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68-736: In the beeldenstorm of 1566 the chapel was severely damaged, and after the Alteratie , the chapel came into Protestant hands, when it was renamed the Nieuwezijds Chapel by them. The yearly procession that until then had taken place by the Catholics, was forbidden. In 1881, this tradition was reinstated as the Stille Omgang . The building was deconstructed in 1908, after the Protestant church fathers decided to consolidate

136-732: A Joyous Entry (charter of liberty) to the subjects of Brabant. In 1430 the Duchies of Lower Lotharingia, Brabant and Limburg were inherited by Philip the Good of Burgundy and became part of the Burgundian Netherlands . In 1477 the Duchy of Brabant became part of the House of Habsburg as part of the dowry of Mary of Burgundy . At that time the Duchy extended from Luttre , south of Nivelles to 's Hertogenbosch, with Leuven as

204-702: A state of the Holy Roman Empire , was established in 1183. It developed from the Landgraviate of Brabant of 1085–1183, and formed the heart of the historic Low Countries . The Duchy comprised part of the Burgundian Netherlands from 1430 and of the Habsburg Netherlands from 1482, until it was partitioned after the Dutch revolt of 1566–1648. The 1648 Peace of Westphalia ceded present-day North Brabant ( Dutch : Noord-Brabant ) to

272-479: A Welsh Protestant merchant then in Antwerp, saw: "all the churches, chapels and houses of religion utterly defaced, and no kind of thing left whole within them, but broken and utterly destroyed, being done after such order and by so few folks that it is to be marvelled at." The Church of Our Lady in Antwerp , later made the cathedral (illustrated at top): "looked like a hell, with above 10,000 torches burning, and such

340-560: A few months earlier, and been embarrassingly forced to retract a decree. Instead there was a wave of building or adapting Calvinist "temples", though in the end none of these were to remain in use by the following year, and their layouts, which seem to have echoed early Swiss and Scottish Calvinist designs, are now largely unknown. Once the revolt proper had started, there were many further instances of clearing churches, some still unofficial and disorderly, but as cities became officially Protestant, increasingly undertaken by official order, like

408-614: A large movement of "field sermons" or open-air sermons ( Dutch : hagepreken ) held outside towns, and therefore out of the jurisdiction of the town authorities. The first took place on the Cloostervelt near Hondschoote , in what is now the arrondissement of Dunkirk in French Flanders , very close to where the attacks later began, and the first one to be armed against disruption was held near Boeschepe on 12 July 1562, two months after religious war had broken out again over

476-475: A lion or armed and langued gules (a gold lion on a black field with red claws and tongue). Probably first used by Count Lambert I of Louvain (ruled 1003–1015), the lion is documented in a 1306 town's seal of Kerpen , together with the red lion of Limburg . Up to the present, the Brabantian lion features as the primary heraldic charge on the coats of arms of both Flemish and Walloon Brabant, and of

544-582: A much smaller town, by 23 August, and continuing in the far north and east into October, although the main towns were mostly attacked in August. Valenciennes ("Valencijn" on the map) was the most southerly town attacked. In the east, Maastricht on 20 September and Venlo on 5 October saw attacks, but generally the outbreaks were restricted to more westerly and northern areas. Over 400 churches were attacked in Flanders alone. The eye-witness Richard Clough ,

612-423: A noise as if heaven and earth had got together, with falling of images and beating down of costly works, such sort that the spoil was so great that a man could not well pass through the church. So that in fine [short], I cannot write you in x sheets of paper the strange sight I saw there, organs and all destroyed." Nicholas Sanders , an English Catholic exile who was a professor of theology at Louvain , described

680-586: A somewhat distorted view of the art history of the period. An altarpiece in Culemborg had been commissioned in 1557 from the painter Jan Dey, was then destroyed in 1566 and in 1570 recommissioned from Dey, apparently as a copy of the first. However the new work was only in place for five years before it was removed when the town went officially Calvinist. On 23 August Margaret of Parma , the Habsburg Regent or Governor-general, whose capital of Brussels

748-461: A wider settlement that all parties could live with. Instead unrest continued and the episode fed into the causes of the Dutch Revolt which was to erupt two years later. On 29 August 1566 Margaret wrote a somewhat panicked letter to Philip, "claiming that half the population were infected with heresy, and that over 200,000 people were up in arms against her authority". Philip decided to send

