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59-640: Hermenegild was the eldest son of Liuvigild and his first wife. He was a brother of Reccared I and brought up an Arian. Liuvigild made his sons co-regents. In 579, he married Ingund , the daughter of the Frankish King Sigebert I of Austrasia who was a Chalcedonian . Her mother was the Visigoth princess Brunhilda of Austrasia . The twelve-year-old Ingund was pressured by Hermenegild's stepmother Goiswintha to abjure her beliefs, but she stayed firm in her faith. Liuvigild sent Hermenegild to

118-524: A Franciscan like himself. One of the things that commended his candidacy to certain cardinals may have been his physical vigour, which seemed to promise a long pontificate. His papal coronation was held on 1 May 1585 and he was crowned by the protodeacon Ferdinando de' Medici . The terrible condition in which Pope Gregory XIII had left the Papal States called for prompt and stern measures. Sixtus proceeded with an almost ferocious severity against

177-415: A brief term as procurator of his order, he was attached in 1565 to the papal legation to Spain headed by Cardinal Ugo Boncampagni (later Pope Gregory XIII ) which was sent to investigate a charge of heresy levelled against Bartolomé Carranza , Archbishop of Toledo . The violent dislike which Peretti conceived for Boncampagni had a marked influence on his subsequent actions. He hurried back to Rome upon

236-405: A far-sighted rebuilding programme that continues to provoke controversy, as it involved the destruction of antiquities. The cost of these works was met by heavy taxation which caused much suffering. His foreign policy was regarded as over-ambitious; he excommunicated King Henry IV of France and renewed the excommunication of Queen Elizabeth I of England . He is recognized as a significant figure of

295-598: A fortune that would otherwise have been lost in the failed campaign. Sixtus had Cardinal William Allen draw up the An Admonition to the Nobility and People of England and Ireland , a proclamation to be published in England if the invasion had been successful. The extant document comprised all that could be said against Elizabeth I, and the indictment is therefore fuller and more forcible than any other put forward by

354-624: A homily upon the "triumph of the Church upon the conversion of the Goths". The text of the homily survives. Leander and the Roman bishops immediately instituted the program of forced conversion of Jews and extirpation of the remains of Arianism as heresy . Catholic history traditionally imputes these persecutions to the Visigothic kings. When, after Reccared's reign, at a synod held at Toledo in 633,

413-607: A king and martyr." Hermenegild's feast day is April 13. He is the patron of the "Real Hermandad de Veteranos de las Fuerzas Armadas y la Guardia Civil" ("Royal Brotherhood of Veterans of the Armed Forces and the Civil Guard") in Spain. The Royal and Military Order of Saint Hermenegild , established by Ferdinand VII of Spain in 1814, is also named in his honor. According to the 9th-century Chronicle of Alfonso III , Erwig

472-607: A vigorous policy against the Jews, pursuing zealous and fanatical policies limiting Jewish freedoms as promulgated in the canons of synods. Modern historians have revised this view and see a continuation of traditional Visigothic tolerance. Pope Gregory I was convinced that Reccared refused bribes from the Jewish community, which was large, well-connected throughout the Mediterranean and powerful, and Reccared's laws provided that

531-473: Is chiefly on Pope Gregory's assessment that Hermenegild's subsequent legacy rests. As a Catholic martyr, Hermenegild rose to prominence in Spain during the period following the Reconquista , during which time there was renewed interest in the Visigothic "golden age". In 1585, at the urging of Philip II of Spain , Pope Sixtus V authorized the cult of Hermenegild in Spain; recognition was later extended to

590-654: Is considered a masterpiece of seventeenth-century Jesuit hagiographical drama . Francisco de Herrera the Younger 's 1654 painting The Triumph of St. Hermenegild , originally for the Church of the Discalced Carmelites in Madrid , is now in the collection of the Museo del Prado . In art and Catholic Iconography , Saint Hermenegild is depicted with an ax as well as a crown, sword, and cross. Hermenegild's entry in

649-624: The Column of Marcus Aurelius (at the time misidentified as the Column of Antoninus Pius ) were made to serve as pedestals for the statues of SS Peter and Paul; the Minerva of the Capitol was converted into an emblem of Christian Rome ; the Septizodium of Septimius Severus was demolished for building materials. The spatial organization, monumental inscriptions and restorations throughout

