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106-451: Hezbollahi are said to "generally act without meaningful police restraint or fear of persecution," despite breaking the law by assaulting people and destroying property. They are said to have "played an important role on the street at crucial moments in the early days of the revolution by confronting those the regime regarded as counter-revolutionaries." Once political challenges to the regime had died down, Hezbollah attacks expanded to include

212-445: A 46 percent literacy rate, to 83 percent. Iran ranked 10th in terms of female literacy in the 1970s, and still holds this position. According to a UNESCO world survey, at the primary level of enrollment, Iran has the highest female-to-male ratio in the world among sovereign nations, with a girl-to-boy ratio of 1.22: 1.00. According to UNESCO data from 2012, Iran has more female students in engineering fields than any other country in

318-479: A band of the town's ruffians, known as lutis , to their mutual benefit". The ulama had "a ready band" to take to the street to oppose what the ulama opposed, while "the lutis in turn had a protector with whom they could take refuge if the government moved against them." The Hezbollahi which appeared after the Islamic revolution, according to Momen, were "in fact only a new name for the street roughs who had always had

424-581: A case of sexual assault on an Iranian woman who had been detained in Tehran during the protests that erupted after the downing of a Ukrainian passenger plane. Women in Iran were granted the right to vote in 1963. They were first admitted to Iranian universities in 1937. Since then, several women have held high-ranking posts in the government or parliament. Before and after the 1979 revolution , several women were appointed ministers or ambassadors. Farrokhroo Parsa

530-477: A close relationship with the ulama", "who would take to the street and create agitation when it suited the ulama to call them out." The name Hezbollah, or party of Allah , is generic, coming from the rallying cry used by its "members": "Only one party—of Allah; only one leader—Ruhollah." The phrase party of Allah came from a verse in the Quran ... And whoever takes Allah and His apostle and those who believe for

636-910: A divorced woman's right to a share of the property, and increased alimony rights. In 1992, the Council of Expediency passed a law allowing women who were "unjustly and unfairly" divorced to collect payment from the former husband for services she had performed during the course of the marriage. By 1999, Iran had 140 female publishers, enough to hold an exhibition of books and magazines published by women. As of 2005, 65 percent of Iran's university students and 43 percent of its salaried workers were women. As of early 2007, nearly 70 percent of Iran's science and engineering students are women. 27.1% female ministers in government put Iran among first 23 countries in early 2000s, 2.8–4.9% female parliamentarians in past 15 years put it among least 25 countries. In 2009 Fatemeh Bodaghi became vice president for Legal Affairs and

742-611: A guardian, then surely the party of Allah are they that shall be triumphant. (italics added) ... and Ruhollah was the first name of the Islamic Revolution 's leader Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini In the early days of the Revolution, Khomeinists — those in the Islamic Republican Party — denied connection to Hezbollah, and maintaining its attacks were the spontaneous will of the people over which

848-495: A kind of unique mystical experience . This is why the Ayatollah believed she represented the ideal female role model. Fatimah's moral excellence is observed in three interconnected activities: struggle, inspiring men, and suffering. Fatimah inspired her husband as a devout Muslim. Khomeini draws parallels to this inspiration with women of Iran and how they should strive to follow their religious calling like Fatimah. While during

954-405: A large portion of the domestic workforce, replacing men who were fighting, injured, or dead. Khomeini often expressed appreciation for women's issues after he took power. In May 1979, Khomeini addressed his audience and spoke about Fatimah : "After the death of her father, Fatimah (peace be upon her), lived for seventy-five days. She was in this world, overcome with sadness and grief. Gabriel ,

1060-517: A mussar. No matter its name, it is available in multiple colours and styles with many different methods of tying it, depending on regional origin and the nature of occasion. Omanis do not use the agal, instead tying it over the kuma for formal occasions. During his sojourn with the Marsh Arabs of Iraq, Gavin Young noted that the local sayyids —"venerated men accepted [...] as descendants of

1166-430: A powerful group in their prehistoric society. The early Achaemenid -era Persepolis fortification and treasury tablets refers to women in three different terms: mutu , irti and duksis . The first refers to ordinary (non-royal) women; the second to unmarried members of the royal family; and the last duksis to married women of royalty. Such differentiated terminology shows the significance of marital status and of

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1272-569: A stadium. Following that incident, FIFA assured that Iranian women are able to attend stadiums starting from October 2019. On October 10, 2019, more than 3,500 women attended the Azadi Stadium for a World Cup qualifier against Cambodia. The human rights organization Amnesty International has reported that it has received reports of several cases of rape of women and men detainees in Iran's prisons. On January 17, 2020, Raha Bahreini, Amnesty International's special reporter on Iran, revealed

1378-643: A tie or smoke American cigarettes. ... You might wonder where he gets his information. He is everywhere, serving your food, selling you ice-cream. In fact, the Islamic Republican forces did supervise Hezbollah. Hojjat al-Islam Hadi Ghaffari, "a young protegee of Khomeini," being in charge of them. Hezbollah was instrumental in the Islamic Cultural Revolution against secularists and modernists at Iran's universities. After Friday prayers on 18 April 1980, Khomeini harshly attacked

