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85-686: The Greek Gendarmerie was established after the enthronement of King Otto in 1833 as the Royal Gendarmerie ( Greek : Βασιλική Χωροφυλακή ) and modeled after the French National Gendarmerie . It was at that time formally part of the army and under the authority of the Army Ministry. Several foreign advisers (particularly from Bavaria , who emphasized elements of centralization and authoritarianism), were also brought in to provide training and tactical advice to

170-805: A prime minister , as is in the case of the United Kingdom , or the Nordic countries . In the Ottoman Empire , the Sultan wielded absolute power over the state and was considered a Padishah meaning "Great King" by his people. Many sultans wielded absolute power through heavenly mandates reflected in their titles, such as "Shadow of God on Earth". In ancient Mesopotamia , many rulers of Assyria , Babylonia and Sumer were absolute monarchs as well. Throughout Imperial China , many emperors and one empress ( Wu Zetian ) wielded absolute power through

255-645: A British subject. The Great Idea (Μεγάλη Ιδέα), the irredentist concept that expresses the goal of reviving the Byzantine Empire , led him to contemplate entering the Crimean War on the side of Russia against Turkey and its British and French allies in 1853; the enterprise was unsuccessful and resulted in renewed intervention by the two Great Powers and a second blockade of the Piraeus port, forcing Greece to neutrality. The continued inability of

340-533: A Constitution. Initially Otto refused to grant a Constitution, but as soon as Bavarian troops were withdrawn from the kingdom, a popular revolt was launched. On 3 September 1843, the infantry, led by both Colonel Dimitris Kallergis and the respected Revolutionary captain and former President of the Athens City Council, General Yiannis Makriyiannis , assembled in Palace Square in front of

425-518: A beautiful and talented 17-year-old, Duchess Amalia (Amelie) of Oldenburg (21 December 1818 to 20 May 1875). The wedding took place not in Greece but in Oldenburg , on 22 November 1836; the marriage did not produce an heir, and the new queen made herself unpopular by interfering in the government and maintaining her Lutheran faith. Otto was unfaithful to his wife, and had an affair with Jane Digby ,

510-495: A century of largely unrestricted parliamentary rule proved just as ruinous, King Gustav III seized back royal power in the coup d'état of 1772 , and later once again abolished the privy council under the Union and Security Act in 1789, which, in turn, was rendered void in 1809 when Gustav IV Adolf was deposed in a coup and the constitution of 1809 was put in its place. The years between 1789 and 1809, then, are also referred to as

595-648: A fully independent state, with Otto as its king. The Great Powers extracted a pledge from Otto's father to restrain him from hostile actions against the Ottoman Empire . They also insisted that Otto's title would be "King of Greece", rather than "King of the Hellenes", because the latter would imply a claim over the millions of Greeks then still under Turkish rule. Not quite 18, the young prince arrived in Greece with 3,500 Bavarian troops (the Bavarian Auxiliary Corps ) and three Bavarian advisors aboard

680-675: A large city. At the time, it was a town consisting of only 400 houses at the foot of the Acropolis . A modern city plan was laid out, and public buildings erected. The finest legacy of this period are the buildings of the University of Athens (1837, under the name Othonian University), the Athens Polytechnic University (1837, under the name Royal School of Arts), the National Gardens of Athens (1840),

765-618: A monarchy, under the rule of a prince who was not from the ruling families of one of the three Great Powers. Numerous candidates were considered for the vacant throne, including Prince Frederick of the Netherlands and Otto's uncle, Prince Karl Theodor of Bavaria . Even an Irishman named Nicholas Macdonald Sarsfield Cod'd put himself forward, claiming descent from the Byzantine Palaiologos dynasty. Ultimately, they settled on Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha , and

850-602: A nominal part of the armed forces). Despite this the Gendarmerie still maintained a largely military based structure, based on its involvement in the Macedonian Struggle , and the Balkan and First World Wars . As a result, it tended to neglect civilian matters, something addressed with the establishment of a civilian city police force for Attica in 1920, which would eventually be expanded to urban centers in