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816-458: Is "modest at best". Antwerp experienced a further period of iconoclasm in 1581, after a Calvinist city council was elected and purged the city's clergy and guilds of Catholic office-holders. This is known as the "quiet" or " stille " beeldenstorm , as the removal of images was carried out by the institutions they belonged to, the council itself, churches and the guilds. Some images were sold rather than destroyed, but most seem to have been lost. In

884-509: The Duke of Alba with an army; he would have led them himself but was kept in Spain by other matters, especially the increasingly evident insanity of his heir, Carlos, Prince of Asturias . When Alba arrived the following year, and soon replaced Margaret as Governor-general, his heavy-handed repression, which included the execution of many convicted of iconoclastic attacks the summer before, only made

952-706: The French Wars of Religion . In Anglican England much destruction had already taken place in an organized fashion under orders from the government, while in Northern Europe, groups of Calvinists marched through churches and removed images, a move which "provoked reactive riots by Lutheran mobs" in Germany and "antagonized the neighbouring Eastern Orthodox" in the Baltic region. In Germany, Switzerland and England, conversion to Protestantism had been enforced on

1020-725: The Generality Lands of the Dutch Republic , while the reduced duchy remained part of the Habsburg Netherlands until French Revolutionary forces conquered it in 1794 — a change recognized by the Treaty of Campo Formio in 1797. Today all the duchy's former territories, apart from exclaves , are in Belgium except for the Dutch province of North Brabant . The Duchy of Brabant (adjective: Brabantian or Brabantine )

1088-635: The Nervii , a Belgic tribe, lived in the same area. They were incorporated into the Roman province of Belgica , and considered to have both Celtic and Germanic cultural links. At the end of the Roman period the region was conquered by the Germanic Franks . In 959 the East Frankish king Otto I of Germany elevated Count Godfrey of Jülich to the rank of duke of Lower Lorraine . In 962

1156-612: The Schelde river in the west came under the rule of the French Counts Baldwin V of Flanders by 1059. Upon the death of Count Palatine Herman II of Lotharingia in 1085, Emperor Henry IV assigned his fief between the Dender and Zenne rivers as the Landgraviate of Brabant to Count Henry III of Leuven and Brussels. About one hundred years later, in 1183/1184, Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa formally established

1224-599: The United Kingdom of the Netherlands was created at the Congress of Vienna . The three old provinces were restored as North Brabant , Antwerp and South Brabant . The latter two became part of modern Belgium when it was created in 1830, South Brabant becoming simply Brabant province. Brabant had fortified walled cities and unwalled cities. The unwalled cities did not have the right to construct walls. Trade

1292-540: The pilgrimage from Hondschoote to Steenvoorde , the chapel of the Sint-Laurensklooster was defaced by a crowd who invaded the building. It has been suggested that the rioters connected the saint especially with Philip II, whose monastery palace of the Escorial near Madrid was dedicated to Lawrence, and was just nearing completion in 1566. Iconoclastic attacks spread rapidly northwards and resulted in

1360-484: The (then) French border just nearby. These open-air sermons, mostly by Anabaptist or Mennonite preachers, spread through the country, attracting huge crowds, though not necessarily of those leaning to Protestantism, and in many places immediately preceded the iconoclastic attacks of August 1566. Prosecutions for heresy continued, especially in the south, although they were erratic, and in some places clergy of clearly heretical views were appointed to churches. By 1565

1428-760: The 16th century, known in English as the Great Iconoclasm or Iconoclastic Fury and in French as the Furie iconoclaste . During these spates of iconoclasm , Catholic art and many forms of church fittings and decoration were destroyed in unofficial or mob actions by Calvinist Protestant crowds as part of the Protestant Reformation . Most of the destruction was of art in churches and public places. The Dutch term usually specifically refers to

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1496-547: The Amsterdam Alteratie ("Alteration") of 1578. Altars, to which Calvinists, unlike Lutherans, took strong exception, were typically completely removed, and in some large churches, like Utrecht Cathedral , large tomb monuments put where they stood, partly to make their return more difficult if political conditions changed. As the Eighty Years' War concluded, in the cities and areas that had become Protestant,

