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136-474: Once an important fishing post, the village has recently experienced growth in tourism. The maritime museum has examples of the turf roof houses once common across Iceland, as well as marine engines and Iceland's oldest rowing boat (1826). According to the 2011 census, Hellissandur and nearby Rif [ˈrɪːf] have 544 inhabitants. Hellissandur is one of the first and oldest fishing villages in Iceland and

272-479: A cool roof , a roof with solar thermal collectors or photovoltaic panels . Green roofs are also referred to as eco-roofs , oikosteges , vegetated roofs , living roofs , greenroofs and VCP H (Horizontal Vegetated Complex Partitions) Green roofs improve and reduce energy consumption. They can reduce heating by adding mass and thermal resistance value, and can reduce the heat island effect by increasing evapotranspiration . A 2005 study by Brad Bass of

408-529: A 40 °C day in summer revealed that the surface temperature on the roof had reached 84 °C, while the shadows cast by the plants had reduced the surface temperature on the roof to 51 °C. The city of Toronto approved a by-law in May 2009 mandating green roofs on residential and industrial buildings. There is criticism from Green Roofs for Healthy Cities that the new laws are not stringent enough, since they will only apply to residential building that are

544-422: A bowl filled with milk or butter could be placed in another bowl filled with water, all being covered with a wet cloth resting in the water, to keep the milk or butter as fresh as possible (see zeer , botijo and Coolgardie safe ). Evaporative cooling is a common form of cooling buildings for thermal comfort since it is relatively cheap and requires less energy than other forms of cooling. The figure showing

680-411: A building. The three most important climate considerations are dry-bulb temperature , wet-bulb temperature , and wet-bulb depression during a typical summer day. It is important to determine if the wet-bulb depression can provide sufficient cooling during the summer day. By subtracting the wet-bulb depression from the outside dry-bulb temperature, one can estimate the approximate air temperature leaving

816-636: A centre for contemporary dance in London, has a brown roof specifically designed to encourage the nationally rare black redstart . A green roof, 160 m (520 ft) above ground level, and claimed to be the highest in the UK and Europe "and probably in the world" to act as nature reserve, is on the Barclays Bank HQ in Canary Wharf . Designed combining the principles of green and brown roofs, it

952-491: A committee that is focused on modern green roof technology. FLL stands for Forschungsgesellschaft Landschaftsentwicklung Landschaftsbau e.V. (German Landscape Research, Development and Construction Society). The FLL is an independent non-profit organization. It was founded in 1975 by eight professional organizations for "the improvement of environmental conditions through the advancement and dissemination of plant research and its planned applications". The FLL green roof working group

1088-430: A compressor, so it can be condensed at warmer temperatures. The first configuration with this approach reused the dehumidification water to provide further evaporative cooling. Such an approach can fully provide its own water for evaporative cooling, outperforms a baseline desiccant wheel system under all conditions, and outperforms vapor compression in dry conditions. It can also allow for cooling at higher humidity without

1224-424: A direct-driven axial fan), and a water pump is used to wet the evaporative cooling pads. The cooling units can be mounted on the roof (down draft, or downflow) or exterior walls or windows (side draft, or horizontal flow) of buildings. To cool, the fan draws ambient air through vents on the unit's sides and through the damp pads. Heat in the air evaporates water from the pads which are constantly re-dampened to continue

1360-638: A dramatic effect on maximum surface temperatures, keeping temperatures below the 1961–1990 current form case for all time periods and emissions scenarios. Roof greening makes the biggest difference…where the building proportion is high and the evaporative fraction is low. Thus, the largest difference was made in the town centers". Industrial brownfield sites can be valuable ecosystems, supporting rare species of plants, animals and invertebrates. Increasingly in demand for redevelopment, these habitats are under threat. "Brown roofs", also known as "biodiverse roofs", can partly mitigate this loss of habitat by covering

1496-479: A feature of desert architecture for centuries, but Western acceptance, study, innovation, and commercial application are all relatively recent. In 1974, William H. Goettl noticed how evaporative cooling technology works in arid climates, speculated that a combination unit could be more effective, and invented the "High Efficiency Astro Air Piggyback System", a combination refrigeration and evaporative cooling air conditioner. In 1986, University of Arizona researchers built

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1632-485: A green roof is the ability to sequester carbon. Carbon is the main component of plant matter and is naturally absorbed by plant tissue. The carbon is stored in the plant tissue and the soil substrate through plant litter and root exudates. A study on green roofs in Michigan and Maryland found the above ground biomass and below ground substrate stored on average between 168 g C m and 107 g C m . Variations occurred among

1768-516: A green roof, roof temperatures on a hot day are typically 1.4–4.4 °C (2.5–7.9 °F) cooler than they are on traditionally roofed buildings nearby. Green roofs are becoming common in Chicago, as well as in Atlanta, Portland, and other United States cities, where their use is encouraged by regulations to combat the urban heat-island effect. Green roofs are a type of low impact development . In

1904-473: A growing medium, planted over a waterproofing membrane . It may also include additional layers such as a root barrier and drainage and irrigation systems. Container gardens on roofs, where plants are maintained in pots, are not generally considered to be true green roofs, although this is debated. Rooftop ponds are another form of green roofs which are used to treat greywater . Vegetation, soil, drainage layer, roof barrier and irrigation system constitute

2040-407: A heat exchanger (for example a roof). This element can be sprayed with water and cooled through the evaporation of the water on this element. These strategies are rare due to the high use of water, which also introduces the risk of water intrusion and compromising building structure. In the first stage of a two-stage cooler, warm air is pre-cooled indirectly without adding humidity (by passing inside

2176-417: A heat exchanger that is cooled by evaporation on the outside). In the direct stage, the pre-cooled air passes through a water-soaked pad and picks up humidity as it cools. Since the air supply is pre-cooled in the first stage, less humidity is transferred in the direct stage, to reach the desired cooling temperatures. The result, according to manufacturers, is cooler air with a RH between 50 and 70%, depending on

2312-402: A large amount of water, and evaporative coolers use far less electricity, and thus comparable water overall, and cost less overall, compared to chillers . Allowing direct solar exposure to any surface which can transfer the extra heat to any part of the air flow through the unit will raise the temperature of the air. If the heat is transferred to the air prior to flowing through the pads, or if