935-568: A notorious woman his father had previously taken as a lover. Due to his having overtly undermined the king, Armansperg was dismissed from his duties by King Otto immediately upon his return from Germany. However, despite high hopes on the part of the Greeks, the Bavarian Rudhart was appointed chief minister, and the granting of a constitution was again postponed. Otto's attempts to conciliate Greek sentiment through efforts to enlarge

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1020-410: A period of absolute monarchy. Many nations formerly with absolute monarchies, such as Jordan , Kuwait , Morocco and Qatar , have de jure moved towards a constitutional monarchy . However, in these cases, the monarch still retains tremendous powers, even to the extent that by some measures, parliament's influence on political life is viewed as negligible or merely consultative. In Bhutan ,

1105-570: A representative assembly or a constitution until the 1905 Revolution . However, the concept of absolutism was so ingrained in Russia that the Russian Constitution of 1906 still described the monarch as an autocrat. Russia became the last European country (excluding Vatican City ) to abolish absolutism, and it was the only one to do so as late as the 20th century (the Ottoman Empire drafted its first constitution in 1876). Russia

1190-460: Is a form of monarchy in which the sovereign is the sole source of political power, unconstrained by constitutions , legislatures or other checks on their authority. The absolutist system of government saw its high point in Europe during the 16th and 17th century , associated with a form of rule unconstrained by the former checks of feudalism , embodied by figures such as Louis XIV of France,

1275-534: Is granted on jus officii , namely on the grounds of appointment to work in a certain capacity in the service of the Holy See. It usually ceases upon cessation of the appointment. Citizenship is also extended to the spouse and children of a citizen, provided they are living together in the city. Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy, and according to the Basic Law of Saudi Arabia adopted by Royal Decree in 1992,

1360-511: Is said to have proclaimed L'état, c'est moi ! , 'I am the State!'. Although often criticized for his extravagances, such as the Palace of Versailles , he reigned over France for a long period, some historians consider him an absolute monarch, while some other historians have questioned whether Louis' reign should be considered 'absolute', given the reality of the balance of power between

1445-525: Is the absolute monarch of Vatican City, and is elected by a papal conclave with a two-thirds supermajority. As governed by the Holy See, Vatican City State is an sacerdotal - monarchical state ruled by the Pope, who is the bishop of Rome and head of the Catholic Church . Unlike citizenship of other states, which is based either on jus sanguinis or jus soli , citizenship of Vatican City

1530-468: Is the world's most authoritarian regime in 2023 measured by the electoral democracy score of the V-Dem Democracy indices . There is a considerable variety of opinion by historians on the extent of absolutism among European monarchs. Some, such as Perry Anderson , argue that quite a few monarchs achieved levels of absolutist control over their states, while historians such as Roger Mettam dispute

1615-635: The Age of Enlightenment , the concept of the divine right to power and democratic ideals were given serious merit. The Revolutions of 1848 , known in some countries as the Springtime of the Peoples or the Springtime of Nations , were a series of political upheavals throughout Europe in 1848. It remains the most widespread revolutionary wave in European history . By the 19th century, divine right

1700-661: The Church of Greece . This was a recognition of the de facto political situation, as the Patriarch of Constantinople was partially under the political control of the Ottoman Empire . However, faithful people, concerned that having a Catholic as the head of the Church of Greece would weaken the Orthodox Church, criticised the unilateral declaration of Autocephaly as non-canonical . For the same reason, they likewise resisted

1785-657: The Church of Scotland led to rebellion by the Covenanters and the Bishops' Wars , then fears that Charles I was attempting to establish absolutist government along European lines was a major cause of the English Civil War , although he did rule this way for 11 years starting in 1629, after dissolving the Parliament of England for a time. Absolutism was underpinned by a written constitution for