1564-468: The Antwerp attacks en route ; he needed to roll-over 32,000 Flemish pounds and borrow another 20,000 to finance her expenses in Ireland. Dining with William of Orange on his arrival, he was asked if "the English were minded to depart this town or not", and wrote to William Cecil , Elizabeth's chief minister, "in alarm that he "liked none of their proceedings" but "apprehended great mischief", and urged that

1632-545: The Austrian Netherlands for Leopold II who had succeeded his brother. The area was overrun during the French Revolution in 1794, and formally annexed by France in 1795. The duchy of Brabant was dissolved and the territory was reorganised in the départements of Deux-Nèthes (present province of Antwerp ) and Dyle (the later province of Brabant ). After the defeat of Bonaparte in 1815,

1700-476: The Duchy of Brabant and created the hereditary title of duke of Brabant in favour of Henry I of Brabant , son of Count Godfrey III of Leuven . Although the original county was still quite small - and limited to the territory between the Dender and Zenne rivers, situated to the west of Brussels - from the 13th century onwards its name came to apply to the entire territory under control of the dukes. In 1190, after

1768-477: The Dutch province of North Brabant. The region's name is first recorded as the Carolingian shire pagus Bracbatensis , located between the rivers Scheldt and Dijle , from braec "marshy" and bant "region". Upon the 843 Treaty of Verdun it was part of Lotharingia within short-lived Middle Francia , and was ceded to East Francia according to the 880 Treaty of Ribemont . In earlier Roman times,

1836-914: The Enge Kapelsteeg and on the roof of the schuilkerk De Papegaai in the Kalverstraat. A few fragments of the chapel came to be on the Frankendael in the Watergraafsmeer . On the Rokin was erected the Mirakelkolom (miracle column), though this was disassembled and raised for the construction of the North-south line of the Amsterdam Metro . The entire site is considered a Rijksmonument , except for certain parts of

1904-478: The English found to their surprise that repayments were no longer pressed for, probably as the lenders were happy to keep their money abroad on loan to a secure borrower. The Dutch Revolt, which from 1585 onwards included a Dutch blockade of the River Scheldt leading to the city, was to finally destroy Antwerp as a major trading centre. In many places there were attempts by Calvinist preachers to take over

1972-439: The English government "should do very well in time to consider some other realm and place" for marketing English products. It was a message that helped shape the course of events." The English had found the Antwerp money market short of funds since earlier in the year, and now made use of Cologne and Augsburg as well, but as events unfolded in the next year, and the personal position of some leading lenders became precarious,

2040-513: The Holy Scriptures and the ancient fathers , and tore in pieces the maps and charts of the descriptions of countries. Such details are corroborated by many other sources. Accounts of the actions of the iconoclasts from eyewitnesses and the records of the later trials of many of them make it clear that there was often a considerable element of carnival to the outbreaks, with much mockery of the images and fittings such as fonts recorded as

2108-445: The actions, and by the end of the outbreak some northern towns removed images by order of the local authority, presumably to prevent the disorder that would accompany a mob action. Analysis of the records of the later trials shows a wide range of occupations, covering craftsmen and small tradespeople, especially in the textile trade, and also a variety of church employees, at a fairly low level. Where wealth and property are recorded, it

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2176-539: The area. In some places the nobility gave assistance, ordering the clearing of churches on their estates. Local magistracies were often opposed, but ineffective in stopping the destruction. In many towns the archer's guild, who had a function in controlling public order, took no steps against the crowds. In 1566, unlike the situation after the Eighty Years' War and today, Protestantism in the Low Countries

2244-513: The authorities seem to have realized that persecution was not the answer, and the level of prosecutions slackened, and the Protestants became increasingly confident in the open. A letter of 22 July 1566 from local officials to the Regent, warned that "the scandalous pillage of churches, monasteries and abbeys" was imminent. On 10 August 1566, the feast-day of Saint Lawrence , at the end of

2312-504: The brass of the gravestones, not sparing the glass and seats which were made about the pillars of the church for men to sit in. ... the Blessed Sacrament of the altar ... they trod under their feet and (horrible it is to say!) shed their stinking piss upon it ... these false bretheren burned and rent not only all kind of Church books, but, moreover, destroyed whole libraries of books of all sciences and tongues, yea

2380-552: The capital city. The subsequent history of Brabant is part of the history of the Habsburg Seventeen Provinces . The Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) brought the northern parts (essentially the present Dutch province of North Brabant ) under military control of the northern insurgents. After the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, the United Provinces' independence was confirmed and northern Brabant