2448-849: A large scale. The City of Linz in Austria has been paying developers to install green roofs since 1983, and in Switzerland, it has been a federal law since the late 1990s. In the UK, their uptake has been slow, but a number of cities have developed policies to encourage their use, notably London and Sheffield. Green roofs are also becoming increasingly popular in North America, although they are not as common as in some parts of Europe. Numerous North American cities offer tax incentives to developers who integrate green roofs in their buildings. Toronto and San Francisco legally mandate new buildings to include green roofs. Rooftop water purification

2584-401: A large volume of water in contact with moving air to allow evaporation to occur. A typical design, as shown in a 1945 patent, includes a water reservoir (usually with level controlled by a float valve ), a pump to circulate water over the excelsior pads and a centrifugal fan to draw air through the pads and into the house. This design and this material remain dominant in evaporative coolers in

2720-629: A location has excess water supplies or excess desalination capacity it can be used to reduce excessive electrical demand by utilizing water in affordable M-Cycle units. Due to high costs of conventional air conditioning units and extreme limitations of many electrical utility systems, M-Cycle units may be the only appropriate cooling systems suitable for impoverished areas during times of extremely high temperature and high electrical demand. In developed areas, they may serve as supplemental backup systems in case of electrical overload, and can be used to boost efficiency of existing conventional systems. The M-Cycle

2856-487: A minimum of maintenance, perhaps a once-yearly weeding or an application of slow-release fertiliser to boost growth. Extensive roofs are usually only accessed for maintenance. They can be established on a very thin layer of soil (most use specially formulated composts): even a thin layer of rockwool laid directly onto a watertight roof can support a planting of Sedum species and mosses . Some green roof designs incorporate both intensive and extensive elements. To protect

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2992-579: A minimum of six stories high. By 31 January 2011, industrial buildings were required to render 10% or 2,000 m (22,000 sq ft) of their roofs green. Toronto City Hall 's Podium roof was renovated to include a 3,000 m (32,000 square feet) rooftop garden, the largest publicly accessible roof in the city. The green roof was opened to the public in June 2010. Many green roofs in Canada also use sustainable rainwater harvesting practices. In 2008,

3128-448: A mix of brick rubble and some concrete has been used. The original idea was to allow the roofs to self-colonise with plants, but they are sometimes seeded to increase their biodiversity potential in the short term. Such practices are derided by purists. The roofs are colonised by spiders and insects (many of which are becoming extremely rare in the UK as such sites are developed) and provide a feeding site for insectivorous birds. Laban ,

3264-463: A passive evaporative cooling tower, and performance data from this experimental facility in Tucson, Arizona became the foundation of evaporative cooling tower design guidelines. Evaporative coolers lower the temperature of air using the principle of evaporative cooling, unlike typical air conditioning systems which use vapor-compression refrigeration or absorption refrigeration . Evaporative cooling

3400-435: A relatively high rate of air exchange. Cooling towers are structures for cooling water or other heat transfer media to near-ambient wet-bulb temperature. Wet cooling towers operate on the evaporative cooling principle, but are optimized to cool the water rather than the air. Cooling towers can often be found on large buildings or on industrial sites. They transfer heat to the environment from chillers, industrial processes, or

3536-527: A residential building through open windows. The additional mass of the soil substrate and retained water places a large strain on the structural support of a building. This makes it unlikely for intensive green roofs to become widely implemented due to a lack of buildings that are able to support such a large amount of added weight as well as the added cost of reinforcing buildings to be able to support such weight. Some types of green roofs do have more demanding structural standards especially in seismic regions of

3672-427: A simpler design than flat green roofs. This is because the pitch of the roof reduces the risk of water penetrating through the roof structure, allowing the use of fewer waterproofing and drainage layers. In ancient times green roofs consisted of cave-like structures or sod roofs covered with earth and plants commonly used for agriculture, dwelling, and ceremonial purposes. These early shelters provided protection from

3808-401: A space without the assistance of a fan. This can be achieved through the use of fountains or more architectural designs such as the evaporative downdraft cooling tower, also called a "passive cooling tower". The passive cooling tower design allows outside air to flow in through the top of a tower that is constructed within or next to the building. The outside air comes in contact with water inside

3944-416: A standard roof. Standard maintenance include removing debris, controlling weeds, deadhead trimming, checking moisture levels, and fertilizing. The maintenance energy use for green roofs has many variables including: climate, intensity of rainfall, type of building, type of vegetation, and external coatings. The most significant effect comes from scarce rainfall which will increase the maintenance energy due to

4080-418: A state of higher humidity. A simple example of natural evaporative cooling is perspiration , or sweat, secreted by the body, evaporation of which cools the body. The amount of heat transfer depends on the evaporation rate, however for each kilogram of water vaporized 2,257 kJ of energy (about 890 BTU per pound of pure water, at 95 °F (35 °C)) are transferred. The evaporation rate depends on

4216-537: A strong hot southerly wind will slow or restrict the exhausted air from a south-facing window. It is always best to have the downwind windows open, while the upwind windows are closed. Typically, residential and industrial evaporative coolers use direct evaporation, and can be described as an enclosed metal or plastic box with vented sides. Air is moved by a centrifugal fan or blower (usually driven by an electric motor with pulleys known as "sheaves" in HVAC terminology, or

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4352-541: A thin recyclable membrane that can reduce the temperature of product air to below the wet-bulb temperature, and can approach the dew point . Testing by the US Department of Energy found that a hybrid M-Cycle combined with a standard compression refrigeration system significantly improved efficiency by between 150 and 400% but was only capable of doing so in the dry western half of the US, and did not recommend being used in

4488-434: A wetted membrane, or pad, which provides a large surface area for the evaporation of water into the air. Water is sprayed at the top of the pad so it can drip down into the membrane and continually keep the membrane saturated. Any excess water that drips out from the bottom of the membrane is collected in a pan and recirculated to the top. Single-stage direct evaporative coolers are typically small in size as they only consist of

4624-673: Is already home to a range of rare invertebrates. Green roofs have been increasing in popularity in Australia over the past 10 years. Some of the early examples include the Freshwater Place residential tower in Melbourne (2002) with its Level 10 rooftop Half Acre Garden, CH2 building housing the Melbourne City Council (2006) – Australia's first 6-star Green Star Design commercial office building as certified by

4760-509: Is also being implemented in green roofs. These forms of green roofs are actually treatment ponds built into the rooftops. They are built either from a simple substrate (as being done in Dongtan ) or with plant-based ponds. Plants used include calamus , Menyanthes trifoliata , Mentha aquatica , etc. ) Several studies have been carried out in Germany since the 1970s. Berlin is one of