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1870-841: The Defence Ministry , although they retained several military features and were organized along military lines. Reflecting a new emphasis on civilian policing, in 1984 both the Gendarmerie and the Cities Police were merged into a single unified Hellenic Police . Although elements of the former military structure and hierarchy were maintained, explicit characteristics of a " militarily organized " force (such as courts-martial ) were lost. (1946 onwards) Στρατηγός (ε.α.) Weight: 801 gr [REDACTED]   Canada (№4) Otto of Greece Otto ( Greek : Όθων , romanized :  Óthon ; German : Otto Friedrich Ludwig von Wittelsbach ; 1 June 1815 – 26 July 1867)

1955-583: The London conference . Here, the crown was offered to the 17-year-old Prince Otto, which he happily accepted. The Bavarian House of Wittelsbach had no connections to the ruling dynasties of any of the Great Powers, and so was a neutral choice with which they were all satisfied. The Greeks were not consulted, but Greece was in chaos and no group or individual could claim to represent it anyway. The London Protocol of 1832 therefore finally recognized Greece as

2040-722: The Mandate of Heaven . In pre-Columbian America , the Inca Empire was ruled by a Sapa Inca , who was considered the son of Inti , the sun god and absolute ruler over the people and nation. Korea under the Joseon dynasty and short-lived empire was also an absolute monarchy. Throughout much of European history, the divine right of kings was the theological justification for absolute monarchy. Many European monarchs claimed supreme autocratic power by divine right, and that their subjects had no rights to limit their power. Throughout

2125-758: The National Library of Greece (1842), the Old Royal Palace (now the Greek Parliament Building, 1843), and the Old Parliament Building (1858). Schools and hospitals were established all over the (still small) Greek dominion. Due to the negative feelings of the Greek people toward non-Greek rule, historical attention to this aspect of his reign has been neglected. During 1836–37, Otto visited Germany, marrying

2210-638: The Ottoman Empire during the Crimean War , Otto's standing amongst Greeks suffered. As a result, there was an assassination attempt on Queen Amalia , and finally, in October 1862, Otto was deposed while in the countryside. He died in exile in Bavaria in 1867. Otto was born as Prince Otto Friedrich Ludwig of Bavaria at Schloss Mirabell in Salzburg (when it briefly belonged to the Kingdom of Bavaria ), as

2295-475: The Rothschild bank, who were underwriting the Greek loans, insisted on financial stringency from Armansperg. The Greeks were soon more heavily taxed than under Ottoman rule; as the people saw it, they had exchanged a hated Ottoman rule for government by a foreign bureaucracy , the "Bavarocracy" (Βαυαροκρατία). In addition, the regency showed little respect for local customs. As a Catholic , Otto himself

2380-600: The king had majority control of the Legislative Assembly until 2010. Liechtenstein has moved towards expanding the power of the monarch — the Prince of Liechtenstein was given vast expanded powers after a referendum to amend the Constitution of Liechtenstein in 2003, which led BBC News to describe the prince as an "absolute monarch again". The referendum granted the monarch the powers to dismiss

2465-483: The "Sun King" . Attempting to establish an absolutist government along continental lines, Charles I of England viewed Parliament as unnecessary, which would ultimately lead to the English Civil War (1642–1651) and his execution . Absolutism declined substantially, first following the French Revolution , and later after World War I , both of which led to the popularization of modes of government based on

2550-518: The Bavarian-dominated regency, were charged with treason, put in jail and sentenced to death. They were later pardoned under popular pressure, while Greek judges who resisted Bavarian pressure and refused to sign the death warrants ( Anastasios Polyzoidis and Georgios Tertsetis , for instance), were praised as heroes. Otto's early reign was also notable for his moving the capital of Greece from Nafplio to Athens . His first task as king

2635-515: The British frigate HMS Madagascar . Although he did not speak Greek, he immediately endeared himself to his adopted country by adopting the Greek national costume and Hellenizing his name to "Othon" (some English sources, such as Encyclopædia Britannica , call him "Otho"). Thousands lined the docks of Nafplio to witness his arrival, including many heroes of the revolution such as Theodoros Kolokotronis and Alexandros Mavrokordatos . His arrival