2448-480: The crowd; after the images were smashed and the property occupied, "men fed their stomachs in a carnivalesque indulgence of beer, bread, butter and cheese, while women carted off provisions for the kitchen or bedroom". There are many accounts of rituals of inversion, in which the church sometimes stood for the whole social order. Children sometimes participated enthusiastically, and street games afterwards became play battles between " papists " and " beggars ". One child

2516-569: The death of Godfrey III, Henry I also became Duke of Lower Lotharingia. By that time the title had lost most of its territorial authority. According to protocol, all his successors were thereafter called Dukes of Brabant and Lower Lotharingia (often called Duke of Lothier ). After the Battle of Worringen in 1288, the dukes of Brabant also acquired the Duchy of Limburg and the lands of Overmaas (trans- Meuse ). In 1354 Duke John III of Brabant granted

2584-419: The destruction in the same church: ... these fresh followers of this new preaching threw down the graven [sculpted] and defaced the painted images, not only of Our Lady but of all others in the town. They tore the curtains, dashed in pieces the carved work of brass and stone, brake the altars, spoilt the clothes and corporesses, wrested the irons, conveyed away or brake the chalices and vestiments, pulled up

2652-634: The destruction of not only images but all sorts of decoration and fittings in churches and other church or clergy property. However, there was relatively little loss of life, unlike similar outbreaks in France, where the clergy were often killed, and some iconoclasts too. The attacks reached the commercial centre of the Low Countries, Antwerp, on 20 August, and on 22 August Ghent, where the cathedral, eight churches, twenty-five monasteries and convents, ten hospitals and seven chapels were wrecked. From there, it further spread east and north, reaching Amsterdam , then

2720-545: The dissident movement were out of control". Protestant ministers and activists returning from exile in England and elsewhere played a significant role, and individual wealthy Protestants were widely suspected of hiring men to do the work in some places, especially Antwerp. In some rural areas gangs of iconoclasts moved across country between village churches and monasteries for several days. Elsewhere there were large crowds involved, sometimes locals, and sometimes from outside

2788-644: The duchy became an integral part of the Holy Roman Empire , where Godfrey's successors of the ducal Ardennes-Verdun dynasty also ruled over the Gau of Brabant. Here, the counts of Leuven rose to power, when about 1000 Count Lambert I the Bearded married Gerberga , the daughter of Duke Charles of Lower Lorraine , and acquired the County of Brussels . About 1024 southernmost Brabant fell to Count Reginar V of Mons ( Bergen , later Hainaut ), and Imperial lands up to

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2856-416: The guild had commissioned only 15 years earlier. The van Eycks ' Ghent Altarpiece , then as now famous as a supreme example of Early Netherlandish painting and already a major tourist attraction, just restored in 1550, was saved by dismantling it and hiding it in the cathedral tower. A first attack on 19 August was deterred by a small number of guards. When a larger attack was made at night two days later

2924-403: The iconoclasts had provided themselves with a tree trunk as a battering ram, and succeeded in breaking through the doors. By then the panels had been removed from the frame and hidden, with the guards, on the narrow spiral staircase up the tower, with a locked door at ground level. They were not detected and the crowd left after destroying what else they could find. The panels were then moved to

2992-549: The iconoclasts went about their work. Alcohol features largely in very many accounts, perhaps in some cases because in Netherlandish law being drunk could be regarded as a mitigating factor in criminal sentencing. The destruction frequently included ransacking the priest's house, and sometimes private houses suspected of sheltering church goods. There was much looting of common household goods from clergy houses and monasteries, and some street robberies of women's jewellery by

3060-470: The illegitimate daughter of Emperor Charles V , who was herself more willing to compromise. Protestants so far represented only a relatively small proportion of the Netherlandish population, but including disproportionate numbers from the nobility and upper bourgeoisie ; nevertheless, but the Catholic Church had evidently lost the loyalty of the population, and traditional Catholic anti-clericalism

3128-586: The interior such as the modern organ. 52°22′05″N 4°53′31″E  /  52.36806°N 4.89194°E  / 52.36806; 4.89194 Beeldenstorm Beeldenstorm ( pronounced [ˈbeːldə(n)ˌstɔr(ə)m] ) in Dutch and Bildersturm [ˈbɪldɐˌʃtʊʁm] in German (roughly translatable from both languages as 'attack on the images or statues') are terms used for outbreaks of destruction of religious images that occurred in Europe in