4896-443: Is also popular and well-suited to the southern (temperate) part of Australia . In dry, arid climates, the installation and operating cost of an evaporative cooler can be much lower than that of refrigerative air conditioning, often by 80% or so. However, evaporative cooling and vapor-compression air conditioning are sometimes used in combination to yield optimal cooling results. Some evaporative coolers may also serve as humidifiers in

5032-414: Is equivalent to 6448 g C m which is significantly greater than 378 g C m Criteria for waste management practices when green roofs reach their end-of-life remain uncodified. Both sod roofs and LWA-based (Lightweight Aggregates) roofs have been found to have a negative impact on the quality of their resulting runoff. Green roofs can be categorized as intensive, semi-intensive, or extensive, depending on

5168-408: Is estimated that the cost of replacing a green roof is generally one third of the initial installation costs. With the initial cost of installing a green roof in mind, there are many financial benefits that accompany green roofing. The main disadvantage of green roofs is that the initial cost of installing a green roof can be double that of a normal roof. Depending on what kind of green roof it is,

5304-455: Is glassed-in so as to act as a terrarium and passive solar heat reservoir. A concentration of green roofs in an urban area can even reduce the city's average temperatures during the summer, combating the urban heat island effect . Traditional building materials soak up the sun's radiation and re-emit it as heat, making cities at least 4 °C (7.2 °F) hotter than surrounding areas. On Chicago's City Hall, by contrast, which features

5440-405: Is ideal to mount the mist line approximately 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3.0 m) above the ground for optimum cooling. Misting is used for applications such as flowerbeds, pets, livestock, kennels, insect control, odor control, zoos, veterinary clinics, cooling of produce, and greenhouses. A misting fan is similar to a humidifier . A fan blows a fine mist of water into the air. If the air is not too humid,

5576-416: Is known as an isenthalpic process because it occurs at a constant enthalpy value. Evaporative cooling therefore causes a drop in the temperature of air proportional to the sensible heat drop and an increase in humidity proportional to the latent heat gain. Evaporative cooling can be visualized using a psychrometric chart by finding the initial air condition and moving along a line of constant enthalpy toward

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5712-400: Is most effective when the relative humidity is on the low side, limiting its popularity to dry climates. Evaporative cooling raises the internal humidity level significantly, which desert inhabitants may appreciate as the moist air re-hydrates dry skin and sinuses. Therefore, assessing typical climate data is an essential procedure to determine the potential of evaporative cooling strategies for

5848-404: Is not available in any form, it can be used with a desiccant to recover water using available heat sources, such as solar thermal energy . In the newer but yet-to-be-commercialized "cold-SNAP" design from Harvard's Wyss Institute, a 3D-printed ceramic conducts heat but is half-coated with a hydrophobic material that serves as a moisture barrier. While no moisture is added to the incoming air

5984-494: Is not limited to cooling systems and can be applied to various technologies from Stirling engines to Atmospheric water generators . For cooling applications it can be used in both cross flow and counterflow configurations. Counterflow was found to obtain lower temperatures more suitable for home cooling, but cross flow was found to have a higher coefficient of performance (COP), and is therefore better for large industrial installations. Unlike traditional refrigeration techniques,

6120-710: Is only one of 40 committees which have published a long list of guidelines and labor instructions. Some of these guidelines also available in English including the German FLL-Guideline for the Planning, Execution and Upkeep of Green-Roof Sites. The results of the research and synthesis done by FLL members are constantly updated and promulgated utilizing the same principles which govern the compilation of DIN standards and are published as either guiding principles or labor instructions. The current Green Roof Guideline

6256-471: Is released outside or used to cool other external devices such as solar cells which are more efficient if kept cool. This is done to avoid excess humidity in enclosed spaces, which is not appropriate for residential systems. Indirect cooler manufacturer uses the Maisotsenko cycle (M-Cycle), named after inventor and Professor Dr. Valeriy Maisotsenko, employs an iterative (multi-step) heat exchanger made of

6392-502: Is sometimes used is corrugated cardboard. In arid and semi-arid climates, the scarcity of water makes water consumption a concern in cooling system design. From the installed water meters, 420938 L (111,200 gal) of water were consumed during 2002 for the two passive cooling towers at the Zion National Park visitors' center. However, such concerns are addressed by experts who note that electricity generation usually requires

6528-497: Is supplied. Though desalination of water also presents a cost, the latent heat of vaporization of water is nearly 100 times higher than the energy required to purify the water itself. Furthermore, the device has a maximum efficiency of 55%, so its actual COP is much lower than this calculated value. However, regardless of these losses, the effective COP is still significantly higher than a conventional cooling system, even if water must first be purified by desalination. In areas where water

6664-453: Is the conversion of liquid water into vapor using the thermal energy in the air, resulting in a lower air temperature. The energy needed to evaporate the water is taken from the air in the form of sensible heat , which affects the temperature of the air, and converted into latent heat , the energy present in the water vapor component of the air, whilst the air remains at a constant enthalpy value. This conversion of sensible heat to latent heat

6800-697: Is traced back to the 16th century. One of the points of interest near Hellissandur is the Snæfellsjökull glacier , made famous by Jules Verne in his science fiction novel Journey to the Center of the Earth . Just outside the village, there is the northern entrance to the Snæfellsjökull National Park, which surrounds the western and southern sides of the glacier. Nearby is the 412 m (1,352 ft) tall Gufuskálar radio mast,

6936-606: The American Southwest , where they are also used to increase humidity. In the United States, the use of the term swamp cooler may be due to the odor of algae produced by early units. Externally mounted evaporative cooling devices ( car coolers ) were used in some automobiles to cool interior air—often as aftermarket accessories —until modern vapor-compression air conditioning became widely available. Passive evaporative cooling techniques in buildings have been

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7072-543: The Green Building Council of Australia , and Condor Tower (2005) with a 75-square-metre (810-square-foot) lawn on the 4th floor. Since 2008, city councils and influential business groups in Australia have become active promoting the benefits of green roofs. "The Blueprint to Green Roof Melbourne" is one program being run by the Committee for Melbourne . In 2010, the largest Australian green roof project