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2720-408: The Church and 4) toleration of other churches. His regents, Armansperg and Rundhart, established a controversial policy of suppressing the monasteries . This was very upsetting to the Church hierarchy. Russia considered itself a stalwart defender of Orthodoxy , but Orthodox believers were found in all three parties. Once he rid himself of his Bavarian advisers, Otto allowed the statutory dissolution of

2805-402: The Gendarmerie and the nature of the structure of the force and its hierarchy (that of being similar to the army) was maintained throughout the 19th century for a number of reasons, primarily the socio-political unrest that characterized the period including disproportionate poverty, governmental oppression, sporadic rebellions and political instability. As a result of this, as well as the input of

2890-465: The Greek independence movement and friend of Ioannis Kapodistrias, Greece's governor. Otto's name therefore entered the discourse surrounding Greek independence, both within Greece and abroad. At the end of Greek War of Independence, the three Great Powers formulated the London Protocol of 1829 , which recognized an autonomous Greek state. Article 3 of the protocol stated that Greece would be

2975-651: The Greek regalia which they had brought from Bavaria in 1832. In 1863 the Greek National Assembly elected Prince William of Denmark, aged only 17, King of the Hellenes under the regnal name of George I . It has been suggested that had Otto and Amalia borne an heir, the king would not have been overthrown, as succession was also a major unresolved question at the time. However, the Constitution of 1844 made provision for his succession by his two younger brothers and their descendants. Otto died in

3060-683: The Hessian State Archive (Hessisches Staatsarchiv Darmstadt) in Darmstadt, Germany. Otto's letters to his father-in-law, Augustus, Grand Duke of Oldenburg , written between 1836 and 1853, are preserved in the Niedersächsisches Landesarchiv in Oldenburg, Germany. He received the following honours: Absolute monarch Philosophers Works List of forms of government Absolute monarchy

3145-660: The House of Habsburg-Lorraine to rule over the Holy Roman Empire was Joseph II , a sovereign raised during the Enlightenment. Joseph II extended full legal freedom to serfs in 1781. Franz Joseph I of Austria was Emperor of Austria from 1848 until his death in 1916 and was succeeded by Charles I of Austria . Charles I was the last Emperor of Austria and abdicated on 12 November 1918 due to Austria-Hungary losing World War I . Louis XIV of France (1638–1715)

3230-733: The King must comply with Sharia (Islamic law) and the Quran . The Quran and the body of the Sunnah (traditions of the Islamic prophet , Muhammad ) are declared to be the Kingdom's Constitution, but no written modern constitution has ever been promulgated for Saudi Arabia, which remains the only Arab nation where no national elections have ever taken place since its founding. No political parties or national elections are permitted. The Saudi government

3315-576: The Palace in Athens. Eventually joined by much of the population of the small capital, the crowd refused to disperse until the king agreed to grant a constitution, which would require that there be Greeks in the Council, that he convene a permanent National Assembly and that Otto personally thank the leaders of the uprising. Left with little recourse now that his German troops were gone, King Otto gave in to

3400-617: The Riksdag in order to carry out the Great Reduction which would have been made impossible by the privy council which comprised the high nobility. After the death of Charles XII in 1718, the system of absolute rule was largely blamed for the ruination of the realm in the Great Northern War , and the reaction tipped the balance of power to the other extreme end of the spectrum, ushering in the Age of Liberty . After half

3485-661: The Russian Party (according to which of the Great Powers' culture they most esteemed) vied for rank and power. The king's prestige, which was based in large part on his support by the combined Great Powers, but mostly the support of the British, suffered in the Pacifico incident of 1850, when Lord Palmerston , the British Foreign Secretary , sent the British fleet to blockade the port of Piraeus with warships to exact reparation for injustice done to

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3570-568: The Swedish monarch was never absolute in the sense of wielding arbitrary power . The monarch still ruled under the law and could only legislate in agreement with the Riksdag of the Estates ; rather, the absolutism introduced was the monarch's ability to run the government unfettered by the privy council , contrary to earlier practice. The absolute rule of Charles XI was instituted by the crown and

