rest died in 1571, at which point the keepership passed on to John Mell in 1576, known for his abuse of "the governors, those who gave money to

13448-546: The crown and city, until incorporation into the National Health Service in 1948. A Church of Our Lady that is named Bedlam. And in that place be found many men that be fallen out of their wit. And full honestly they be kept in that place; and some be restored onto their wit and health again. And some be abiding therein for ever, for they be fallen so much out of themselves that it is incurable unto man William Gregory, Lord Mayor of London, c. 1450 It

13612-532: The destructive conquest of Bethlehem by the Khwarazmian Turks in 1244, and his immediate predecessor had further impoverished his cathedral chapter through the alienation of a considerable amount of its property. The priory , obedient to the Church of Bethlehem , also housed the poor and, if they visited, provided hospitality to the bishop, canons , and brothers of Bethlehem. Thus, Bethlem became

13776-433: The districts that made up military departments and had command over the troops in their districts. Some Major generals also led smaller military departments. By the end of the war, the Confederacy had at least 88 men who had held this rank, all in the PACS. The Confederate States Congress authorized divisions on March 6, 1861, and major generals would command them. These generals were to be nominated by Davis and confirmed by

13940-529: The end of the day-to-day management by an old-style keeper-physician and its replacement by a three-tiered medical regime composed of a non-resident physician, a visiting surgeon and an apothecary , a model adopted from the royal hospitals. The medical staff were elected by the Court of Governors and, in a bid to prevent profiteering at the expense of patients that had reached its apogee in Crooke's era, they were all eventually salaried with limited responsibility for

14104-405: The end of the eighteenth century Bethlem was physically deteriorating with uneven floors, buckling walls, and a leaking roof. It resembled "a crazy carcass with no wall still vertical – a veritable Hogarthian auto-satire". The financial cost of maintaining the Moorfields building was onerous and the capacity of the Governors to meet these demands was stymied by shortfalls in Bethlem's income in

14268-658: The end of the war, Hood's status was spelled out by the Confederate States Senate , which stated: Resolved, That General J. B. Hood, having been appointed General, with temporary rank and command, and having been relieved from duty as Commander of the Army of Tennessee, and not having been reappointed to any other command appropriate to the rank of General, he has lost the rank of General, and therefore cannot be confirmed as such. During 1863, Beauregard, Cooper, J. Johnston, and Lee all had their ranks re-nominated on February 20 and then re-confirmed on April 23 by

14432-428: The entrance of the hospital. The 1598 visitation by the Governors had observed that the hospital was "filthely kept", but the Governors rarely made any reference to the need for staff to clean the hospital. The level of hygiene reflected the inadequate water supply, which, until its replacement in 1657, consisted of a single wooden cistern in the back yard from which water had to be laboriously transported by bucket. In

14596-503: The expense of the poor in their charge. The appointment of the masters, later known as keepers, had lain within the patronage of the Crown until 1547. Thereafter the City, through the Court of Aldermen , took control and, as with the king's appointees, the office was used to reward loyal servants and friends. Compared to the masters placed by the monarch, those who gained the position through

14760-521: The facade. Functioning as both advertisement and warning of what lay within, the stone pillars enclosing the entrance gates were capped by the figures of "Melancholy" and "Raving Madness" carved in Portland stone by the Danish-born sculptor Caius Gabriel Cibber . At the instigation of the Bridewell Governors and to make a grander architectural statement of "charitable munificence", the hospital

14924-445: The families and friends of inmates or by the parish authorities. It is possible that keepers negotiated their fees for these latter categories of patients. John Mell's death in 1579 left the keepership open for the long-term keeper Roland Sleford, a London cloth-maker, who left his post in 1598, apparently of his own volition, after a 19-year tenure. Two months later, the Bridewell Governors, who had until then shown little interest in