7208-531: The Rankine power cycle , for example. Misting systems work by forcing water via a high pressure pump and tubing through a brass and stainless steel mist nozzle that has an orifice of about 5 micrometres , thereby producing a micro-fine mist. The water droplets that create the mist are so small that they instantly flash-evaporate. Flash evaporation can reduce the surrounding air temperature by as much as 35 °F (20 °C) in just seconds. For patio systems, it

7344-489: The University of Toronto showed that green roofs can also reduce heat loss and energy consumption in winter conditions. A modeling study found that adding green roofs to 50 percent of the available surfaces in downtown Toronto would cool the entire city by 0.1 to 0.8 °C (0.2 to 1.4 °F). Through evaporative cooling , a green roof reduces cooling loads on a building by fifty to ninety percent, especially if it

7480-670: The Vancouver Convention Centre installed a 2.4-hectare (6-acre) living roof of indigenous plants and grasses on its West building, making it the largest green roof in Canada. The new Canadian War Museum in Ottawa , opened in 2005, also features a grass-covered roof. During the renovation of the Hamilton City Hall in Hamilton, Ontario that spanned from 2007 to 2010, many efforts were taken to enhance

7616-481: The climatic zone of the installation. The system, developed by Lu et al. "consists of a solar reflector, a water-rich and IR-emitting evaporative layer, and a vapor-permeable, IR-transparent, and solar-reflecting insulation layer," with the top layer enabling "heat removal through both evaporation and radiation while resisting environmental heating." The system demonstrated 300% higher ambient cooling power than stand-alone passive daytime radiative cooling and could extend

7752-594: The latent heat of fusion . Evaporative cooling works with the phase change of liquid into vapor and the latent heat of vaporization , but the self-cooling can uses a change from solid to liquid, and the latent heat of fusion, to achieve the same result. Before the advent of modern refrigeration, evaporative cooling was used for millennia, for instance in qanats , windcatchers , and mashrabiyas . A porous earthenware vessel would cool water by evaporation through its walls; frescoes from about 2500 BCE show slaves fanning jars of water to cool rooms . Alternatively,

7888-476: The 1960s, and has since spread to many countries. Today, it is estimated that about 10% of all German roofs have been "greened". A number of European Countries have very active associations promoting green roofs, including Germany, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Norway, Italy, Austria, Hungary, Sweden, the UK, and Greece. Germany was the first country to start developing green roof systems and market them on

8024-468: The 2 –3 years apprentice educations system of landscaping professionals. Evaporative cooling An evaporative cooler (also known as evaporative air conditioner , swamp cooler , swamp box , desert cooler and wet air cooler ) is a device that cools air through the evaporation of water. Evaporative cooling differs from other air conditioning systems, which use vapor-compression or absorption refrigeration cycles. Evaporative cooling exploits

8160-450: The COP of small systems remains high, as they do not require lift pumps or other equipment required for cooling towers. A 1.5 ton/4.4 kW cooling system requires just 200 watts for operation of the fan, giving a COP of 26.4 and an EER rating of 90. This does not take into account the energy required to purify or deliver the water, and is strictly the power required to run the device once water

8296-466: The EPA, found water runoff was reduced by over 75% during rainstorms. Water is stored by the roof's substrate and then taken up by the plants, from which it is returned to the atmosphere through transpiration and evaporation. Green roofs decrease the total amount of runoff and slow the rate of runoff from the roof. It has been found that they can retain up to 75% of rainwater, gradually releasing it back into

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8432-525: The International School in Lyon. Another huge green roof of roughly 8,000 m (86,000 square feet) has been incorporated into the new museum L'Historial de la Vendée which opened in June 2006 at Les Lucs-sur-Boulogne . Long-held green roof traditions started in the early industrialization period more than 100 years ago exist in Germany. In the 1970s, green roof technology was elevated to

8568-467: The Salt Lake City weather data represents the typical summer climate (June to September). The colored lines illustrate the potential of direct and indirect evaporative cooling strategies to expand the comfort range in summer time. It is mainly explained by the combination of a higher air speed on one hand and elevated indoor humidity when the region permits the direct evaporative cooling strategy on

8704-535: The Space Shuttle also had radiators, and the Shuttle could evaporate ammonia as well as water. The Apollo spacecraft used sublimators , compact and largely passive devices that dump waste heat in water vapor (steam) that is vented to space. When liquid water is exposed to vacuum it boils vigorously, carrying away enough heat to freeze the remainder to ice that covers the sublimator and automatically regulates

8840-416: The U.S. Department of Energy found a 2 percent reduction in electricity consumption and 9-11% reduction in natural gas when implementing green roofs. A properly designed and installed extensive green-roof system can cost $ 108–$ 248/m ($ 10–$ 23/sq ft) while an intensive green roof costs $ 355–$ 2,368/m ($ 33–$ 220/sq ft) However, since most of the materials used to build the green roof can be salvaged, it

8976-462: The Zion National Park visitors' center, which uses two passive cooling towers, the cooling energy intensity was 14.5 MJ/m (1.28 kBtu/ft ;), which was 77% less than a typical building in the western United States that uses 62.5 MJ/m (5.5 kBtu/ft ). A study of field performance results in Kuwait revealed that power requirements for an evaporative cooler are approximately 75% less than

9112-498: The air with more moisture for the comfort of building occupants. The cooling potential for evaporative cooling is dependent on the wet-bulb depression, the difference between dry-bulb temperature and wet-bulb temperature (see relative humidity ). In arid climates , evaporative cooling can reduce energy consumption and total equipment for conditioning as an alternative to compressor-based cooling. In climates not considered arid, indirect evaporative cooling can still take advantage of

9248-528: The atmosphere via condensation and transpiration , while retaining pollutants in their soil. Many green roofs are installed to comply with local regulations and government fees, often regarding stormwater runoff management. In areas with combined sewer-stormwater systems , heavy storms can overload the wastewater system and cause it to flood, dumping raw sewage into the local waterways. Often, phosphorus and nitrogen are in this category of environmentally harmful substances even though they are stimulating to

9384-418: The bee species recorded from green roofs (worldwide) highlights both the diversity of species, but also the (expected) bias towards small ground-nesting species (Hofmann and Renner, 2017). Rooftop greenery complements wild areas by providing stepping stones for songbirds, migratory birds and other wildlife facing shortages of natural habitat . Bats have also been reported to be more active over green roofs due to