3655-444: The Terrible was known for his reign of terror through oprichnina . Peter I the Great reduced the power of the Russian nobility and strengthened the central power of the monarch, establishing a bureaucracy. This tradition of absolutism, known as Tsarist autocracy , was expanded by Catherine II the Great and her descendants. Although Alexander II made some reforms and established an independent judicial system, Russia did not have

3740-453: The activities of the Greeks, while serving as advisers to their respective allied parties within Greece. King Otto pursued policies such as balancing power among all the parties and sharing offices among the parties, ostensibly to reduce the power of the parties while trying to bring a pro-Othon party into being. The parties, however, became the entree into government power and financial stability. The effect of his (and his advisors') policies

3825-493: The amended London Protocol of 1830 recognized him as the de jure sovereign of Greece. Although initially enthusiastic, Leopold was discouraged by the limited borders established by the protocol and Britain's refusal to grant financial support to the vulnerable new state. Due to this, as well as personal reasons, he formally rejected the crown three months later. Kapodistrias' assassination in 1831 destabilized Greece, and caused British Foreign Secretary Lord Palmerston to convene

3910-417: The armed forces, the Gendarmerie remained a largely conservative body throughout the period, there was also a certain amount of politicization during training as the Gendarmerie were trained in military camps. In 1906 the Gendarmerie underwent its first major restructuring at an administrative level. It acquired its own educational and training facilities independent of those of the army (though still remaining

3995-431: The concept of absolute monarch took a notable turn from the above with its emphasis on the monarch as the "first servant of the state", but it also echoed many of the important characteristics of absolutism. Prussia was ruled by the House of Hohenzollern as a feudal monarchy from 1525 to 1701 and an absolute monarchy from 1701 to 1848, after which it became a federal semi-constitutional monarchy from 1848 to 1918 until

4080-428: The country and move his assets out of Liechtenstein if voters had chosen to restrict his powers. Vatican City continues to be an absolute monarchy, but is unique because it is also a microstate , ecclesiastical jurisdiction , and elective monarchy . As of 2023, Vatican City has a population of 764 residents (regardless of citizenship). It is the smallest state in the world both by area and by population . The Pope

4165-405: The eldest, Ludwig Ferdinand , were now considered the most likely candidates, but due to the issue of religion, no definite arrangements were ever made. In 1861, a student named Aristeidis Dosios (son of politician Konstantinos Dosios ) attempted to murder Queen Amalia and was openly hailed as a hero. His attempt, however, also prompted spontaneous feelings of monarchism and sympathy towards

4250-409: The entire country. Modernization of the country's police forces was stunted by the successive periods of political instability, which culminated in the regime of Ioannis Metaxas and the Second World War . After the war, however, British experts were brought in to help reform the police along the lines of the British Police . As a result, after 1946 the police forces ceased to be a formal part of

4335-419: The first time in Europe in 1665 Kongeloven , ' King's Law ' of Denmark–Norway , which ordered that the Monarch: ...shall from this day forth be revered and considered the most perfect and supreme person on the Earth by all his subjects, standing above all human laws and having no judge above his person, neither in spiritual nor temporal matters, except God alone. This law consequently authorized

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4420-426: The foreign, mostly Protestant missionaries who established schools throughout Greece. Tolerance of other religions was over-supported by some in the English Party and others educated in the West as a symbol of Greece's progress as a liberal European state. In the end, power over the Church and education was ceded to the Russian Party, while the king maintained a veto over the decision of the Synod of Bishops. This

4505-425: The frontiers of his kingdom, for example by the suggested acquisition of Crete in 1841, failed in their objective and only succeeded in embroiling him in conflict with the Great Powers. Throughout his reign, King Otto found himself confronted by a recurring series of problems: partisanship of the Greeks, financial uncertainty, and ecclesiastical disputes. Greek parties in the Othonian era were based on two factors:

4590-423: The gift with interest, and will be grateful to you, seeing in you the one to resurrect the firstborn people of the Earth. Otto's reign is usually divided into three periods: The Bavarian advisors were arrayed in a Regency Council, headed by Count Josef Ludwig von Armansperg , who, in Bavaria as minister of finance, had recently succeeded in restoring Bavarian credit, at the cost of his popularity. Von Armansperg

4675-456: The government moved from absolute monarchy to constitutional monarchy following planned parliamentary elections to the Tshogdu in 2003, and the election of a National Assembly in 2008 . In Nepal , there were several swings between constitutional rule and direct rule related to the Nepalese Civil War , the Maoist insurgency , and the 2001 Nepalese royal massacre , with the Nepalese monarchy being abolished on 28 May 2008. In Tonga ,

4760-420: The government, nominate judges and veto legislation, among others. Just prior to the referendum, the Venice Commission of the Council of Europe published a comprehensive report analysing the amendments, opining that they were not compatible with the European standards of democracy, effectively making Liechtenstein a de facto absolute monarchy. Prince Hans-Adam II had also previously threatened to leave

4845-403: The individual emirates composing the United Arab Emirates , which itself is a federation of such monarchies – a federal monarchy . Though absolute monarchies are sometimes supported by legal documents, they are distinct from constitutional monarchies , in which the authority of the monarch is restricted (e.g. by legislature or unwritten customs) or balanced by that of other officials, such as

4930-443: The king to abolish all other centers of power. Most important was the abolition of the Council of the Realm in Denmark. Absolute monarchy lasted until 1814 in Norway , and 1848 in Denmark . The House of Habsburg is currently extinct in its male line, due to the death of the childless Charles II of Spain in 1700. However, the House of Habsburg-Lorraine still carries the female line of the House of Habsburg. The first member of

5015-479: The limits of royal power as the fact that governments were perennially in financial trouble, unable to tap the wealth of those ablest to pay, and likely to stir up a costly revolt whenever they attempted to develop an adequate income. Anthropology , sociology , and ethology as well as various other disciplines such as political science attempt to explain the rise of absolute monarchy ranging from extrapolation generally, to certain Marxist explanations in terms of

5100-438: The monarch and the nobility, as well as parliaments. The king of France concentrated legislative, executive, and judicial powers in his person. He was the supreme judicial authority. He could condemn people to death without the right of appeal. It was both his duty to punish offenses and stop them from being committed. From his judicial authority followed his power both to make laws and to annul them. In Brandenburg-Prussia ,

5185-440: The monarchy was abolished during the German Revolution . Frederick I was the first King in Prussia , beginning his reign on 18 January 1701. King Frederick the Great adopted the title King of Prussia in 1772, the same year he annexed most of Royal Prussia in the First Partition of Poland , and practiced enlightened absolutism until his death in 1786. He introduced a general civil code, abolished torture and established

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5270-417: The monasteries to lapse. By tradition dating back to the Byzantine era, the king was regarded by the Church as its head. On the issue of the Church's Autocephaly and his role as king within the Church, Otto was overwhelmed by the arcana of Orthodox Church doctrine and popular discontent with his Catholicism (while the Queen was Protestant). In 1833, the regents had unilaterally declared the Autocephaly of

5355-417: The newly formed force. The main task of the Gendarmerie under the army as a whole during this period was firstly to combat the extensive banditry which was endemic in the countryside throughout the 19th century and included kidnappings for ransom, the suppression of local revolts, and the establishment of a strong executive government. Dimitrios Deligeorgis was appointed commander in 1854. The army's links to

5440-409: The notion of popular sovereignty . Nonetheless, it provided an ideological foundation for the newer political theories and movements that emerged to oppose liberal democracy, such as Legitimism and Carlism in the early 19th century, or " integral nationalism " in the early 20th century. Absolute monarchies include Afghanistan , Brunei , Eswatini , Oman , Saudi Arabia , Vatican City , and