1484-482: A top advisor to President Mahmoud Ahmedinejad . Maryam Mojtahidzadeh who runs the women's ministry was also selected as an advisor to the president. At least one observer ( Robert D. Kaplan ) has commented on the less traditional attitude of many women in Iran compared to other Middle Eastern countries. "In Iran, you could point a camera at a woman... and she would smile" in contrast to other more conservative places where women may mind this. There are also women in

1590-434: A total of 290 parliamentarians. This was up from nine in the previous elections. Currently, there are several all-female political organizations active in Iran, including: The importance of education for Iranian Women is characterized by the main role of what the education can provide directly or indirectly helping them to gain consciousness and skills to fill the gap of gender inequality. It can also be useful to understand

1696-423: A veil in public can be punished by law; and when in public, all hair and skin except the face and hands must be covered. However, this is often not enforced; notably in recent years, Iranian women have started a number of groups to rebel against the government's oppressive policies and reclaim their independence and rights. Archaeological excavations at Shahr-e Sukhteh ("Burnt City"), a prehistoric settlement in

1802-470: A wide variety of activities found to be undesirable for "moral" or "cultural" reasons, such as poor hijab , mixing of the sexes and consumption of alcohol . According to scholar Moojan Momen , the association between toughs and clerics became common during the era of weak government of the Qajar period, when "it became normal for the prominent" members of the ulama in any town "to surround themselves with

1908-403: A woman's relationship to the king. The tablets also reveal that women of the royal household traveled extensively and often personally administered their own estates. The queen consort and her ladies-in-waiting are known to have played polo against the emperor and his courtiers. The only limits on the extent of the authority exercised by the king's mother were set by the monarch himself. In

2014-403: A worse position compared to "Persian women", "non-Persian men", and "Persian men", and consequently, they need more support and attention. According to the 2012 Global Entrepreneurship Monitor report , the rate of entrepreneurship in Iran for women between the ages 18 to 64 fluctuated from 4 to 6 percent between 2008 and 2012 while their overall economic participation makes up only 13 percent of

2120-409: Is an increase in their literacy rates. The illiteracy among women has been a decrease from 1970 when it was 54 percent to the year 2000 when it was 17.30 percent. Iranian female education went from a 46 percent literacy rate to 83 percent. Iran ranked 10th in terms of female literacy in the 1970s, and still holds this position today. Women's labor force participation rate and literacy rate have been on

2226-588: Is an orientalist view of Qajar women before the revolution. Badr al-Moluk Bamdad, wife of Ahmad Shah Qajar classic work, From Darkness to Light , published two years before the Islamic Revolution (1968-1969) refers to Persian history before the tobacco revolt as "a century of darkness", in which women are "poor creatures" and "powerless dolls" who are secluded from society while being concealed "under thick coverings and dependent like parasites". Bamdad also claimed that women were "prisoners, confined in

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2332-571: Is commonly worn. A beard or three-day growth is almost always worn. Women%27s clothing in Iran Throughout history, women in Iran have played numerous roles, and contributed in many ways, to Iranian society. Historically, tradition maintained that women be confined to their homes to manage the household and raise children. During the Pahlavi era , there was a drastic social change towards women's desegregation such as ban of

2438-400: Is fashioned from a square scarf, and is usually made of cotton . The keffiyeh is commonly found in arid regions, as it provides protection from sunburn , dust, and sand. The regional variations are called ghutrah and shemagh . A head cord, agal , is often used by Arabs to keep the ghutrah in place. The keffiyeh originated amongst Bedouins as a practical and protective covering for

2544-414: Is the increase in the age of marriage. Thus, women's education has a greater demand, then they could get involved in private and public investment findings jobs. As women progress in higher education, they get more involved in the labor market argued by Kelli. However, the percentage of women in the labor market is very low, and organizations, governmental and nongovernmental prioritize men. Even though there

2650-464: Is unclear when the keffiyeh became acceptable for the upper classes. While the written reports of ghutrah date back to the early 18th century, the earliest known picture is from the 19th century ( Abdullah bin Saud Al Saud , made before his execution in 1819). Middle Eastern Arabs , Kurds , and Yazidis wear this headpiece. Iraqi Turkmen wear it and call it Jamadani, while Omanis call it

2756-652: Is worn mostly in Jordan and by Bedouin communities. It is made from cotton. The Jordanian shemagh and the Palestinian keffiyeh are different in regard to color and geographical meanings. Other regional shemagh variations are the Egyptian Sinai shemagh and the Saudi shemagh (also known as a ghutrah.) Prior to the 1930s, Arab villagers and peasants wore the white keffiyeh and agal (rope) while city residents and