9520-430: The case of Chicago, the city has passed codes offering incentives to builders who put green roofs on their buildings. The Chicago City Hall green roof is one of the earliest and most well-known examples of green roofs in the United States; it was planted as an experiment to determine the effects a green roof would have on the microclimate of the roof. Following this and other studies, it has now been estimated that if all

9656-547: The climate, compared to a traditional system that produces about 70–80% relative humidity in the conditioned air. In another hybrid design, direct or indirect cooling has been combined with vapor-compression or absorption air conditioning to increase the overall efficiency and/or to reduce the temperature below the wet-bulb limit. Evaporative cooling can be combined with passive daytime radiative cooling and thermal insulation to enhance cooling power with zero energy use, albeit with an occasional water "re-charge" depending on

9792-523: The conditions in the southern Europe are very different from those in the north and knowledge acquired there can't be directly applied to colder climates. The fifth dimension – Green roofs and walls in urban areas -research program aims to produce high-level scientific and broadly applicable knowledge on optimal green roof and -wall solutions in Finland. In France, an 8,000 m (86,000 square feet) extensive, cable-supported green roof has been created on

9928-426: The cooled air to the required areas. A well-designed layout can effectively scavenge and expel the hot air from desired areas without the need for an above-ceiling ducted venting system. Continuous airflow is essential, so the exhaust windows or vents must not restrict the volume and passage of air being introduced by the evaporative cooling machine. One must also be mindful of the outside wind direction, as, for example,

10064-477: The cooler. Therefore, shading is advisable in all circumstances, though the vertical aspect of the pads, and insulation between the exterior and interior horizontal (upwards facing) surfaces to minimise heat transfer will suffice. Apart from fans used in mechanical evaporative cooling, pumps are the only other piece of mechanical equipment required for the evaporative cooling process in both mechanical and passive applications. Pumps can be used for either recirculating

10200-488: The cooling process. Then cooled, moist air is delivered into the building via a vent in the roof or wall. Because the cooling air originates outside the building, one or more large vents must exist to allow air to move from inside to outside. Air should only be allowed to pass once through the system, or the cooling effect will decrease. This is due to the air reaching the saturation point. Often 15 or so air changes per hour (ACHs) occur in spaces served by evaporative coolers,

10336-733: The depth of planting medium and the amount of maintenance they need. Extensive green roofs traditionally support 50–120 kg/m (10–25 pounds per square foot) of vegetation while intensive roofs support 390–730 kg/m (80–150 pounds per square foot) of vegetation. Traditional roof gardens , which require a reasonable depth of soil to grow large plants or conventional lawns, are considered intensive because they are labour-intensive, requiring irrigation, feeding, and other maintenance. Intensive roofs are more park-like with easy access and may include anything from kitchen herbs to shrubs and small trees. Extensive green roofs, by contrast, are designed to be virtually self-sustaining and should require only

10472-455: The different species of plant used. Substrate carbon content averaged 913 g C m and after the subtraction of the original carbon content the total sequestration was 378 g C m . The sequestration can be improved by changing plant species, increasing substrate depth, substrate composition, and management practices. In a study done in Michigan above ground sequestration ranged from 64 g C m to 239 g C m for S. acre and S album. Also, by increasing

10608-572: The elements, good insulation during the winter months, and a cool location in the summer. Unfortunately for modern conveniences, these were neither waterproof nor was there any system to keep out unwanted burrowing wildlife. Modern green roofs, which are made of a system of manufactured layers deliberately placed over roofs to support growing medium and vegetation, are a relatively new phenomenon. However, green roofs or sod roofs in northern Scandinavia have been around for centuries. The modern trend started when green roofs were developed in Germany in

10744-418: The energy in the air does not change. Warm dry air is changed to cool moist air. The heat of the outside air is used to evaporate water. The RH increases to 70 to 90% which reduces the cooling effect of human perspiration. The moist air has to be continually released to outside or else the air becomes saturated and evaporation stops. A mechanical direct evaporative cooler unit uses a fan to draw air through

10880-405: The energy in the air, like directing the exhaust air through two sheets of double glazed windows, thus reducing the solar energy absorbed through the glazing. Compared to energy required to achieve the equivalent cooling load with a compressor, single stage evaporative coolers consume less energy. Passive direct evaporative cooling can occur anywhere that the evaporatively cooled water can cool

11016-532: The energy of vapor-compression or absorption air conditioning systems. Except in very dry climates, the single-stage (direct) cooler can increase relative humidity (RH) to a level that makes occupants uncomfortable. Indirect and two-stage evaporative coolers keep the RH lower. Direct evaporative cooling (open circuit) is used to lower the temperature and increase the humidity of air by using latent heat of evaporation, changing liquid water to water vapor. In this process,

11152-409: The environment, maximum shade and mass provide a colorful and functional living roof. The community has the largest number of green roofs in the country. In Egypt , soil-less agriculture is used to grow plants on the roofs of buildings. No soil is placed directly on the roof itself, thus eliminating the need for an insulating layer; instead, plants are grown on wooden tables. Vegetables and fruit are

11288-542: The environmentally friendly nature of the structure, which included the addition of a grass-covered roof. Simon Fraser University 's Burnaby campus contains a substantial number of green roofs. Canada's first LEED Platinum V4 Home in Wakefield QC, EcoHome's Edelweiss House, has a living Green Roof which is sloped at 12 degrees. Living green roofs have been built and grown at Saint Michael's Sustainable Community since 2012. Native plants, mostly flowers chosen for

11424-411: The evaporated water is introduced into the space along with the now-cooled air; in an evaporative tower the evaporated water is carried off in the airflow exhaust. A closely related process, sublimation cooling , differs from evaporative cooling in that a phase transition from solid to vapor , rather than liquid to vapor, occurs. Sublimation cooling has been observed to operate on a planetary scale on

11560-407: The evaporative cooler. It is important to consider that the ability for the exterior dry-bulb temperature to reach the wet-bulb temperature depends on the saturation efficiency. A general recommendation for applying direct evaporative cooling is to implement it in places where the wet-bulb temperature of the outdoor air does not exceed 22 °C (72 °F). However, in the example of Salt Lake City,

11696-402: The evaporative cooling process without increasing humidity. Passive evaporative cooling strategies can offer the same benefits as mechanical evaporative cooling systems without the complexity of equipment and ductwork. An earlier form of evaporative cooling, the windcatcher , was first used in ancient Egypt and Persia thousands of years ago in the form of wind shafts on the roof. They caught