15088-509: The financial affairs of the hospital. Personal connections, interests and occasionally royal favour were pivotal factors in the appointment of physicians, but by the measure of the times appointees were well qualified as almost all were Oxford or Cambridge graduates and a significant number were candidates for or fellows of the Royal College of Physicians . Although the posts were strongly contested, nepotistic appointment practices played

15252-405: The first floor, and this is the part reserved for dangerous maniacs, most of them being chained and terrible to behold. On holidays numerous persons of both sexes, but belonging generally to the lower classes, visit this hospital and amuse themselves watching these unfortunate wretches, who often give them cause for laughter. On leaving this melancholy abode, you are expected by the porter to give him

15416-478: The first years of the war. These generals also often led sub-districts within military departments, with command over soldiers in their sub-district. These generals outranked Confederate States Army colonels , who commonly led infantry regiments. This rank was equivalent to brigadier general in the modern U.S. Army. These generals were most commonly infantry division commanders, aides to other higher-ranking generals, and War Department staff officers. They also led

15580-422: The highest military grade known to the Confederate States ... As of September 18, 1862, when lieutenant generals were authorized, the Confederate States Army had four grades of general officers; they were (in order of increasing rank) brigadier general, major general, lieutenant general, and general. As officers were appointed to the various grades of general by Jefferson Davis (and were confirmed), he would create

15744-432: The hospital and its governors consonant with contemporary notions of charity and benevolence. In an era prior to the state funding of hospitals and with patient fees covering only a portion of costs, such self-advertisement was necessary to win the donations, subscriptions and patronage essential for the institution's survival. This was particularly the case in raising funds to pay for major projects of expansion such as

15908-639: The hospital became a modern psychiatric facility, historically it was representative of the worst excesses of asylums in the era of lunacy reform. The hospital was founded in 1247 as the Priory of the New Order of our Lady of Bethlehem in the city of London during the reign of Henry III . It was established by the Bishop-elect of Bethlehem , the Italian Goffredo de Prefetti, following

16072-404: The hospital steward, either for his own use or to be sold to the inmates. If patients lacked resources to trade with the steward they often went hungry. These findings resulted in the dismissal in disgrace of Crooke, the last of the old-style keepers, along with his steward on 24 May 1633. In 1632 it was recorded that the old house of Bethlem had "below stairs a parlour, a kitchen, two larders,

16236-414: The hospital to view its deranged denizens. It was also at this time, and perhaps not coincidentally, that Bedlam was first used as a stage setting with the publication of The Honest Whore, Part I , in 1604. Evidence that the number of visitors rose following the move to Moorfields is provided in the observation by the Bridewell Governors in 1681 of "the greate quantity of persons that come daily to see

16400-569: The hospital was originally located just outside the city walls , in the Bishopsgate Without area of the City of London . It moved a short distance to Moorfields in 1676, and then to St George's Fields in Southwark in 1815, before moving to its current location in Monks Orchard in 1930. The word " bedlam ", meaning uproar and confusion, is derived from the hospital's nickname. Although

16564-409: The hospital yard or onto staff and visitors. Lack of facilities combined with patient incontinence and prevalent conceptions of the mad as animalistic and dirty, fit to be kept on a bed of straw, appear to have promoted an acceptance of hospital squalor. However, this was an age with very different standards of public and personal hygiene when people typically were quite willing to urinate or defecate in

16728-410: The hospital's resources, one was supported by a parochial authority, and the rest were provided for by family, friends, benefactors or, in one instance, out of their own funds. The reason for the Governors' new-found interest in Bethlem is unknown but it may have been connected to the increased scrutiny the hospital was coming under with the passing of poor law legislation in 1598 and to the decision by

16892-408: The hospital. Dating from this latter change, the vast majority of medical responsibilities within the institution were undertaken by the sole resident medical officer, the apothecary, owing to the relatively irregular attendance of the physician and surgeon. But is there so great Merit and Dexterity in being a mad Doctor? The common Prescriptions of a Bethlemitical Doctor are a Purge and a Vomit, and