2862-600: The Guardian Council should approve the amendment. On October 2, 2019, the Guardian Council agreed to sign the bill into a law, taking into account the background checks on foreign fathers. In August 2019, the FFIRI lifted the ban on Iranian women's entry to football stadiums for the first time in 40 years. On September 8, 2019, Sahar Khodayari self-immolated after being arrested for trying to enter

2968-503: The Sistan-Baluchistan province of southeastern Iran, have revealed that women in the region during the 4th to 3rd millennium BC possessed high status . Of the seals discovered in graves there, 90% were in possession of women, who made up over 60% of the population. The distribution of these seals – instruments of trade and government which represented economic and administrative control – revealed these women to have been

3074-478: The "National Report on Women's Status in the Islamic Republic of Iran" included educational matters for women, like curriculum issues, management positions and academic quotas; in 2002 - 2003 women had the regular access to all courses except engineering. In 2002, the percentage of female students compared to male students in the tertiary education increased from 37.4% to 100.5% and in the same year almost

3180-519: The 1891 tobacco revolt. However, it was not just wealthy women who were involved but also the common women. Washerwomen donated savings, along with wealthy women's jewelry contributions, to help sponsor a national bank. The storming of Majilis (parliament) in 1911 by women showed an unprecedented political awareness of women as well as a public action. Generally, there were precedents that restricted women's actions, where they were often portrayed as prisoners because of their gender inferiority. Often there

3286-626: The 1970s, Iran has experienced significant economic and social changes. Women's workforce participation rate went from 9.1 percent in 1996 to 14 percent in 2004 to 31.9 in 2009. That is a 22.8 percent increase in 13 years. Women make up over half of the Iranian population, yet they only make up a small percentage of the workforce. Official statistics reported by the Census Bureau suggest that women's labor force participation remains quite low. Despite this, while women make up almost 30 percent of

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3392-485: The 1986/87 years show that female admissions into schools of dentistry, audiology, statistics, optometry, radiology, and radiotherapy were on par with men. According to the religious-political leaders, it is believed that a woman in Iran can be both traditional and modern at the same time, this is instilled in the education they receive. Meaning that a woman's central role is in the home, taking care of children, their family and house duties, while also being able to go out into

3498-615: The International Labour Organization uses 15. The World Bank and International Labour Organization have different data on recent female employment; the ILO reports an employment rate of 17.1 percent which is considerably higher than that of the World Bank. Overall, there seems to be a common upward trend in employment over time. Women in Iran had previously been restricted to the private sphere, which includes

3604-527: The Iranian labor force, and the percentage of all Iranian women who are economically active has more than doubled from 6.1 percent in 1986 to 13.7 percent in 2000. In 2004, there were 18 million people employed in Iran, Women made up only 12.9 percent (or roughly 2,160,000) of the employed population. Men, on the other hand, made up 64 percent, or roughly 11,520,000. The ILO data, however, suggest that female unemployment has been consistently higher than men's in recent years (Olmsted). Women are concentrated in

3710-660: The Iranian police who deal with crimes committed by women and children. According to opinion of Supreme Leader of Iran , Ali Khamenei , giving opportunity for develop woman's talents in the family and society is respecting to the woman. On May 14, 2019, the Iranian Islamic Consultative Assembly approved an amendment to their nationality law , in which women married to men with a foreign nationality should request to confer nationality on children under age 18, while children and spouses of Iranian men are granted nationality automatically. However,

3816-479: The Islamic Republic has a clear divide between the education taught to boys and girls. This includes introducing the role of responsibility for a family as well as the roles of males and females in marital life. But girls are given the confidence to put themselves out into the education fields that they desire to be in while keeping a personal family life in mind. Aside from education, Rafsanjani greatly focused on family planning and health across Iran, with women playing

3922-636: The Keffiyeh because they saw it as part of the authentic local lifestyle. Up until the 2000s, Turkey banned the keffiyeh because it was considered a symbol of solidarity with the PKK . British Colonel T. E. Lawrence (better known as Lawrence of Arabia ) was probably the best-known Western wearer of the keffiyeh and agal during his involvement in the Arab Revolt in World War I . This image of Lawrence

4028-460: The Marines and Army. The scarves were usually dyed into color schemes that closely matched the service uniforms, and bore symbols that appealed to Western consumers ( e.g. , skull and cross bones, Gadsden snakes, and Spartan helmets). Black and coyote-brown keffiyeh are still commonly worn by military veterans without any implied support for Arab nationalism or similar causes, and at times can carry

4134-576: The Persian empire for almost two years before resigning. During the Sassanian dynasty, many of the Iranian soldiers who were captured by Romans were women who were fighting along with the men. Persian women are depicted in many masterpieces of Persian miniatures . These are often used as sources to "trace through the sequence of women's fashion from earlier periods". At the Battle of Ctesiphon (363)

4240-490: The Prophet Muhammad and Ali ibn Abi Talib "—wore dark green keffiyeh in contrast to the black-and-white checkered examples typical of the area's inhabitants. Another type of keffiyeh is the shemagh, which is a scarf that is red-and-white, checkered and has tassels. The bigger the tassels, the more important the person. This red-and-white keffiyeh is associated with Jordan and is its national symbol. The shemagh

