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49-502: The region of 'Heytmarke' was recorded in the Celle Vogtei registers as early as the 15th century. It belonged to the district office ( Amtsvogtei ) of Fallingbostel and comprised the parishes of Fallingbostel, Dorfmark, Meinerdingen and Düshorn including Ostenholz. Today it refers to the region between Fallingbostel , Soltau and Bergen which, since the creation of the military training area in 1935–1936 has been largely closed to

98-507: A Vogtei in German, or a Voogdij in Dutch (Latin advocatia ). During earlier periods the jurisdiction could also be called a comitatus , literally a countship, because these offices were similar to those of early medieval counts, and "counties" were not yet necessarily seen as geographically defined. Terminology and customs evolved over time. In German for example, the delegated governor of

147-482: A Vogt could also be known locally as a Vogtland ( terra advocatorum ), a name still used to refer to a region, the Vogtland , that adjoins the principalities of Reuss and adjacent portions of Saxony , Prussia and Bavaria . Imperial advocacies tended to become hereditary. Sometimes the emperor himself assumed the title of Vogt , in application to parts of his eminent domain. An imperial ( Reichsvogt )

196-629: A city could be called a Stadtvogt , while the governor or rural estates could be called a Landvogt . A Burgvogt was a castle administrator or castellan , responsible for the general running of a castle and also for exercising judicial powers there. In addition to governing lands, forts and cities, the term advocatus (or Vogt, Voogd etc.) could be applied to more specific administrative functions delegated by territorial rulers, equivalent to English reeves and bailiffs . However other terms were also sometimes used for these such as Dutch schout , and German Schultheiss . Land administered by

245-399: A court system, to protect law and order. They exercised civil jurisdiction in the domain of the church or monastery and were bound to protect the church with arms in the event of an actual assault. Finally, it was their duty to lead the men-at-arms in the name of the church or monastery, and to command them in time of war. In return for these services, the advocate received certain revenues from

294-426: A rural gmina , whereas heads of urban gminas are called burmistrz (burgomaster), or president . In Danish , the word foged carries different connotations, all pertaining to guarding or keeping watch over something. In modern Danish law , the fogedret ( vogt court) administers the forcible enforcement and execution of judgments or other valid legal claims. The local bailiff ( distrainer )

343-554: A sovereign canton , or acting on behalf of the Confederacy, or a subset thereof, administering a condominium ( Gemeine Herrschaft ) shared between several cantons. In the case of condominiums, the cantons took turns in appointing a Landvogt for a period of two years. In exceptional cases, the population of the Landvogtei was allowed to elect their own Landvogt . This concerned Oberhasli in particular, which

392-513: A woman or a girl. For a very long time the lives of the heath farmers were closely linked to the churches. A deed by the Emperor, Otto III , of 7 May 986 documents that there were already churches and abbeys in Walsrode and Ahlden at that time. The church at Dorfmark was first mentioned in 1006. The other parishes were not mentioned in the records until later, however. For example: Schwarmstedt

441-486: Is called kihlakunnanvouti , where kihlakunta ( hundred ) is a local judicial district. Their duty is to enforce the financial judgements of the local courts. In practice, the vouti leads a team of assistant distrainers who process most distrainments/ garnishments . Otto III Too Many Requests If you report this error to the Wikimedia System Administrators, please include

490-682: Is now Germany , the Netherlands , Belgium , Luxembourg , Switzerland , Austria , Slovenia as well as parts of neighbouring regions. In these lands title of advocate (German Vogt , Dutch Voogd ) was given not only to the advocati of churches and abbeys but also, from relatively early in the Middle Ages , to officials appointed by the Holy Roman Emperor to administer lands, castles and towns directly under his lordship. Such offices or jurisdictions were called for example

539-429: The advocatus being chosen, either by the abbot alone, or by the abbot and bishop concurrently with the count . In the post-Carolingian period, it developed into a hereditary office, and was held by powerful nobles, who constantly endeavoured to enlarge their rights in connection with the church or the monastery. Conciliar decrees were passed as early as the ninth century to protect ecclesiastical institutions against

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588-434: The advocatus or advocate as an officer of a court of law , which is still current in modern English, first appeared in the 12th and 13th centuries, concomitant with the rediscovery of Roman law . The common thread which connects the different meanings of advocate is that someone is called upon to perform a function for others. While the term was eventually used to refer to many types of governorship and advocacy, one of