3196-405: The north, now strongly Protestant, religious art largely disappeared, and Dutch Golden Age painting concentrated on a wide range of secular subjects, such as genre painting , landscape art and still-lifes , with results that might sometimes have surprised the Protestant ministers who initiated the movement. According to one scholar, this "was not only a dramatic change in the function of art, it

3264-659: The old Catholic churches were nearly all taken over by the new established faith , the Calvinist Dutch Reformed Church , while other congregations were left to find their own buildings. The bare and empty state of those churches left in Catholic hands after the hostilities eventually ended prompted a large programme of restocking with Catholic art, which had much to do with the vigour of Northern Mannerism and later Flemish Baroque painting , and many Gothic churches were given Baroque makeovers. In

3332-479: The palaces of the nobility, were not attacked. In Ghent, on the one hand the memorial in a church to Charles V's sister Isabel (and so Philip's aunt) was carefully left alone, but a statue in the street of Charles V and the Virgin was destroyed. The actions were controversial among Protestants, some of whom implausibly tried to blame Catholic agent provocateurs , as it became clear that "the more popular elements of

3400-479: The ransacked buildings. These were usually repulsed in the period after the attacks. In the months afterwards there were attempted negotiations in many cities, by William of Orange and others, to allocate certain churches to accommodate the local Protestants, often divided into Lutherans and Calvinists. These had mostly failed within a few weeks, not least because Margaret's government rejected them; she had already had an earlier attempt at compromise overruled by Philip

3468-413: The same time or to the same extent, but practically none remained unscathed." Many elite Protestants were now alarmed by the forces unleashed, and some of the nobility began to shift towards support of the government. Implementing the somewhat vague terms of the agreement led to further tensions, and William of Orange , appointed by Margaret to resolve the situation in Antwerp, tried and failed to produce

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3536-446: The situation worse. Antwerp was then Europe's largest financial and international trading centre, taking as much as 75 or 80% of English exports of cloth, and the disturbances created serious and well-justified fears that its position as such was under threat. Sir Thomas Gresham , the English financier who arranged Elizabeth I 's borrowings, and whose agent in Antwerp was Clough, left London for Antwerp on 23 August, only hearing about

3604-409: The space and sell off the surrounding land to generate income. At that period the Catholic Church was enjoying a surge in popularity and the Protestants were determined not to "give them back their church grounds". The various sections of the old church outside the part left for the modern chapel, were stripped of useful materials, to prevent them ever being used again for Catholic worship, and the ground

3672-510: The summer of 1584 Antwerp was besieged by the Duke of Parma's Spanish army , falling a year later. Rarely was any thought given to the artistic heritage of these cities in 1566, though families were sometimes able to protect the church monuments of their ancestors, and in Delft the syndics of the painters' Guild of Saint Luke were able to rescue the altarpiece by Maarten van Heemskerck , which

3740-666: The three main churches in Leiden were attacked; in the Pieterskerk the choirbooks and altarpiece by Lucas van Leyden were preserved. In the Oude Kerk in Amsterdam an altarpiece with a central panel by Jan van Scorel and side panels painted on both sides by Maarten van Heemskerck was lost. The most important works of several painters, especially those like Pieter Aertsen who worked in Antwerp, were all destroyed, leading to

3808-544: The town hall, and only returned to view in 1569, by which time the elaborate frame had disappeared. The artistic and literary losses were elaborately described by Marcus van Vaernewyck in his journal V an die beroerlicke tijden in die Nederlanden en voornamelick in Ghendt 1566-1568. The original manuscript of his journal is still preserved in the Ghent University Library . Despite militia guards, two of

3876-533: The wave of disorderly attacks in the summer of 1566 that spread rapidly through the Low Countries from south to north. Similar outbreaks of iconoclasm took place in other parts of Europe, especially in Switzerland and the Holy Roman Empire in the period between 1522 and 1566, notably Zürich (in 1523), Copenhagen (1530), Münster (1534), Geneva (1535), and Augsburg (1537). In England, there