5525-476: The palace of the former bishops of Bamberg , Germany, and was buried in the Theatiner Church in Munich . During his retirement, he would still wear the Greek traditional uniform, nowadays worn only by the evzones (Presidential Guards). Αccording to witnesses, Otto's last words were "Greece, my Greece, my beloved Greece." Otto's letters to his sister, Princess Mathilde Caroline of Bavaria , Grand Duchess of Hesse, written between 1832 and 1861, are preserved in

5610-538: The political activities of the diplomatic representatives of the Great Powers Russia, United Kingdom and France and the affiliation of Greek political figures with these diplomats. According to Richard Clogg , the financial uncertainty of the Othonian monarchy was the result of The political machinations of the Great Powers were personified in their three legates in Athens: Theobald Piscatory (France), Gabriel Catacazy ( Russian Empire ), and Sir Edmund Lyons ( United Kingdom ). They informed their home governments on

5695-420: The pressure and agreed to the demands of the crowd over the objections of his opinionated queen . This square was renamed Constitution Square ( Greek : Πλατεία Συντάγματος ) to commemorate (through to the present) the events of September 1843—and was to feature in many later tumultuous events of Greek history. Now for the first time, the king had Greeks in his Council and the French Party, the English Party and

5780-436: The principle that the Crown would not interfere in matters of justice. He also promoted an advanced secondary education, the forerunner of today's German gymnasium (grammar school) system, which prepares the brightest pupils for university studies. The Prussian education system was emulated in various countries, including the United States. Until 1905, the Tsars and Emperors of Russia governed as absolute monarchs. Ivan

5865-434: The regents when they proved unpopular with the people, and he ruled as an absolute monarch . Eventually, his subjects' demands for a constitution proved overwhelming, and in the face of an armed (but bloodless) insurrection, Otto granted a constitution in 1843. Throughout his reign, Otto was unable to resolve Greece's poverty and prevent economic meddling from outside. Greek politics in this era were based on affiliations with

5950-424: The royal couple among the Greek population. While Otto was visiting the Peloponnese in 1862 a new coup was launched and this time a Provisional Government was set up and summoned a National Convention. Ambassadors of the Great Powers urged King Otto not to resist, and the king and queen took refuge on a British warship and returned to Bavaria aboard (the same way they had come to Greece), taking with them

6035-440: The royal couple to have children also raised the thorny issue of succession: the 1844 constitution insisted that Otto's successor had to be Orthodox, but as the king was childless, the only possible heirs were his younger brothers, Luitpold and Adalbert . The staunch Catholicism of the Wittelsbachs complicated matters, as Luitpold refused to convert and Adalbert married Infanta Amalia of Spain . The sons of Adalbert, and especially

6120-663: The second son of Crown Prince Ludwig of Bavaria and Therese of Saxe-Hildburghausen . His father served there as the Bavarian governor-general. Through his ancestor, the Bavarian Duke John II , Otto was a descendant of the Byzantine imperial dynasties of Komnenos and Laskaris . His father was a prominent Philhellene , and provided significant financial aid to the Greek cause during the War of Independence . Otto

6205-526: The three Great Powers that had guaranteed Greece's independence, Britain , France and Russia , and Otto's ability to maintain the support of the powers was key to his remaining in power. To remain strong, Otto had to play the interests of each of the Great Powers' Greek adherents against the others, while not irritating the Great Powers. When Greece was blockaded by the British Royal Navy in 1850 and again in 1854, to stop Greece from attacking

6290-579: The times of Apostle Paul . Muslim families were still living in Greece during Otto's reign, since hostility was mainly against the Ottoman state and its repressive mechanisms and not against Muslim people. Although King Otto tried to function as an absolute monarch, as Thomas Gallant writes, he "was neither ruthless enough to be feared, nor compassionate enough to be loved, nor competent enough to be respected." By 1843, public dissatisfaction with him had reached crisis proportions and there were demands for