17056-408: The incurable wing of the hospital, Norris had been continuously restrained for about a decade in a harness apparatus which severely restricted his movement. Wakefield stated that: ... a stout iron ring was riveted about his neck, from which a short chain passed to a ring made to slide upwards and downwards on an upright massive iron bar, more than six feet high, inserted into the wall. Round his body

17220-574: The kitchen sink blocked, and reported that "...it is not fitt for anye man to dwell in wch was left by the Keeper for that it is so loathsomly filthely kept not fit for any man to come into the house". The committee of inspection found 21 inmates with only two having been admitted during the previous 12 months. Of the remainder, at least six had been resident for a minimum of eight years and one inmate had been there for around 25 years. Three were from outside London, six were charitable cases paid for out of

17384-484: The late spring and early summer of 1814. His inspections were of the old hospital at the Moorfields site, which was then in a state of disrepair; much of it was uninhabitable and the patient population had been significantly reduced. Contrary to the tenets of moral treatment, Wakefield found that the patients in the galleries were not classified in any logical manner as both highly disturbed and quiescent patients were mixed together indiscriminately. Later, when reporting on

17548-480: The line at the critical moment. The Confederate defeat was largely due to the interception by McClellan of Special Order 191 from Lee to his generals, revealing the movements of his widely separated divisions. Some have claimed that D. H. Hill received two copies of this order, of which one went astray. But Hill said he received only one copy. Hill's division was largely unengaged at the Battle of Fredericksburg . At this point, conflicts with Lee began to surface. Hill

17712-414: The local neighbourhood. The neighbouring inhabitants would have been quite familiar with the condition of the hospital as in the 1560s, and probably for some considerable time before that, those who lacked a lavatory in their own homes had to walk through "the west end of the long house of Bethlem" to access the rear of the hospital and reach the "common Jacques". Typically the hospital appears to have been

17876-414: The mad. Bethlem, embroiled in scandal from 1814 over its inmate conditions, would come to symbolise its antithesis . Through newspaper reports initially and then evidence given to the 1815 Parliamentary Committee on Madhouses, the state of inmate care in Bethlem was chiefly publicised by Edward Wakefield , a Quaker land agent and leading advocate of lunacy reform. He visited Bethlem several times during

18040-501: The management and treatment of the insane. Increasingly, the emphasis shifted from the external control of the mad through physical restraint and coercion to their moral management whereby self-discipline would be inculcated through a system of reward and punishment. For proponents of lunacy reform, the Quaker -run York Retreat , founded in 1796, functioned as an exemplar of this new approach that would seek to re-socialise and re-educate

18204-403: The management of Bethlem beyond the appointment of keepers, conducted an inspection of the hospital and a census of its inhabitants for the first time in over 40 years. Their purpose was "to view and p[er]use the defaultes and want of rep[ar]ac[i]ons". They found that during the period of Sleford's keepership the hospital buildings had fallen into a deplorable condition with the roof caving in and

18368-587: The nickname "Stonewall" as a Confederate officer, had crossed paths during the Mexican–American War and later developed a closer friendship when both men lived in Lexington, Virginia in the 1850s. Also in 1857, Jackson endorsed Elements of Algebra as "superior to any other work with which I am acquainted on the same branch of science." General officers in the Confederate States Army#Lieutenant general Like all of

18532-415: The peak periods became Christmas, Easter, and Whitsun . ... you find yourself in a long and wide gallery, on either side of which are a large number of little cells where lunatics of every description are shut up, and you can get a sight of these poor creatures, little windows being let into the doors. Many inoffensive madmen walk in the big gallery. On the second floor is a corridor and cells like those on

18696-478: The placement of the hospital in the open space of Moorfields and the form of the building with its large cells and well-lit galleries had been chosen to provide "health and Aire" in accordance with the miasmatic theory of disease causation. It was London's first major charitable building since the Savoy Hospital (1505–17) and one of only a handful of public buildings then constructed in the aftermath of