4346-514: The Shah granted female suffrage, and soon after women were elected to the Majlis (the parliament) and the upper house, and appointed as judges and ministers in the cabinet. In 1967 Iranian family law was also reformed which improved the position of women in Iranian society. It was included in the civil code and was designed to protect wives, children and female divorcees. The general thrust of the reforms

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4452-477: The Trusted Spirit, came to visit and console her and tell her of future events." So, according to this tradition, in these seventy-five days that she had contact with Gabriel, he came and went many times. I do not believe that anyone else except the great prophets has had such an experience, in which for seventy-five days Gabriel, the Trusted Spirit, came and went and spoke of things that would take place in

4558-626: The United States where Iranians produced rugs for the United States market. However, due to the United States inflicting sanctions on Iran, Iranian imports were banned from the country. The demand for Iranian carpets was still high. In response, Americans bought carpets with Iranian designs from other countries that produced the same carpets, such as China and India. From 1994 to 2005 the export of carpets had declined drastically. In 1994 Iran sold over $ 2 million worth of carpets, but by 2005 it went to under $ 500 in carpet exports. In other words,

4664-716: The Universities at Ahwaz and Rasht. Over 20 people lost their lives in these university confrontations. ... The universities closed soon after the April confrontation for Islamization`. They were not to open for another two years." The Hezbollahi do not wear uniforms, but are said to be recognizable to Iranians by a familiar "look" that ignores fashion and in particular Western fashion. Hezbollahi favor simple, non-fashionable, collared shirts that are never tucked into their pants; plain slacks (never jeans), and plain black shoes or slippers. A black and white Palestinian-style chafiye

4770-497: The ability to earn a wage, they still did not have many rights, it was still possible for rural girls to be sold by the head of their families. This time period, especially between 1905 and 1911, was the start of women's 'awakening' in Persia. It can be suggested that this awakening can be defined as a women's movement and feminism. Women began to become more involved with the public sphere, and Nasir al-Din Shah's harem participated in

4876-437: The boycott affected the carpet industry. As a result, the boycott influenced women's participation in the labor force. Weaving is a common occupation for women, as it can be done inside the family home. If the market is volatile, merchants can simply remove or add looms to the worker's home in response to demand. Therefore, women who have children to take care of can be inside the home while tending to their work. Carpet weaving

4982-436: The care of the home and the children, they have been restricted from mobility, and they needed their husband's permission in order to obtain a job. Employers depict women as less reliable in the workforce as opposed to men. However, the Islamic Revolution had some influence in changing this perception. Secular feminists and the elite were not happy with the revolution, while other feminists such as Roksana Bahramitash argue that

5088-537: The central role. Iran's population throughout the 1980s soared despite the Iran–Iraq War, with the birthrate reaching 3.9 in 1983, double the world average. Health clinics for women were established nation-wide; by 1994, there were more than 10,000 health centers in Iran, and once-banned contraceptives were made available to women. In 1986, the Majlis voted to introduce a 12-article law which allowed many marriage rights to women. These rights included prenuptial agreements,

5194-419: The country had been replaced by the [keffiyeh and] ‘agal’." Following the end of the revolt, most residents either reverted to wearing the tarbush or elected to go hatless. The black and white keffiyeh’s prominence increased during the 1960s with the beginning of the Palestinian resistance movement and its adoption by Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat . Early Jewish migrants to Mandatory Palestine adopted

5300-487: The early 2000s, keffiyehs were very popular among youths in Tokyo, who often wore them with camouflage clothing. The trend recurred in the mid-2000s in the United States, Europe, Canada and Australia, when the keffiyeh became popular as a fashion accessory , usually worn as a scarf around the neck in hipster circles. Stores such as Urban Outfitters and TopShop stocked the item. However, after some controversy over

5406-602: The educated elite wore the Ottoman tarbush (fez) . During the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine , Arab rebel commanders ordered all Arabs to don the keffiyeh. In 1938, British Mandatory High Commissioner in Palestine, Harold MacMichael , reported to the Foreign Office: "This ‘order’ has been obeyed with surprising docility and it is not an exaggeration to say that in a month eight out of every ten tarbushes in

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5512-482: The employment of women in Abadan , Tabriz , and Esfahan increased, with the latter two seeing significant increases in female labor. Interestingly during this period, female employment in Tehran dropped slightly. Following the 1979 Iranian Revolution Iran became an Islamic republic . During the era of the post-Revolution rule, Iranian women had more opportunities in some areas and more restrictions in others. One of

5618-528: The entire economy. Iranian female prostitutes sometimes go to neighboring countries to work. From the 1990s, Dubai became famous in the United Arab Emirates as a place for the sex trade of Iranian women, but it was from the late 2000s that other countries neighboring Iran, including Turkey , Georgia , and Iraqi Kurdistan , had a high number of Iranian female prostitutes hosted. After this, Iranian women quickly became more popular throughout