11832-427: The fact that water will absorb a relatively large amount of heat in order to evaporate (that is, it has a large enthalpy of vaporization ). The temperature of dry air can be dropped significantly through the phase transition of liquid water to water vapor (evaporation). This can cool air using much less energy than refrigeration. In extremely dry climates, evaporative cooling of air has the added benefit of conditioning

11968-425: The fan or blower in the system is unable to push much air through the media and into the air-conditioned area. The evaporative system cannot function without exhausting the continuous supply of air from the air-conditioned area to the outside. By optimizing the placement of the cooled-air inlet, along with the layout of the house passages, related doors, and room windows, the system can be used most effectively to direct

12104-403: The feedwater flow depending on the heat load. The water expended is often available in surplus from the fuel cells used by many crewed spacecraft to produce electricity. Most designs take advantage of the fact that water has one of the highest known enthalpy of vaporization (latent heat of vaporization) values of any common substance. Because of this, evaporative coolers use only a fraction of

12240-406: The fish, because the plants help to keep it clean by absorbing the ammonia. The fish also get some nutrients from the roots of the plants. In Finland, green roofs are still scarce. Some experimental green roofs have been built in big cities. However, the capital city of Helsinki has published guidelines for enhancing the building of green roofs in the city. There is on-going research on the topic as

12376-421: The flat roofs of new developments with a layer of locally sourced material. Construction techniques for brown roofs are typically similar to those used to create flat green roofs, the main difference being the choice of growing medium (usually locally sourced rubble, gravel, soil, etc...) to meet a specific biodiversity objective. In Switzerland, it is common to use alluvial gravels from the foundations; in London,

12512-640: The foraging opportunities these roofs provide. Research at the Javits Center green roof in New York, NY, has shown a correlation between higher numbers of certain insects on the roof, particularly moths, with an increased amount of bat foraging activity. Green roofs also serve as a green wall , filtering pollutants and carbon dioxide out of the air, helping to lower rates of diseases such as asthma. They can also filter pollutants and heavy metals out of rainwater. An additional environmental benefit of

12648-557: The green roof. Green roofs serve several purposes for a building, such as absorbing rainwater , providing insulation , creating a habitat for wildlife, and decreasing stress of the people around the roof by providing a more aesthetically pleasing landscape, and helping to lower urban air temperatures and mitigate the heat island effect . Green roofs are suitable for retrofit or redevelopment projects as well as new buildings and can be installed on small garages or larger industrial, commercial and municipal buildings. They effectively use

12784-503: The growth of plant life and agriculture. When these substances are added to a system, it can create mass biological activity since they are considered limiting factors of plant growth and by adding more of them to a system, it allows for more plant growth. Green roofs create natural habitat as part of an urban wilderness . Even in high-rise urban settings as tall as 19 stories, it has been found that green roofs can attract beneficial insects, birds, bees and butterflies. A recent list of

12920-940: The heating season. In regions that are mostly arid, short periods of high humidity may prevent evaporative cooling from being an effective cooling strategy. An example of this event is the monsoon season in New Mexico and central and southern Arizona in July and August. In locations with moderate humidity there are many cost-effective uses for evaporative cooling, in addition to their widespread use in dry climates. For example, industrial plants, commercial kitchens, laundries , dry cleaners , greenhouses , spot cooling (loading docks, warehouses, factories, construction sites, athletic events, workshops, garages, and kennels) and confinement farming (poultry ranches, hog, and dairy) often employ evaporative cooling. In highly humid climates, evaporative cooling may have little thermal comfort benefit beyond

13056-454: The increased ventilation and air movement it provides. Trees transpire large amounts of water through pores in their leaves called stomata , and through this process of evaporative cooling, forests interact with climate at local and global scales. Simple evaporative cooling devices such as evaporative cooling chambers (ECCs) and clay pot coolers, or pot-in-pot refrigerators , are simple and inexpensive ways to keep vegetables fresh without

13192-427: The maintenance costs could be higher, but some types of green roof have little or no ongoing cost. Some kinds of green roofs also place higher demands on the waterproofing system of the structure, both because water is retained on the roof and due to the possibility of roots penetrating the waterproof membrane. Another disadvantage is that the wildlife they attract may include pest insects which could easily infiltrate

13328-623: The market, monetary savings, and increased availability of vegetables for consumption. Evaporative cooling is commonly used in cryogenic applications. The vapor above a reservoir of cryogenic liquid is pumped away, and the liquid continuously evaporates as long as the liquid's vapor pressure is significant. Evaporative cooling of ordinary helium forms a 1-K pot , which can cool to at least 1.2 K. Evaporative cooling of helium-3 can provide temperatures below 300 mK. These techniques can be used to make cryocoolers , or as components of lower-temperature cryostats such as dilution refrigerators . As

13464-535: The membrane, water pump, and centrifugal fan. The mineral content of the municipal water supply will cause scaling on the membrane, which will lead to clogging over the life of the membrane. Depending on this mineral content and the evaporation rate, regular cleaning and maintenance are required to ensure optimal performance. Generally, supply air from the single-stage evaporative cooler will need to be exhausted directly (one-through flow) as with direct evaporative cooling. A few design solutions have been conceived to utilize

13600-405: The most advantageous qualities of extensive and intensive green roofs together. Comprehensive green roofs support plant varieties typically seen in intensive green roofs at the depth and weight of an extensive green roof system. Another important distinction is between pitched green roofs and flat green roofs. Pitched sod roofs , a traditional feature of many Scandinavian buildings, tend to be of

13736-561: The most important centers of green roof research in Germany. Particularly in the last 10 years, much more research has begun. About ten green roof research centers exist in the US and activities exist in about 40 countries. In a recent study on the impacts of green infrastructure , in particular green roofs in the Greater Manchester area, researchers found that adding green roofs can help keep temperatures down, particularly in urban areas: "adding green roofs to all buildings can have

13872-458: The most popular candidates, providing a fresh, healthy source of food that is free from pesticides. A more advanced method, ( aquaponics ), being used experimentally in Egypt, is farming fish next to plants in a closed cycle. This allows the plants to benefit from the ammonia excreted by the fish, helping the plants to grow better and at the same time eliminating the need for changing the water for

14008-406: The much more humid eastern half of the US. The evaluation found that the system water consumption of 2–3 gallons per cooling ton (12,000 BTUs) was roughly equal in efficiency to the water consumption of new high efficiency power plants. This means the higher efficiency can be utilized to reduce load on the grid without requiring any additional water, and may actually reduce water usage if the source of