637-572: The Old German idea of the Munt , or guardian, but also included some ideas of physical defence and legal representation (whence the connection with advocatus or "advocate"). Under the Carolingians , the duties of the church advocate were enlarged and defined according to the principles of government which prevailed in the reign of Charlemagne ; henceforward the advocatus ecclesiæ in

686-712: The "Krelinger Bruch" far from their farmsteads, as can be seen from the register of wills of 1667. At harvest time they had to stay in the Bruch until all the hay was dry. That could take two weeks or more. "Holland trippers" ( Hollandgänger ) were also mentioned in the records from 1786. These folk shouldered their scythes and left in May on foot for Holland in order to mow in return for payment. The majority of these Hollandgänger were day labourers ( Häuslinge ) and were told to go and earn this extra income. After 1850 these trips to Holland gradually died away. The last "Holland tripper" from

735-661: The Heidmark was in 1777. However that has been passed by word of mouth from generation to generation, because the documents associated with it were destroyed in a fire in 1784. Over centuries it has been reported that the owner of the Jacobshof in Ahlften , Johann Hinrich Apenriep, who came from Castens Hof in Meimen, had collected the executioner, Holdorf, from Lüneburg and had driven him to Fallingbostel. Holdrof had then beheaded

784-547: The Heidmark, as well as several parishes and numerous societies. When the 'relocation' took place from 1935 to 1938 in order to make way for a military training area for the Wehrmacht , entire villages disappeared forever from the map. Many people from the Heidmark had to leave their family homes which their families had lived in for centuries. The heathland farmers lacked meadows and pastures. In order to ensure their economic survival, early on they had to acquire pastureland in

833-627: The Holy Roman Empire, and these include Vogt ( German: [foːkt] , from Old High German , also Voigt or Fauth ; plural Vögte ). The territory or area of responsibility of a Vogt is called a Vogtei (from [ad]vocatia ). Related terms include Dutch : (land-) voogd ; Danish : foged ; Norwegian : fogd ; Swedish : fogde ; Polish : wójt ; Finnish : vouti ; Lithuanian : vaitas ; and Romanian : voit . Ecclesiastical advocates were specially bound to represent their lords by managing

882-476: The Netherlands. In surrounding parts of Europe the original Frankish church advocacies, and the later imperial advocacies were also influential, and evolved in various ways. In France , the advocati , known as avoués , were of two types. The first included secular lords, who held the advocateship ( avouerie ) of an abbey or abbeys, rather as an office than a fief, though they were indemnified for

931-589: The advocates gave rise to disputes between them and the churches or monasteries. The bishops and abbots, who found their rights curtailed, appealed to the Holy Roman Emperor and the Pope for protection. In the twelfth century, warnings were issued from Rome, restraining the high-handed actions of the advocates under pain of severe ecclesiastical penalties, which still did not put an end to all the abuses that prevailed. On occasions, emperors and princes exercised

980-449: The church since late antiquity, as it was not to act for itself in worldly affairs. Therefore, in areas such as the territories of abbeys and bishoprics, which by virtue of their ecclesiastical status were free (or immune) from the secular government of the local count ( Graf , in origin an administrative official in charge of a territory and reporting to the emperor), the Vogt fulfilled

1029-536: The close of the fifth century, but Pope Gregory I confined the office to members of the clergy. It was the duty of these defensores to protect the poor and defend the rights and possessions of the church. In the Frankish Kingdom , under the Merovingians , these lay representatives of the churches appeared as agentes, defensores and advocati . The concept of the Vogt was related to

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1078-479: The community. Vogt An advocatus , sometimes simply advocate , Vogt (German), or avoué (French), was a type of medieval office holder, particularly important in the Holy Roman Empire , who was delegated some of the powers and functions of a major feudal lord, or for an institution such as an abbey. They typically had responsibility for the "comital" functions which defined

1127-423: The earliest and most important types of advocatus was the church advocate ( advocatus ecclesiae ). These were originally lay lords , who not only helped defend religious institutions from violence, but were also responsible for exercising the comital or lordly responsibilities within the church's lands, such as the management of courts which could inflict a death penalty. In return they received an income from

1176-509: The eastern Heidmark is mentioned in the documents in 1865. In ancient times, in addition to the ruler (the duke), the nobility had hunting rights in the Heidmark. The chief hunting rights in the Heidmark were granted to the von der Wense and von Hodenberg families. In the register of wills in 1667 it says: The farmers of the Heidmark, for whom hunting "was inherited from the blood of their forebears", as tradition has it, would have reimbursed themselves. They poached whenever they could. That