5724-571: The field of law was open to women and they were permitted in the Special Civic Courts, although they cannot serve as judges. After the death of Khomeini, more practical reforms under President Rafsanjani for women began. Rafsanjani asserted that in Islam, "There are no barriers to the education of women in any field." The three major fields which Rafsanjani focused on were education, family planning, health, and marriage. Statistics from

5830-471: The first exam took place after the Cultural Revolution in 1984, 42% of females accepted examinees, and 32% of male applicants and 68% were accepted into the program. In addition, there was an 8% chance for girls to be accepted, and 12.2% for males in 1984. Between 1984 and 2003 the demand for women's higher education was greater than men's, and the percentage of entrees shifted upward. In 2001,

5936-532: The first primary school for girls. By mid-century, legal reforms granting women the right to vote and raising the minimum age for marriage offered more opportunities for women to pursue education outside the home. After periods of imposed restrictions, women's educational attainment continued its rise through the Islamification of education following the Iranian Revolution of 1979, peaking in

6042-575: The future, that would happen to her ancestors in the future." The Ayatollah spoke fondly of Fatimah as a role model for women. He said that even though she was visited by the Angel Gabriel, this is not what made her special. To him, her admirable qualities were twofold and supposedly represented by the visits from Gabriel: her special spiritual status and her excellent moral character . He continued to explain that Fatimah could have been born with this spiritual status or Fatimah could have gone through

6148-540: The gender income gap is exacerbated for women from non-Persian ethnic groups. This means that non-Persian women face a more severe income inequality than their Persian counterparts. Furthermore, the gap is widest among poorer households and narrowest among the middle class. The study underscores the necessity for targeted policies that address the intersection of gender and ethnicity, particularly for marginalized groups like non-Persian women; because, in terms of experiencing income inequality in society, "non-Persian women" are in

6254-457: The general purpose of girls obtaining higher education is for social status, and before the Islamic revolution, higher education was basically for wealthy women and women from royal families. On the other hand, education was the only factor to upgrade women's social status because they wanted to further themselves and be involved in economics and politics after the Islamic revolution and anti-shah rallies. Another factor that motivates girls' education

6360-515: The government had no control. The Hezbollahi is a wild torrent surpassing the imagination. He is a maktabi [one who follows Islam comprehensively], disgusted with any leaning to the East or West. He has a pocketful of documents exposing the treason of those who pose as intellectuals. He is simple, sincere and angry. Stay away from his anger, which destroys all in its path. Khomeini is his heart and soul . ... The Hezbollahi does not use eau de cologne, wear

6466-477: The head and face, especially in the arid desert climate in which they have traditionally lived. The term itself is a loan from Italian ( cuffia ) and shares its etymology with English " coif ". The word ghutrah ( Arabic : غُترَة , romanized :  ḡutra ) comes from the Arabic root ghatr ( غتر ) which means "to cover". The early pictures of Arabs invariably show them wearing turbans , and it

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6572-473: The home or under the veil and the cloak" " Sima Bahar in an article titled, A Historical Background to the Women's Movement in Iran identified that the constitutional revolution period was the first occasion women participated with men in public action. She considers that during the Qajar period "women's activities were solely limited to the household; if they were active in production at all such as in villages,

6678-414: The keffiyeh as a fashion statement by non-Arab wearers separate from its political and historical meaning has been the subject of controversy in recent years. While it is often worn as a symbol of solidarity with the Palestinian struggle, the fashion industry has disregarded its significance by using its pattern and style in day-to-day clothing design. For example, in 2016, Topshop released a romper suit with

6784-605: The keffiyeh for studio photograph sessions as Orientalist dress. After the 1929 Palestine riots and the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine , "the popularity of the keffiyeh began to decline and Jewish attempts to emulate the Arabs became less common, but throughout the 1940s and 1950s, the keffiyeh could still spotted in Israel," including on politicians and soldiers. As the keffiyeh became a key component of Yasser Arafat's signature look, it definitively lost popularity among Israelis and

6890-601: The keffiyeh with the agal (as with The Sheik and The Son of the Sheik , starring actor Rudolph Valentino ). During the 2001 Iraq and Afghanistan wars, members of the United States Armed Forces began wearing keffiyeh for practical reasons. While the scarves were never issued by the American armed forces directly, many private tactical equipment retailers marketed and sold them to service personnel in

6996-453: The labor force participation of women had declined immensely from 12.9 percent down to 8.2 percent. In addition, during the 1990s, women were being compensated for their housework due to the domestic wage law which allowed women to demand compensation from their husbands for their housework in the event of a divorce. In 1979 the United States imposed an economic boycott on Iran, which has affected many of their economic sectors. In particular,