6375-519: The very concept of absolutism. In general, historians who disagree with the appellation of absolutism argue that most monarchs labeled as absolutist exerted no greater power over their subjects than any other non-absolutist rulers, and these historians tend to emphasize the differences between the absolutist rhetoric of monarchs and the realities of the effective use of power by these absolute monarchs. Renaissance historian William Bouwsma summed up this contradiction: Nothing so clearly indicates

6460-472: Was King of Greece from the establishment of the Kingdom of Greece on 27 May 1832, under the Convention of London , until he was deposed in October 1862 . The second son of King Ludwig I of Bavaria , Otto ascended the newly created throne of Greece at age 17. His government was initially run by a three-man regency council made up of Bavarian court officials. Upon reaching his majority, Otto removed

6545-490: Was a child of delicate health and temperament, with a slight stutter and a passion for the piano. As a teenager, he was tutored in Classical Greek and Latin by classical scholar and passionate Philhellene Friedrich Thiersch , who was the first to suggest the young prince as a candidate for the throne of the emerging nation. Thiersch's suggestion was supported by Jean-Gabriel Eynard , a major financial benefactor of

6630-468: Was initially enthusiastically welcomed by the Greek people as an end to the chaos of the prior years and the beginning of the rejuvenation of the Greek nation. A year later Greek poet Panagiotis Soutsos evoked the scene in Leander , the first novel to be published in independent Greece: O King of Greece! Old Greece bequeathed the lights of learning to Germany, through you Germany has undertaken to repay

6715-571: Was one of the four continental empires which collapsed after World War I , along with Germany , Austria–Hungary , and the Ottoman Empire . In 1918, the Bolsheviks executed the Romanov family , ending three centuries of Romanov rule. The form of government instituted in Sweden under King Charles XI and passed on to his son, Charles XII is commonly referred to as absolute monarchy; however,

6800-610: Was regarded as an obsolete theory in most countries in the Western world , except in Russia where it was still given credence as the official justification for the Tsar's power until February Revolution in 1917 and in the Vatican City where it remains today. James VI and I and his son Charles I tried to import the principle of divine right into Scotland and England. Charles I's attempt to enforce episcopal polity on

6885-584: Was the President of the Privy Council and the first representative (or Prime Minister) of the new Greek government. The other members of the Regency Council were Karl von Abel and Georg Ludwig von Maurer , with whom von Armansperg often clashed. After the king reached his majority in 1835, von Armansperg was made Arch-Secretary, but was called Arch-Chancellor by the Greek press. Britain and

6970-531: Was to keep balance and avoid discrediting Greece in the eyes of Western Europe as a backward, religiously intolerant society. Catholic communities had been established in Greece since the 13th century (Athens, Cyclades, Chios, Crete). Jewish communities also existed in the country, those arriving after the Expulsion of the Jews from Spain (1492) joining the earlier Romaniotes , Jews who had been living there since

7055-452: Was to make a detailed archaeological and topographic survey of Athens. He assigned Gustav Eduard Schaubert and Stamatios Kleanthis to complete this task. At that time, Athens had a population of roughly 4,000–5,000 people, located mainly in what today covers the district of Plaka in Athens . Athens was chosen as the Greek capital for historical and sentimental reasons, not because it was

7140-409: Was to make the Great Powers' parties more powerful, not less. The Great Powers did not support curtailing Otto's increasing absolutism, however, which resulted in a near permanent conflict between Otto's absolute monarchy and the power bases of his Greek subjects. Otto found himself confronted by a number of intractable ecclesiastical issues: 1) monasticism , 2) Autocephaly , 3) the king as head of

7225-527: Was viewed as a heretic by many pious Greeks; however, his heirs would have to be Orthodox , according to the terms of the 1843 Constitution. King Otto brought his personal brewmaster with him, Herr Fuchs, a Bavarian who stayed in Greece after Otto's departure and introduced Greece to beer, under the label " Fix ". Popular heroes and leaders of the Greek Revolution, such as generals Theodoros Kolokotronis and Yiannis Makriyiannis , who opposed

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