3944-531: The whole population at the level of a city, principality or kingdom, with varying degrees of discrimination, persecution or expulsion applied to those who insisted on remaining Catholic. The Low Countries, Flanders, Brabant and Holland were part of the inheritance of Philip II of Spain , who was a devout Catholic and self-proclaimed protector of the Counter-Reformation ; he suppressed Protestantism through his Governor-general Margaret of Parma ,

4012-450: Was allowed in the walled areas and usually this right resulted in a larger population and the development of major villages and later cities. The unwalled cities also had the right to hold markets, which they held on large market squares. This distinguishes them from surrounding villages that were not allowed to hold markets and did not possess market squares. Being unwalled also meant that some of these places suffered heavily in war and during

4080-471: Was both government-sponsored removal of images and also spontaneous attacks from 1535 onwards, and in Scotland from 1559. In France, there were several outbreaks as part of the Wars of Religion from 1560 onwards. In France, unofficial episodes of large scale destruction of art in churches by Huguenot Calvinists had begun in 1560; unlike in the Low Countries, they were often physically resisted and repulsed by Catholic crowds, but were to continue throughout

4148-501: Was formally ceded to the United Provinces as Staats-Brabant , a federally governed territory and part of the Dutch Republic . The southern part remained in Spanish Habsburg hands as a part of the Southern Netherlands . It was transferred to the Austrian branch of the Habsburg monarchy in 1714. Brabant was included in the unrecognised United States of Belgium , which existed from January to December 1790 during short-lived revolt against Emperor Joseph II , until imperial troops regained

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4216-537: Was historically divided into four parts, each with its own capital. The four capitals were Leuven , Brussels , Antwerp and 's-Hertogenbosch . Before 's-Hertogenbosch was founded, Tienen was the fourth capital. Its territory consisted essentially of the three modern-day Belgian provinces of Flemish Brabant , Walloon Brabant and Antwerp ; the Brussels-Capital Region ; and most of the present-day Dutch province of North Brabant . The modern flag of Belgium takes its colors from Brabant's coat of arms : Sable

4284-445: Was killed in Amsterdam by a stone thrown in such a game. Elsewhere the iconoclasts seemed to treat their actions as a job of work; in one city the group waited for the bell rung to mark the start of the working day before beginning their work. The tombs and memorial inscriptions of the patriciate and nobility, and in some cases royalty, were defaced or destroyed in several places, although secular public buildings such as town halls, and

4352-511: Was mainly concentrated in the south (roughly modern Belgium ), and much weaker in the north (roughly now the Netherlands ). Iconoclasm in the north began later, after news of the events in Antwerp was received, and was more successfully resisted by local authorities in some towns, though still succeeding in most. Once again socially prominent laymen often took the lead. In many places there were, or were later said to have been, false claims of official commissions from some local authority to perform

4420-718: Was now dominant. The region affected was perhaps the richest in Europe, but still seethed with economic discontent among parts of the population, and had suffered a poor harvest and hard winter. However, recent historians are generally less inclined to see the movement as prompted by these factors than was the case a few decades ago. The Beeldenstorm grew out of a turn in the behaviour of Low Country Protestants starting around 1560, who became increasingly open in their religion, despite penal sanctions. Catholic preachers were interrupted in sermons, and raids were organized to rescue Protestant prisoners from jail, who then often fled into exile in France or England. Protestant views were spread by

4488-427: Was sold for the construction of shops, so that the Catholics could never have it back. The miracle church's function had already long been taken over by the Roman Catholic schuilkerk at the Amsterdam Beguinage . Despite these measures, the site still has many parts of the old church intact, and the cultural history of the entire site is important for the city of Amsterdam. Parts of the chapel are still to be found in

4556-405: Was the context in which our present concept of art, what the literary critic M. H. Abrams called "art as such", first began to take shape", replacing a "construction model" where art theory concerned itself with how makers created their works, with a "contemplation model" concerned with the effect of finished works on a "lone perceiver" or viewer. Duchy of Brabant The Duchy of Brabant ,

4624-480: Was unaffected by the movement, agreed to an "Accord" with the group of aristocratic Protestant leaders known as the "Compromise" or Geuzen ("Beggars"), by which freedom of religion was granted, in exchange for allowing Catholics to worship unmolested and an end to the violence. Instead, "the outbreak of the iconoclastic fury began an almost uninterrupted series of skirmishes, campaigns, plunder, pirate-raids, and other acts of violence. Not all areas suffered violence at

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