7102-520: The labor force. Ali Akbar Mahdi is in agreement with Parvin Ghorayshi in that through the domestication of women and confinement to the private sphere, they were being exploited in non-wage activities. In Karimi's viewpoint, after the revolution, even though it had been accepted on paper that women had an equal right to employment, she believed that this did not show in practice. Comparing the pre-revolution and post-revolution era, between 1976 and 1986,

7208-668: The lowest rates in the Middle East.  In 1992, the High Council of the Integration Revolution adopted a set of Employment Policies for women, that encouraged the integration of women into the labor force while still emphasizing the importance of family roles for women.  Women were encouraged to enter gynecology, pharmacology, midwifery, and laboratory work. Although they continued to be prevented by certain professors as 'Islamically inappropriate'. In 1990

7314-519: The majority of women in academies (from 26.8% to 49%) were hired as assistant professors. Moreover, the advantage of women's higher education decrease underdevelopment, backwardness, and compensation. The other factors that motivate women to obtain higher education are justice and equality in society, increase girl knowledge, participation in the social culture and politics, and change the traditional attitudes. Due to higher education, women were involved in decision-making because of their knowledge. Lastly,

7420-402: The marriage age of girls from 15 to 9. They also banned women from various fields of study and professions. After the death of Ayatollah Khomeini, many of the restrictions on women were lifted. The government tried to stabilize population growth by distributing contraceptives often for free of charge. This caused the fertility rate to decline from 3.2 to 2.3 children per woman, which was one of

7526-476: The military, often in paramilitary groups, but were restricted in many fields of study in school. After the breakout of the Iran–Iraq War, women continued to gain political power. Women were mobilized both on the front lines and at home in the workplace. They participated in basic infantry roles, but also in intelligence programs and political campaigning. During the height of the Iran-Iraq War, women made up

7632-457: The mixed workshops as evident by the higher rations they have received with little difference in the number of rations between the two sexes. There are also occasions where women listed in the same category as men received fewer rations and vice versa. Female managers have different titles presumably reflecting their level of skill and rank. The highest-ranking female workers in the texts are called arashshara (great chief). They appear repeatedly in

7738-475: The morality police such as the removal of lipstick by a razor blade. In the early 1980s women were banned from acting as judges and were discouraged from becoming lawyers. The Islamic government repealed the Family Protection Laws of 1967 and 1973, which restricted polygamy , allowed women the right to divorce, and raised the minimum age for marriage. The regime banned contraception and lowered

7844-427: The opportunities available to women, and the imposition of strict requirements governing their role in education, including gender-segregated classes, Islamic dress, and the channeling of women into "feminine" majors that prevent the pursuit of certain careers. Illiteracy among women has been on a decrease since 1970, when it was 54 percent, to the year 2000 when it was 17.30 percent. Iranian female education went from

7950-628: The opposite message. As with other articles of clothing worn in wartime, such as the T-shirt , fatigues and khaki pants, the keffiyeh has been seen as chic among non-Arabs in the West. Keffiyehs became popular in the UK in the 1970s and then in the United States in the late 1980s at the start of the First Intifada , when bohemian girls and punks wore keffiyehs as scarves around their necks. In

8056-565: The production was for the household. Women of the upper class lead an even more secluded life... they were only allowed to go out accompanied by men." During the Qajar dynasty (1789–1925), Malek Jahan Khanom as queen mother exerted serious political influence during the reign of her son, from 1848 until her death in 1873. The Pahlavi Shahs were the rulers of Iran between 1925 and 1979 and they introduced many reforms concerning women's rights . An example of an early reform introduced by Reza Shah

8162-401: The reasons of their injustice and how women can make better their marginal social positions. Education held an important role in Iranian society, especially as the nation began a period of modernization under the authority of Reza Shah Pahlavi in the early 20th century when the number of women's schools began to grow. Formal education for women in Iran began in 1907 with the establishment of

8268-475: The region for prostitution. The income of Iranian female prostitutes in neighboring countries is considered high but risky. Keffiyeh The keffiyeh or kufiyyeh ( Arabic : كُوفِيَّة , romanized :  kūfiyya , lit.   ' coif '), also known in Arabic as a hattah ( حَطَّة , ḥaṭṭa ), is a traditional headdress worn by men from parts of the Middle East . It

8374-474: The republic that this was done. Islam does not prohibit women from public life however it is the political and cultural climate of Iran that encourages women to practice a private domestic life. Many schools are now inspiring young girls to prepare for tomorrow, as a mother and a wife and as active figures in the involvement of social and political affairs. However, it is evident that the Education Plan of

8480-500: The retailer's decision to label the items "anti-war scarves", Urban Outfitters pulled it. In spring 2008, keffiyehs in colors such as purple and mauve were given away in issues of fashion magazines in Spain and France. In the UAE, males are inclining towards more Western headgear while women are developing preferences for dupatta —the traditional head cover of South Asia. The appropriation of

8586-415: The revolution did bring women into the public sphere. The 1979 Revolution had gained widespread support from women who were eager to earn rights for themselves. A woman's responsibility and obligation was in the home, which was the underlying basis of the Islamic Republic. Olmsted adds to this by stating that women have this "double burden". In addition, men had the right to inhibit their wives from entering