14144-453: The multifaceted services offered by FBB, which offers a greater degree of market expertise and competitiveness. "Kompetenz im Markt". Today, about 10,000,000 m (110,000,000 square feet) of new green roofs are being constructed each year. According latest studies about 3 ⁄ 4 of these are extensive; the last 1 ⁄ 4 are roof gardens. The cities with the most green roofs in Germany are Berlin and Stuttgart . Surveys about

14280-618: The natural functions of plants to filter water and treat air in urban and suburban landscapes. There are two types of green roof: intensive roofs, which are thicker, with a minimum depth of 12.8 cm ( 5 + 1 ⁄ 16  in), and can support a wider variety of plants but are heavier and require more maintenance, and extensive roofs, which are shallow, ranging in depth from 2 to 12.7 cm ( 13 ⁄ 16 to 5 in), lighter than intensive green roofs, and require minimal maintenance. The term green roof may also be used to indicate roofs that use some form of green technology, such as

14416-418: The next level. Serious storm-water issues made cities think about innovative solutions, preferably with living plants. Modern green roof technology with high performance, lightweight materials were used to grow hardy vegetation even on roofs that can hardly support any additional load. In the 1980s modern green roof technology was common knowledge in Germany while it was practically unknown in any other country in

14552-447: The other hand. Evaporative cooling strategies that involve the humidification of the air should be implemented in dry condition where the increase in moisture content stays below recommendations for occupant's comfort and indoor air quality. Passive cooling towers lack the control that traditional HVAC systems offer to occupants. However, the additional air movement provided into the space can improve occupant comfort. Evaporative cooling

14688-412: The planetoid Pluto , where it has been called an anti-greenhouse effect . Another application of a phase change to cooling is the "self-refrigerating" beverage can. A separate compartment inside the can contains a desiccant and a liquid. Just before drinking, a tab is pulled so that the desiccant comes into contact with the liquid and dissolves. As it does so, it absorbs an amount of heat energy called

14824-589: The plants have been checked at regular intervals since their installation and are still growing and flowering. One species; Tillandsia bergeri , has grown from a single shoot to several thriving colonies. The project is now titled Tillandsia SWARM and has been expanded to include many other buildings across Australia, including Federation Square, National Gallery of Victoria and Essendon Airport. Godman has also experimented with Tillandsia plant screens that can be moved across skylights to create shade in summer and to allow in sun during winter. Temperature readings taken on

14960-616: The power does not have a high efficiency cooling system. An M-Cycle based system built by Coolerado is currently being used to cool the Data Center for NASA's National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC). The facility is air cooled below 70 degrees Fahrenheit and uses the Coolerado system above that temperature. This is possible because the air handler for the system uses fresh outside air, which allows it to automatically use cool outside ambient air when conditions allow. This avoids running

15096-415: The power requirements for a conventional packaged unit air-conditioner. Indirect evaporative cooling (closed circuit) is a cooling process that uses direct evaporative cooling in addition to some heat exchanger to transfer the cool energy to the supply air. The cooled moist air from the direct evaporative cooling process never comes in direct contact with the conditioned supply air. The moist air stream

15232-475: The refrigeration system when unnecessary. It is powered by a solar panel array which also serves as secondary power in case of main power loss. The system has very high efficiency but, like other evaporative cooling systems, is constrained by the ambient humidity levels, which has limited its adoption for residential use. It may be used as supplementary cooling during times of extreme heat without placing significant additional burden on electrical infrastructure. If

15368-666: The relative humidity (RH) does rise a little according to the Temperature-RH formula. Still, the relatively dry air resulting from indirect evaporative cooling allows inhabitants' perspiration to evaporate more easily, increasing the relative effectiveness of this technique. Indirect Cooling is an effective strategy for hot-humid climates that cannot afford to increase the moisture content of the supply air due to indoor air quality and human thermal comfort concerns. Passive indirect evaporative cooling strategies are rare because this strategy involves an architectural element to act as

15504-618: The remaining cloud is cooled below the BEC transition temperature. For a cloud of 1 million alkali atoms, this temperature is about 1μK. Although robotic spacecraft use thermal radiation almost exclusively, many crewed spacecraft have short missions that permit open-cycle evaporative cooling. Examples include the Space Shuttle , the Apollo command and service module (CSM), lunar module and portable life support system . The Apollo CSM and

15640-436: The roof, a waterproofing membrane is often used, which is manufactured to remain watertight in extreme conditions including constant dampness, ponding water, high and low alkaline conditions and exposure to plant roots, fungi and bacterial organisms. Advances in green roof technology have led to the development of new systems that do not fit into the traditional classification of green roof types. Comprehensive green roofs bring

15776-538: The roofs in a major city were greened, urban temperatures could be reduced by as much as 7 °C (13 °F). Green roofs can reduce stormwater runoff via water-wise gardening techniques. Green roofs play a significant role in retrofitting the Low Impact Development (LID) practices in urban areas. A study presented at the Green Roofs for Healthy Cities Conference in June 2004, cited by

15912-505: The shelf life of food by 40% in cool humid climates and 200% in dry climates without refrigeration . Conventional evaporative cooling only works with dry air, e.g. when the humidity ratio is below ~0.02 kg water /kg air . They also require substantial water inputs. To remove these limitations, dewpoint evaporative cooling can be hybridized with membrane dehumidification , using membranes that pass water vapor but block air. Air passing through these membranes can be concentrated with

16048-520: The status of regulation are done by the FBB. Nearly one third of all German cities have regulations to support green-roof and rain-water technology. Green-roof research institutions are located in several cities as including Hannover , Berlin, Geisenheim and Neubrandenburg . Germany is the country with the most green roofs in the world as well as the country with the most advanced knowledge in modern green roof technology. Green roofs in Germany are part of

16184-443: The substrate depth would allow for more area of carbon storage and diversify the types of plants with greater potential of carbon storage. The direct carbon sequestration techniques and methods can be measured and accounted for. Green roofs also indirectly reduce CO 2 given off by power plants through their ability to insulate buildings. Buildings in the US account for 38% of the total carbon dioxide emissions. A model supported by

16320-500: The sunlight warms the pads themselves, evaporation will increase, but the additional energy required to achieve this will not come from the energy contained in the ambient air, but will be supplied by the sun, and this will result not only in higher temperatures, but higher humidity as well, just as raising the inlet air temperature by any means, and heating the water prior to distribution over the pad by any means, would do. In addition, sunlight may degrade some media, and other components of