18860-424: The poor, and the poor themselves." The Bridewell Governors largely interpreted the role of keeper as that of a house manager and this is clearly reflected in the occupations of most appointees as they tended to be inn-keepers, victualers, or brewers, and the like. When patients were sent to Bethlem by the Governors of the Bridewell the keeper was paid from hospital funds. For the remainder, keepers were paid either by

19024-420: The portions appear to have been inadequate also likely reflected contemporary humoral theory that justified rationing the diet of the mad, the avoidance of rich foods, and a therapeutics of depletion and purgation to restore the body to balance and restrain the spirits. The year 1634 is typically interpreted as denoting the divide between the medieval and early modern administration of Bethlem. It marked

19188-466: The promotion lists himself. The dates of rank, as well as seniority of officers appointed to the same grade on the same day, were determined by Davis, "usually following the guidelines established for the prewar U.S. Army." These generals were most often infantry or cavalry brigade commanders, aides to other higher-ranking generals, and War Department staff officers. By the war's end, the Confederacy had at least 383 different men who held this rank in

19352-571: The public was launched in 1805. Parliament was successfully lobbied to provide £10,000 for the fund under an agreement whereby the Bethlem Governors would provide permanent accommodation for any lunatic soldiers or sailors of the French Wars. Early interest in relocating the hospital to a site at Gossey Fields had to be abandoned due to financial constraints and stipulations in the lease for Moorfields that precluded its resale. Instead,

19516-493: The rebuilding project at Moorfields or the addition of the Incurables Division in 1725–39 with accommodation for more than 100 patients. These highly visible acts of civic commitment could also serve to advance the claims to social status or political advantage of its Governors and supporters. However, while consideration of patients' needs may have been distinctly secondary, they were not absent. For instance, both

19680-531: The receipt of that sum from charitable persons. He received contributions from 24 persons; and of these there were 14/19ths fewer from the North than the South, and the average donation of the former was 4/5ths smaller than that of the latter. What was the entire amount given by the latter? Answer. $ 50 by the former; $ 950 by the latter. In 1854, he joined the faculty of Davidson College , North Carolina . In 1859, he

19844-482: The recommendation of generals Johnston and Hampton just before the surrender. The promotion was too late to be confirmed by the Confederate Congress however. There were 18 lieutenant generals in the Confederate States Army, and these general officers were often corps commanders within armies or military department heads in charge of geographic sections and all soldiers in those boundaries. All of

20008-483: The reformist St Luke's Asylum of London, founded in 1751. The Bethlem Governors, who had presided over the only public asylum in Britain until the early eighteenth century, looked upon St Luke's as an upstart institution and Battie, formerly a Governor at Bethlem, as traitorous. In 1758 Battie published his Treatise on Madness which castigated Bethlem as archaic and outmoded, uncaring of its patients and founded upon

20172-556: The remainder of the war. After that, D. H. Hill commanded as a volunteer in smaller actions away from the major armies. Hill participated in the Battle of Bentonville in North Carolina, the last fight of the Army of Tennessee. Hill was a division commander when he, along with Gen. Joseph E. Johnston , surrendered on April 26, 1865. From 1866 to 1869, Hill edited a magazine, The Land We Love , at Charlotte, North Carolina, which dealt with social and historical subjects and had

20336-523: The royal candidate for the post of master claimed that from its beginnings it had been superintended by an order of knights and he confused its founder, Goffredo de Prefetti, with the Frankish crusader, Godfrey de Bouillon . The removal of the last symbolic link to the Bethlehemites was confirmed in 1403 when it was reported that master and inmates no longer wore the star of Bethlehem. In 1546,