8692-512: The revolution so that even after the revolution, large numbers of women entered civil service and higher education, and, in 1996, 14 women were elected to the Islamic Consultative Assembly . The leadership of Ayatollah Khomeini led to many paradoxical issues for women. Women gained much influence in certain areas, but still faced many political obstacles to equality with men. For example, women were allowed to serve in

8798-544: The revolution, the veil was worn and seen as a symbol of protest many women were alarmed when talk of the hijab being compulsory was discussed. This resulted in the International Women's Day Protests in Tehran, 1979 against compulsory hijab. The topic was inflated when Ayatollah Khomeini was quoted to say that he preferred to see women in modest Islamic clothing. In 1981 veiling was made compulsory and cosmetics were banned, harsh punishments were also introduced by

8904-403: The rise. Yet the unemployment rate for women compared to that of men is still considerably higher. Take, for example, that in 1996, the unemployment rate for women was 13.4 percent whereas, for men, the unemployment rate was 8.4 percent. The unemployment rate for both men and women has increased since 1996, with the gender gap in unemployment still present. In 2008 for example, male unemployment

9010-410: The social world and create a public life but not deteriorating any social standing of her family. The restriction of the home creates a traditional private realm for the woman while the freedom of going out creates a modern social presence. The Islamic Republic had never intended to purposely bind a woman to her home and have her fulfill wifely and motherly duties, however, it is in the religious aspect of

9116-454: The striking features of the revolution was the large-scale participation of women from traditional backgrounds in demonstrations leading up to the overthrow of the monarchy. The Iranian women who had gained confidence and higher education under the Pahlavi era participated in demonstrations against the Shah to topple the monarchy. The culture of education for women was established by the time of

9222-505: The tablets, "non-royals and the ordinary workers are mentioned by their rank in the specific workgroup or workshops they were employed. The rations they received are based on skill and the level of responsibility they assumed in the workplace. The professions are divided by gender and listed according to the amount of ration. Records indicate that some professions were undertaken by both sexes while others were restricted to either male or female workers. There are male and female supervisors at

9328-411: The texts, were employed at different locations, and managed large groups of women, children, and sometimes men working in their units. They usually receive high rations of wine and grains exceeding all the other workers in the unit including the males." Pregnant women also received higher rations than others. Women with newborn children also received extra rations for one month. A few experts say that it

9434-478: The total share of carpet in non-oil exports had declined from 44.2 percent to 4.2 percent; a drastic decrease. Olmsted concurs with Moghadam this would drastically affect women in the labor market, since the majority of carpet weavers consisted of less-educated women. A study conducted in Iran revealed a significant gender income gap across all income and ethnic groups. Women, regardless of their ethnic background (Persian or non-Persian), earn less than men. However,

9540-399: The typically female jobs of teaching and caring. 82.7 percent of female civil servants work in teaching and education followed by administrative, financial, clerical, health, and medical professions. However, according to the International Labour Organization, the top three areas of female employment are agriculture, manufacturing, and education. One factor in the increase in women's employment

9646-774: The universities. `We are not afraid of economic sanctions or military intervention. What we are afraid of is Western universities and the training of our youth in the interests of West or East.` His remarks served as a signal for an attack that evening on the Tehran Teachers Training College. One student was reportedly lynched, and according to a British correspondent, the campus was left looking like `a combat zone.` The next day, hezbollahis ransacked left-wing student offices at Shiraz University . Some 300 students required hospital treatment. Attacks on student groups also took place at Mashad and Isfahan Universities "` Attacks continued April 21 and "the next day at

9752-601: The urban areas, which saw a decrease of 20% in illiteracy, while rural areas, by contrast, saw a decrease of 3%. This is most likely due to the increase of educational centers and universities across Iranian cities, mainly in Tehran and Abadan, during this time period. The increase in education among females led to an increase in female participation in various labor fields throughout the 1956–1966 period. Women began entering fields such as biology, agricultural studies, medicine, teaching, law, and economics among other fields, giving them more significant political power. In urban centers,

9858-530: The veil, right to vote, right to education, equal salaries for men and women, and the right to hold public office. Women were active participants in the Islamic Revolution . Iran's constitution, adopted after the Islamic Revolution in 1979, proclaims equality for men and women under Article 20, while mandating legal code adhering to Sharia law . Article 21 of the constitution as well as a few parliament-passed laws give women rights such as being allowed to drive, hold public office, and attend university but not wearing

9964-910: The victorious Roman soldiers prized young Persian women, seizing them as war booty . During the Qajar period, women played the role of reserve labor, which was important in the economy. Their work always benefited the family, businesses owner, and the state. Rural and lower-class women were mostly involved in carpet weaving , embroidery , and the production of clothing, textile, butter, fruits, and tea. They also worked in silk and cotton manufacturing as well as other handicrafts. Women were also employed at mortuaries, public bathhouses, and in more affluent houses as maids, wet nurses, and nannies.  In more populous cities women worked as entertainers, dancers, or prostitutes. Although many work opportunities were open for women their wages were lower. Women that worked in textiles during this time period earned an average of one-third of what men did. Even though women were given