16456-488: The tallest structure in Western Europe, located 2 km (1.2 mi) westward. 64°55′N 23°54′W  /  64.917°N 23.900°W  / 64.917; -23.900 This Iceland location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Turf roof A green roof or living roof is a roof of a building that is partially or completely covered with vegetation and

16592-442: The temperature and humidity of the air, which is why sweat accumulates more on humid days, as it does not evaporate fast enough. Vapor-compression refrigeration uses evaporative cooling, but the evaporated vapor is within a sealed system, and is then compressed ready to evaporate again, using energy to do so. A simple evaporative cooler's water is evaporated into the environment, and not recovered. In an interior space cooling unit,

16728-455: The temperature decreases, the vapor pressure of the liquid also falls, and cooling becomes less effective. This sets a lower limit to the temperature attainable with a given liquid. Evaporative cooling is also the last cooling step in order to reach the ultra-low temperatures required for Bose–Einstein condensation (BEC). Here, so-called forced evaporative cooling is used to selectively remove high-energetic ("hot") atoms from an atom cloud until

16864-524: The top of the tower. Energy savings from using a passive direct evaporating cooling strategy depends on the climate and heat load. For arid climates with a great wet-bulb depression, cooling towers can provide enough cooling during summer design conditions to be net zero. For example, a 371 m (4,000 ft ) retail store in Tucson, Arizona with a sensible heat gain of 29.3 kJ/h (100,000 Btu/h) can be cooled entirely by two passive cooling towers providing 11890 m /h (7,000 cfm) each. For

17000-423: The tower either through a wetted membrane or a mister. As water evaporates in the outside air, the air becomes cooler and less buoyant and creates a downward flow in the tower. At the bottom of the tower, an outlet allows the cooler air into the interior. Similar to mechanical evaporative coolers, towers can be an attractive low-energy solution for hot and dry climate as they only require a water pump to raise water to

17136-542: The upper limit for the direct evaporative cooling on psychrometric chart is 20 °C (68 °F). Despite the lower temperature, evaporative cooling is suitable for similar climates to Salt Lake City. Evaporative cooling is especially well suited for climates where the air is hot and humidity is low. In the United States, the western and mountain states are good locations, with evaporative coolers prevalent in cities like Albuquerque , Denver , El Paso , Fresno , Salt Lake City , and Tucson . Evaporative air conditioning

17272-585: The use of electricity. Several hot and dry regions throughout the world could potentially benefit from evaporative cooling, including North Africa, the Sahel region of Africa, the Horn of Africa, southern Africa, the Middle East, arid regions of South Asia, and Australia. Benefits of evaporative cooling chambers for many rural communities in these regions include reduced post-harvest loss, less time spent traveling to

17408-462: The use of refrigerants, many of which have substantial greenhouse gas potential. Traditionally, evaporative cooler pads consist of excelsior ( aspen wood fiber ) inside a containment net, but more modern materials, such as some plastics and melamine paper, are entering use as cooler-pad media. Modern rigid media, commonly 8" or 12" thick, adds more moisture, and thus cools air more than typically much thinner aspen media. Another material which

17544-425: The water to the wet media pad or providing water at very high pressure to a mister system for a passive cooling tower. Pump specifications will vary depending on evaporation rates and media pad area. The Zion National Park visitors' center uses a 250 W (1/3 HP) pump. Exhaust ducts and/or open windows must be used at all times to allow air to continually escape the air-conditioned area. Otherwise, pressure develops and

17680-450: The watering required. During a 10-year roof maintenance cycle a house with a green roof requires more retrofit embodied energy than a house with a white roof. The individual components of a green roof have CO 2 implications during the manufacturing process have additional implications compared to a conventional roof. The embodied energy for green roof components are 23.6 kg/m (5 pounds per square foot) CO 2 of green roof. This value

17816-399: The wind, passed it over subterranean water in a qanat and discharged the cooled air into the building. Modern Iranians have widely adopted powered evaporative coolers ( coolere âbi ). The evaporative cooler was the subject of numerous US patents in the 20th century; many of these, starting in 1906, suggested or assumed the use of excelsior (wood wool) pads as the elements to bring

17952-520: The world. Some existing buildings cannot be retrofitted with certain kinds of green roofs because of the weight load of the substrate and vegetation exceeds permitted static loading . The weight of a green roof caused the collapse of a large sports hall roof in Hong Kong in 2016. In the wake of the disaster numerous other green roofs around the territory were removed. Green roofs require significantly more maintenance and maintenance energy compared to

18088-423: The world. In Stuttgart, with one of the most innovative Department of Parks and Recreation and with the world's oldest horticultural Universities, modern green roof technology was perfected and implemented on a large scale. By the early 2000s, Germany had laws mandating that many metropolitan areas have green roofs. With the first green roof industry boom in Germany there were quality issues recorded. The FLL formed

18224-817: Was announced. The Victorian Desalination Project will have a "living tapestry" of 98,000 Australian indigenous plants over a roof area spanning more than 26,000 m (280,000 square feet). The roof will form part of the desalination plant's sophisticated roof system, designed to blend the building into the landscape, and provide acoustic protection, corrosion resistance, thermal control, and reduced maintenance. In June 2014 ecological artist Lloyd Godman , with structural engineer Stuart Jones and environmental scientist Grant Harris collaborated to install an experiment using Tillandsia plants in extreme outdoor conditions at levels 92, 91, 65 and 56 on Eureka Tower in Melbourne, Australia. The selected air plants are extremely light, and are able to grow with no soil or watering system, and

18360-450: Was born from the then-visionary idea of understanding the relationship between nature and constructions not as oppositional, but as an opportunity. Both the green roofing and conventional roofing industries are equally represented. The FBB has developed to become an innovative lobbying group with a strong market presence, internationally known through its cooperation with other European associations. Today, approximately 100 member companies use

18496-476: Was published in 2011. Today most elements of the German FLL are part of standards and guidelines around the world (FM Global, ASTM, NRCA, SPRI etc.). Fachvereinigung Bauwerksbegrünung (FBB) was founded in 1990 as the second green roof association after DDV (Deutscher Dachgaertner Verband) in 1985. FBB was founded as an open forum for manufacturers and planners, merchants and operators in 1990. The organization

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