20500-456: The said Lunatickes". Eight years later the English merchant and author, Thomas Tryon , remarked disapprovingly of the "Swarms of People" that descended upon Bethlem during public holidays. In the mid-eighteenth-century a journalist of a topical periodical noted that at one time during Easter Week "one hundred people at least" were to be found visiting Bethlem's inmates. Evidently Bethlem was

20664-484: The same yard since at least the early seventeenth century there was a "washhouse" to clean patients' clothes and bedclothes and in 1669 a drying room for clothes was added. Patients, if capable, were permitted to use the "house of easement", of which there were two at most, but more frequently "piss-pots" were used in their cells. Unsurprisingly, inmates left to brood in their cells with their own excreta were, on occasion, liable to throw such "filth & Excrem[en]t" into

20828-497: The setting-in of the cold weather". Spring signalled recourse to the traditional armamentarium; from then until the end of summer Bethlem's "Mad Physick " reigned supreme as all patients, barring those deemed incurable, could expect to be bled and blistered and then dosed with emetics and purgatives. Indiscriminately applied, these curative measures were administered with the most cursory physical examination, if any, and with sufficient excess to risk not only health but also life. Such

20992-442: The south face at the rear was effectively screened by a 714-foot (218 m) stretch of London's ancient wall projecting westward from nearby Moorgate . At the rear and containing the courtyards where patients exercised and took the air, the walls rose to 14 feet (4.3 m) high. The front walls were only 8 feet (2.4 m) high but this was deemed sufficient as it was determined that "Lunatikes... are not to [be] permitted to walk in

21156-434: The street or even in their own fireplaces. For much of the seventeenth century the dietary provision for patients appears to have been inadequate. This was especially so during Crooke's regime, when inspection found several patients suffering from starvation. Corrupt staff practices were evidently a significant factor in patient malnourishment and similar abuses were noted in the 1650s and 1670s. The Governors failed to manage

21320-491: The supply of victuals , relying on "gifts in kind" for basic provisions, and the resources available to the steward to purchase foodstuffs was dependent upon the goodwill of the keeper. Patients were fed twice a day on a "lowering diet" (an intentionally reduced and plain diet) consisting of bread, meat, oatmeal, butter, cheese, and generous amounts of beer. It is likely that daily meals alternated between meat and dairy products, almost entirely lacking in fruit or vegetables. That

21484-521: The task of leading the U.S. Army to victory over the Confederate States Army. The CSA lieutenant general rank is also roughly equivalent to lieutenant general in the modern U.S. Army. The Confederate Congress passed legislation in May 1864 to allow for "temporary" general officers in the PACS, to be appointed by President Jefferson Davis and confirmed by the Confederate Senate and given a non-permanent command by Davis. Under this law, Davis appointed several officers to fill open positions. Richard H. Anderson

21648-634: The textbook's questions were "anti-Yankee", many were, such as: The field of battle at Buena Vista is 6½ miles from Saltillo . Two Indiana volunteers ran away from the field of battle at the same time; one ran half a mile per hour faster than the other, and reached Saltillo 5 minutes and 54 6/11 seconds sooner than the other. Required their respective rates of travel. Ans. 6, and 5½ miles per hour. ( Elements of Algebra , page 322.) A man in Cincinnati purchased 10,000 pounds of bad pork , at 1 cent per pound, and paid so much per pound to put it through

21812-417: The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, with its activities underwritten by episcopal and papal indulgences , the hospital's role as a centre for alms collection persisted, but its linkage to the Order of Bethlehem increasingly unravelled, putting its purpose and patronage in doubt. In 1346, the master of Bethlem, a position at that time granted to the most senior of London's Bethlemite brethren, applied to

21976-629: The victory. President of the Confederate States Jefferson Davis personally came to resolve this dispute in Bragg's favor and to the detriment of those unhappy generals. The Army of Tennessee was reorganized again, and Hill was left without a command. Davis then refused to forward Hill's appointment to the Confederate Senate , and he reverted to major general. Because of this, Hill saw less fighting throughout