1225-524: The end of the 11th century the title was being bestowed on mere castellans. The monks usually consulted their advocate before electing a new abbot, giving the advocate influence over the selection. When a nobleman founded or reformed a monastery, he usually became its advocate. In the 12th century, the office of the advocate was on the decline - a result of the Gregorian reforms . The Cistercian Order , for example, never allowed lay advocates. In England ,

1274-428: The excessive claims of their advocates, who indeed became a burden to their ecclesiastical clients in many ways. They dealt with the possessions entrusted to them as with their own property, plundered the church estate, appropriated tithes and other revenues, and oppressed in many ways those whom they were appointed to protect. The office, since it offered many advantages, was eagerly sought after. The excessive claims of

1323-490: The function of a protective lordship, generally commanding the military contingents of such areas ( Schirmvogtei ). Beyond that, he administered the high justice instead of the count from the Vogt court ( Landgericht , Vogtgericht or Blutgericht ). In private and family monasteries (see proprietary church ), the proprietor himself often also held the office of Vogt , frequently retaining it after reform of

1372-565: The heathland farmers to become genuinely self-sufficient. They earned more income from their fields and were able to sell grain and fruit. Crafts were an important source of income and employment in the Heidmark. It was especially common in Oerbke where there were numerous lines of work. As well as the farming and estate families, tradesmen also settled in the Heidmark and built estate houses and manor houses. In 2007 many of these manorial building are still standing. There are small village schools in

1421-487: The lands, and the positions of these office-holders often came to be seen as inheritable titles themselves, with their own feudal privileges connected to them. The terms used in various European languages derive from a general Latin term for any person called upon ( Latin : ad vocatus ) to speak for another. Apart from the English terms advocate and advowee , German terms are sometimes mentioned in English accounts of

1470-499: The law, and owning property in the—then still administrative—countship ( Grafschaft ). The churches, monasteries and canonries, as such, received advocates alike, who by degrees assumed the position above defined. Under the Carolingians, it was made obligatory for bishops , abbots and abbesses to appoint such officials in every county where they held property . The office was not at first hereditary nor even for life,

1519-444: The medieval sense. A Capitulary of about 790 ordained that the higher clergy, "for the sake of the church's honour, and the respect due to the priesthood" ( pro ecclesiastico honore, et pro sacerdotum reverentia ) should have advocates. Charlemagne, who obliged bishops, abbots and abbesses to maintain advocati , commanded to exercise great care in the choice of persons to fill the office; they must be judicious men, familiar with

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1568-476: The office of an advocate, in which case they appointed deputy-advocates ( subadvocati ) to represent them. From the time of Charlemagne, who had such officials appointed in ecclesiastical territories not directly under the control of his counts, the Vogt was a state functionary representing ecclesiastical dignitaries (such as bishops and abbots) or institutions in secular matters, and particularly before secular courts. Such representatives had been assigned to

1617-752: The office of early medieval " counts ", such as taxation, recruitment of militias, and maintaining law and order. This type of office could apply to specific agricultural lands, villages, castles, and even cities. In some regions, advocates came to be governors of large provinces, sometimes distinguished by terms such as Landvogt . In different parts of medieval Europe, the term advocate developed different meanings, and other terms were also sometimes used to represent similar offices. For example, Anglo-Norman comital functions for larger districts were executed by vicomtes in Normandy, and sheriffs in England. In contrast,

1666-523: The possessions of the church in the form of supplies or services, which he could demand, or in the form of a lien on church property. Such advocates were to be found even in Roman times; a Synod of Carthage decreed, in 401, that the emperor should be requested to provide, in conjunction with the bishops, defensores for the churches. There is evidence, moreover, for such defensores ecclesiæ in Italy, at

1715-691: The proprietorship (see also lay abbot ). The three-way struggle for control of the Vogtei of the more important abbacies, played out among the central monarchy, the Church and the territorial nobility, was well established as a prerogative of the nobility; the Hirsau formulary (1075) confirmed count Adalbert of Calw as hereditary advocate of the Abbey, an agreement so widely copied elsewhere in Germany that from

1764-403: The protection they afforded by a domain and preach revenues granted by the abbey: thus the duke of Normandy was advocatus of nearly all the abbeys in the duchy . The second class included the petty lords who held their advocateships as hereditary fiefs and often as their sole means of subsistence. An abbey's avoué , of this class, corresponded to a bishop's vidame . Their function

1813-650: The public. The centre point of the Heidmark was Fallingbostel. The folk in the area around the Sieben Steinhäuser and the Falkenberg suffered much during the Thirty Years War , especially in those villages that lay on the routes taken by the Army. The life of its farmers was for a long time dependent on sheep farming , but this faded into the background during the first half of the 19th century;