10070-587: The world. The first university Iranian girls could attend was the University of Tehran in 1932.When the universities re-opened in 1982, the Government made a structural revolution of the courses, eliminating those considered unnecessary, like music and counselling, and limiting the women's access to other subjects. However, girl's attendance in school only occurred after the Islamic revolution in 1979. In 2005, there were 62% university entrees. Furthermore,

10176-469: The years following radical changes such as correcting contradictions that have marked its educational system, like the curriculum and composition of classrooms. By 1989, women dominated the entrance examinations for college attendance. Women's participation in education has not slowed despite efforts to impose restrictions on the increasingly female-dominated educational sphere. The changes in women's education have split into increased usage and dominance of

10282-807: Was Cyrus the Great who, twelve centuries before Islam, established the custom of covering women to protect their chastity . According to their theory, the veil passed from the Achaemenids to the Hellenistic Seleucids . They, in turn, handed it to the Byzantines , from whom the Arab conquerors turned it into the hijab , transmitting it over the vast reaches of the Muslim world. The Sassanid princess Purandokht , daughter of Khosrau II , ruled

10388-489: Was 9.1 percent and female was 16.7 percent Studies concerning female labor force participation vary. One factor to this is the difference between measurements. The Iranian Census provides one measurement for labor force participation, and the Labor Force survey provides another. The Iranian census for example, used different ages for the cut off age, 10 for the 1976 census, and used 6 for the 1986 census (Olmsted) While

10494-480: Was associated exclusively with the Palestinian nationalist movement. The 1920s' silent-film era of American cinema saw studios take to Orientalist themes of the exotic Middle East, possibly due to the view of Arabs as part of the Allies of World War I , and keffiyehs became a standard part of the theatrical wardrobe. These films and their male leads typically had Western actors in the role of an Arab, often wearing

10600-429: Was changes in economic, social, cultural, and political there still is gender stereotyping. In addition, the number of educated women increased, but there still remains a problem with unemployment in the labor market for women. Finally, when it comes to education and employment, there is no relationship between girls' education and employment, and 50% of graduated students have jobs, which unrelated to their studies. Since

10706-543: Was later popularized by the film epic about him, Lawrence of Arabia , in which he was portrayed by Peter O'Toole . Many of the Jewish Zionist immigrants to Ottoman Palestine and British Mandatory Palestine wore the keffiyeh in emulation of the Arab population out of the desire for "closeness and a sense of belonging to the place". These included youth group members, political notables, and militiamen, including Hashomer . Other Jewish residents of Palestine wore

10812-415: Was left to new family protection courts rather than automatically granted to the father. The minimum age at which a female could marry was raised from 13 to 15 in 1967 and to 18 in 1975. Throughout the Pahlavi period, female advancements in education and labor were significant. From 1965 to 1966, the percentage of illiterate women dropped by 11%. However, this decrease in illiteracy had mainly taken place in

10918-717: Was the Kashf-e hijab , the "forced unveiling of women by a special decree on January 8, 1936, which, as the name suggests, involved the police force pulling the hijab away even from religious women, by force." Women's involvement in society in general increased. Iranian women increasingly participated in the economy, the education sector, and in the workforce. Levels of literacy were also improved. Examples of women's involvement: women acquired high official positions, such as ministers, artists, judges, scientists, athletes, etc. Under Reza Shah's successor Mohammad Reza Shah many more significant reforms were introduced. For example, in 1963,

11024-543: Was the first woman to be appointed Minister of Education in 1968 and Mahnaz Afkhami was appointed Minister for Women's Affairs in 1976. Some, such as Tahereh Saffarzadeh , Masumeh Ebtekar , Azam Taleghani , Fatemeh Haghighatjou , Elaheh Koulaei , Fatemeh Javadi , Marzieh Dabbaq and Zahra Rahnavard came after the revolution. Other Iranian women, such as Goli Ameri and Farah Karimi , hold positions in Western countries. There are currently 17 women in parliament, of

11130-403: Was to promote equality between men and women in society. The Family Protection Laws of 1967 and 1973 required a husband to go to court to divorce rather than the proclamation of the triple talaq , "I divorce thee" three times, as stipulated by traditional sharia law. It allowed a wife to initiate divorce and required the first wife's permission for a husband to take a second wife. Child custody

11236-416: Was very common among women from rural areas. Thus, carpet weaving was a valuable method of increasing the economic involvement of women in rural neighborhoods. In 1996, over 91 percent of the female industrial employees were in the textile industry which consisted largely of carpet weaving. Nonetheless, this all changed due to sanctions. Before the Islamic Revolution, Iranian firms were combined with firms in

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