22140-677: The world. This development was partly due to Bedlam's staging in several plays of the Jacobean and Caroline periods , including The Honest Whore, Part I (1604); Northward Ho (1607); The Duchess of Malfi (1612); The Pilgrim ( c.  1621 ); and The Changeling (1622). This dramatic interest in Bedlam is also evident in references to it in early seventeenth-century plays such as Epicœne, or The Silent Woman (1609), Bartholomew Fair (1614), and A New Way to Pay Old Debts ( c.  1625 ). The appropriation of Bedlam as

22304-452: The wretches of this unhappy mansion". Whether "persons of quality" or not, the primary allure for visiting strangers was neither moral edification nor the duty of charity but its entertainment value. In Roy Porter 's memorable phrase, what drew them "was the frisson of the freakshow", where Bethlem was "a rare Diversion" to cheer and amuse. It became one of a series of destinations on the London tourist trail which included such sights as

22468-458: The yard to be situate[d] betweene the said intended new Building and the Wall aforesaid." It was also hoped that by keeping these walls relatively low the splendour of the new building would not be overly obscured. This concern to maximise the building's visibility led to the addition of six gated openings 10 feet (3.0 m) wide which punctuated the front wall at regular intervals, enabling views of

22632-422: The year 1692, the people of Massachusetts executed, imprisoned, or privately persecuted 469 persons, of both sexes, and all ages, for alleged crime of witchcraft. Of these, twice as many were privately persecuted as were imprisoned, and 7 17/19 times as many more were imprisoned than were executed. Required the number of sufferers of each kind? Answer. 19 executed, 150 imprisoned, and 300 privately persecuted. At

22796-406: Was Samuel Cooper , Albert Sidney Johnston , Robert E. Lee , Joseph E. Johnston , and Pierre G.T. Beauregard , with their seniority in that order. This ordering caused Cooper, a staff officer who would not see combat, to be the senior general officer in the CSA. That seniority strained the relationship between Joseph E. Johnston and Jefferson Davis. Johnston considered himself the senior officer in

22960-565: Was $ 301 CSD monthly, and their aide-de-camp lieutenants would receive an additional $ 35 CSD per month beyond regular pay. As more grades of the general officer were added, the pay scale was adjusted. By June 10, 1864, a general received $ 500 CSD monthly, plus another $ 500 CSD if they led an army in the field. Also, by that date, lieutenant generals got $ 450 CSD and major generals $ 350 CSD, and brigadiers would receive $ 50 CSD in addition to regular pay if they served in combat. The Confederate States Army lost more general officers killed in combat than

23124-535: Was a native of Scotland . Hill graduated from the United States Military Academy in 1842, ranking 28 out of 56 cadets, and was appointed to the 1st United States Artillery as a brevet 2nd Lieutenant. He was transferred to the 3rd Artillery on October 20, 1843. Hill was promoted to 2nd Lt. On October 13, 1845, in the 4th Artillery Regt. He was promoted to 1st Lt on March 3, 1847. As his regiment served as infantry, he distinguished himself in

23288-578: Was appointed a "temporary" lieutenant general on May 31, 1864, and given command of the First Corps in the Army of Northern Virginia commanded by Gen. Lee (following the wounding of Lee's second-in-command, Lt. Gen. James Longstreet on May 6 in the Battle of the Wilderness .) With Longstreet's return that October, Anderson reverted to a major general. Jubal Early was appointed a "temporary" lieutenant general on May 31, 1864, and given command of

23452-526: Was appointed as superintendent of the North Carolina Military Institute of Charlotte . At the outbreak of the American Civil War, D. H. Hill became a colonel of the 1st North Carolina Infantry Regiment, the "Bethel Regiment", at the head of which he won the Battle of Big Bethel , near Fort Monroe , Virginia , on June 10, 1861. Shortly after this, on July 10, 1861, he was promoted to brigadier general and commanded troops in