1862-454: The tenth century, the office developed into a hereditary possession of the higher nobility, who frequently exploited it as a way of extending their power and territories, and in some cases took for themselves the estates and assets of the church bodies for whose protection they were supposedly responsible. In Austria, the teaching of the Church that, according to canon law individuals were prohibited from exercising authority over Church property,

1911-473: The title landvoogd or gouverneur-generaal , which was for example the main title of Margaret of Parma . In modern Dutch , the word voogd is the primary word for the concept of legal guardian . After leaving the Holy Roman Empire, the title of Landvogt continued to be used in the Old Swiss Confederacy in 1415. A Landvogt ruled a Landvogtei , either representing

1960-484: The whole landscape changed and fields were cultivated on the heathland with its loamy, sandy soils. The herds of moorland sheep, the Heidschnucke , disappeared as the tracts of heathland were afforested and made way for plantations of beech, oak and spruce, resulting in the emergence of mixed woods. Many attempts were made in the eastern Heidmark to make economic progress. The discovery of artificial fertiliser enabled

2009-430: The word advocatus was never used to denote a hereditary representative of an abbot; but in some of the larger abbeys there were hereditary stewards whose functions and privileges were not dissimilar to those of the continental advocati . Instead, the word advocatus , or more commonly avowee , was in constant use in England to denote the patron of an ecclesiastical benefice , whose sole right of any importance

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2058-409: Was a hereditary one of presenting a parson to the bishop for institution. In this way the hereditary right of presentation to a benefice came to be called in English an advowson ( Latin : advocatio ). In medieval Poland , a wójt was the hereditary head of a town (under the overlordship of the town's owner – the king, church, or noble). In modern Poland, a wójt is the elected head of

2107-517: Was an officer of the king, who served as administrator and judge of a subdivision of royal property, or of a royal abbey. The seat of an imperial Reichsvogt was often at an imperial city . When the imperial cities gained more independence, by the late Middle Ages, they took over their own governance. The land Vogt office of the Alsace , consisting of the ten imperial cities of the Décapole ,

2156-591: Was ceded to the king of France in 1648, but the cities remained part of the Holy Roman Empire. However, the cities were soon thereafter annexed by France. Several small land Vögte continued to exist until the end of the Empire in 1806, mainly in the Swabian Circle . In what is now the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg the Habsburg dynasty continued into modern times to rule through governors who used

2205-560: Was considered an unwritten right and not as a sin. Nevertheless, the gendarmes had to track down the poachers and hand them over to the courts. Tradition has it that once Goding ( thingsteads or Gogerichte ) and Holting (forest courts or Holzgerichte ) were convened in Dorfmark, Fallingbostel, Ostenholz and at the Heidhof. At the Heidhof sentences were passed in the manner of a vehmic court ( Femegerichte ). The last execution in

2254-580: Was first mentioned in 1221, Düshorn in 1230, Meinerdingen in 1269 and Bierde in the 15th century, but were probably established long before then. The inhabitants of the Heidmark went through the Reformation in the reign of Duke Ernest the Confessor who had accepted Lutheran teaching early on. There were and are many churches and parishes in the Heidmark. These Evangelical-Lutheran parishes were and, to some extent still are, meeting places for

2303-467: Was generally to represent the abbot in his capacity as feudal lord, act as his representative in the courts of his superior, exercise secular justice in the abbot's name in the abbatial court , and lead the retainers of the abbey to battle under the banner of the patron saint . The advocatus ecclesiae was also known as a custos or adjutator in the 10th and 11th centuries. Initially, only counts and dukes were appointed advocati , but by

2352-556: Was nominally a subject territory of Bern , but enjoyed a special status as a military ally. The office of Landvogt was abolished in 1798, with the foundation of the Helvetic Republic . Although the title of Duke of Burgundy was extinguished by the French king after the annexation of its ancestral lands in 1477, the Habsburg kings of Spain and archdukes of Austria continued to use the title to refer to their realms in

2401-504: Was only accepted reluctantly by the nobles. The rights of advocacy were bought back by the thirteenth- and fourteenth-century abbeys in alliance with the Babenberg and early Habsburg dukes; the abolition of the Vogtei ( Entvogtung ) thereby exchanged local secular jurisdiction for the protective overlordship of the duke of Austria , sometimes by forging charters that the duke confirmed. The medieval Holy Roman Empire included what

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