23616-465: Was appointed general late in the war and into the PACS. Pierre G.T. Beauregard , had also initially been appointed a PACS general, was elevated to ACSA two months later with the same date of rank. These generals outranked all other grades of generals and lesser officers in the Confederate States Army. All were graduates of the United States Military Academy and were former officers in the United States Army. The first group of officers appointed to general

23780-468: Was appointed keeper-physician in 1619. As a Cambridge graduate, the author of an enormously successful English language book of anatomy entitled Microcosmographia: a Description of the Body of Man (1615) and a member of the medical department of the royal household , he was clearly of higher social status than his city-appointed predecessors (his father was a noted preacher, and his elder brother Thomas

23944-675: Was constructed during the first wave of county asylum building in England under the County Asylum Act (" Wynn 's Act") of 1808. Extending to 580 feet (180 m) in length, the new hospital, which ran alongside the Lambeth Road , consisted of a central block with two wings of three storeys on either side. Female patients occupied the west wing and males the east; as at Moorfields, the cells were located off galleries that traversed each wing. Each gallery contained only one toilet,

24108-445: Was created a baronet ). Crooke had successfully ousted the previous keeper, the layman Thomas Jenner, after a campaign in which he had castigated his rival for being "unskilful in the practice of medicine". While this may appear to provide evidence of the early recognition by the Governors that the inmates of Bethlem required medical care, the formal conditions of Crooke's appointment did not detail any required medical duties. Indeed,

24272-449: Was designed as a single- rather than double-pile building, accommodating initially 120 patients. Having cells and chambers on only one side of the building facilitated the dimensions of the great galleries , essentially long and capacious corridors, 13 feet (4.0 m) high and 16 feet (4.9 m) wide, which ran the length of both floors to a total span of 1,179 feet (359 m). Such was their scale that Roger L'Estrange remarked in

24436-408: Was expected that the family and friends of poor inmates would bring food and other essentials for their survival. Bethlem was and is best known for the fact that it also allowed public and casual visitors with no connection to the inmates. This display of madness as public show has often been considered the most scandalous feature of the historical Bedlam. On the basis of circumstantial evidence, it

24600-453: Was held to design the new hospital at Southwark in which the noted Bethlem patient James Tilly Matthews was an unsuccessful entrant. The Governors elected to give James Lewis the task. Incorporating the best elements from the three winning competition designs, he produced a building in the neoclassical style that, while drawing heavily on Hooke's original plan, eschewed the ornament of its predecessor. Completed after three years in 1815, it

24764-420: Was increased to accommodate a further 30 men while additions to the east and west wings, extending the building's façade, provided space for an additional 166 inmates and a dome was added to the hospital chapel. At the end of this period of expansion Bethlem had a capacity for 364 patients. The late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries are typically seen as decisive in the emergence of new attitudes towards

24928-405: Was introduced in the 1680s at a time when hydrotherapy was enjoying a recrudescence in popularity. "Cold bathing", opined John Monro, Bethlem physician for 40 years from 1751, "has in general an excellent effect"; and remained much in vogue as a treatment throughout the eighteenth century. By the early nineteenth century, bathing was routine for all patients of sufficient hardiness from summer "to

25092-508: Was not appointed to a corps command on the reorganization of the Army of Northern Virginia after Stonewall Jackson's death. He had already been detached from Lee's Army and sent to his home state to recruit troops. He led Confederate reserve troops protecting Richmond during the Gettysburg Campaign . In late June, he successfully resisted a half-hearted advance by U.S. forces under John Adams Dix and Erasmus Keyes . In 1863, he

25256-403: Was placed in the windows in 1816, the Governors initially supported their decision to leave them unglazed on the basis that it provided ventilation and so prevented the build-up of "the disagreable effluvias peculiar to all madhouses". Faced with increased admissions and overcrowding, new buildings, designed by the architect Sydney Smirke , were added from the 1830s. The wing for criminal lunatics

25420-535: Was receiving the insane during the late fourteenth century, the first definitive record of their presence in the hospital is in the details of a visitation of the Charity Commissioners in 1403. This recorded that amongst other patients there were six male inmates who were " mente capti ", a Latin term indicating insanity. The report of the visitation also noted the presence of four pairs of manacles , 11 chains, six locks and two pairs of stocks but it

25584-545: Was required only intermittently and the greater portion of the income was derived from private practice. Bethlem physicians, maximising their association with the hospital, typically earned their coin in the lucrative " trade in lunacy " with many acting as visiting physicians to, presiding over, or even, as with the Monros and their predecessor Thomas Allen, establishing their own mad-houses. Initially both surgeons and apothecaries were also without salary and their hospital income

25748-532: Was sent to Gen. Braxton Bragg 's newly reorganized Army of Tennessee , with a promotion to lieutenant general , to command one of its corps . Hill had served under Bragg in Mexico and was initially pleased to be reunited with an old friend, but the warm feelings did not last long. Hill's forces saw some of the heaviest fighting in the bloody and confused Battle of Chickamauga . Afterward, Hill joined several other generals openly condemning Bragg's failure to exploit

25912-420: Was solely dependent upon their presentation of bills for attendance to the Court of Governors. This system was frequently abused and the bills presented were often deemed exorbitant by the Board of Governors. The problem of financial exploitation was partly rectified in 1676, when surgeons received a salary, and from the mid-eighteenth century elected apothecaries were likewise salaried and normally resident within

26076-469: Was the button groupings on their uniforms; groups of three buttons for lieutenant and major generals and two for brigadier generals. In either case, a general's buttons were also distinguished from other ranks by their eagle insignia. To the right is a picture of the CSA general's full uniform, in this case, of Brigadier General Joseph R. Anderson of the Confederate Bureau of Ordnance. All of

26240-430: Was the daughter of Robert Hall Morrison , a Presbyterian minister and the first president of Davidson College , and through her mother, a niece of North Carolina Governor William Alexander Graham . They would have nine children in all. One son, Daniel Harvey Hill Jr. , would serve as president of North Carolina State College (now North Carolina State University ). Their youngest son, Joseph Morrison , would preside as

26404-505: Was the violence of the standard medical course, "involving voiding of the bowels, vomiting, scarification, sores and bruises," that patients were regularly discharged or refused admission if they were deemed unfit to survive the physical onslaught. The reigning medical ethos was the subject of public debate in the mid-eighteenth century when the Paper War of 1752–1753 erupted between John Monro and his rival William Battie , physician to

26568-690: Was vulnerable to seizure by the crown and this occurred in the 1370s when Edward III took control. The purpose of this appropriation was, in the context of the Hundred Years' War between France and England, to prevent funds raised by the hospital from enriching the French monarchy via the papal court . After this event the masters of the hospital, semi-autonomous figures in charge of its day-to-day management, were normally crown appointees and it became an increasingly secularised institution. The memory of its foundation became muddied and muddled; in 1381,

26732-610: Was well respected, Hill was underused by the end of the American Civil War because of these political feuds. Daniel Harvey Hill was born at Hill's Iron Works in York District, South Carolina to Solomon and Nancy Cabeen Hill. His paternal grandfather, William "Billy" Hill, was a native of Ireland who had an iron foundry in York District where he made cannons for the Continental Army . His maternal grandfather

26896-516: Was wholly financed by the state. The first 122 patients arrived in August 1815 having been transported to their new residence by a convoy of Hackney coaches . Problems with the building were soon noted as the steam heating did not function properly, the basement galleries were damp and the windows of the upper storeys were unglazed "so that the sleeping cells were either exposed to the full blast of cold air or were completely darkened". Although glass

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