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708-590: The Counter-Reformation . He is the most recent pope to date to take on the pontifical name "Sixtus". Felice Piergentile was born on 13 December 1521 at Grottammare , in the Papal States , to Francesco Piergentile (also known as Peretto di Montalto, from the city of origin Montalto delle Marche ), and Mariana da Frontillo. His father had taken refuge in Grottammare to escape the oppression of

767-613: The Duke of Urbino , finding there a job as a gardener. Felice later adopted Peretti as his family name in 1551, and as a cardinal was known as "Cardinal Montalto" (to reflect his affection for his homeland). At the age of 9 years, Felice returned to Montalto to join his uncle in the Franciscan Convent of San Francesco delle Fratte. At the age of 12, he was initiated as a novice of the Franciscan Order , assuming

826-604: The Franciscan order , Cardinal Ghislieri (later Pope Pius V ) and Cardinal Caraffa (later Pope Paul IV ), and from that time his advancement was assured. He was sent to Venice as inquisitor general of the Venetian Holy Inquisition , but was so severe and conducted matters in such a high-handed manner that he became embroiled in quarrels. In 1560, the Venetian government asked for his recall. After

885-678: The Pyrenees , where the leader of opposition was the Arian bishop Athaloc , who had the reputation among his Roman enemies of being virtually a second Arius . Among the secular leaders of the Septimanian insurrection, the counts Granista and Wildigern appealed to Guntram of Burgundy, who saw his opportunity and sent his dux Desiderius . Reccared's army defeated the Arian insurgents and their Catholic allies with great slaughter, Desiderius himself being slain. The next conspiracy broke out in

944-654: The Roman Martyrology , translated to English, reads: "In Seville, Spain, St. Hermenegild, Martyr. He was the son of Liuvigild, the Arian king of the Visigoths. He was imprisoned when he confessed the Catholic faith. When he refused to take communion from the Arian bishop during the Easter service, his perfidious father ordered that he be brought down with an axe. Thus he left this earthly realm and entered Heaven as

1003-589: The bull Immensa Aeterni Dei which reorganised the Roman Curia into departments. In his larger political relations, Sixtus entertained fantastic ambitions, such as the annihilation of the Turks , the conquest of Egypt , the transport of the Holy Sepulchre to Italy, and the accession of his nephew to the throne of France. The situation in which he found himself was difficult: he could not countenance

1062-557: The "greater excommunication ." Jaroslav Pelikan , without giving any more details, says that this edition "proved to be so defective that it was withdrawn". Sixtus V created 33 cardinals in eight consistories during his reign, which included his grandnephew Alessandro Peretti di Montalto and his future successor Ippolito Aldobrandini who would later become Pope Clement VIII. During his pontificate, Sixtus V beatified Ubaldesca Taccini (1587) and canonized one saint, Didacus of Alcalá (10 July 1588). In 1588, Sixtus V published

1121-541: The Byzantines withdrew and took Ingund and her son with them. Hermenegild sought sanctuary in a church. Liuvigild would not violate the sanctuary. He sent Reccared inside to speak with Hermenegild and to offer peace. That was accepted, and peace was made for some time. Goiswintha, however, brought about another alienation within the family. Hermenegild was imprisoned in Tarragona or Toledo . During his captivity in

1180-583: The Frankish Kingdom, where her son remained under her and her mother's custody. Hermenegild's reputation as a Catholic martyr is not present in contemporary Spanish accounts, such as John of Biclaro 's Chronicon continuans Victorem Tunnunensem and Isidore of Seville 's Historia de regibus Gothorum, Vandalorum et Suevorum , which mention only his revolt and not his conversion. The French chronicler Gregory of Tours , in his Decem Libri Historiarum , recounts Hermenegild's conversion and credits it as

1239-490: The Hispano-Roman population were Chalcedonian Christians . The bishop Leander of Seville was instrumental in converting the elder son and heir of Leovigild, Hermenegild , to Chalcedonianism. Leander supported his rebellion and was exiled for his role. When King Leovigild died, within a few weeks of April 21, 586, bishop Leander was swift to return to Toledo. The new king had been associated with his father in ruling

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1298-545: The accession of Pius V, who made him apostolic vicar of his order and then, in 1570, cardinal . During the pontificate of his political enemy Gregory XIII (1572–1585), Cardinal Montalto, as he was generally called, lived in enforced retirement, occupied with the care of his property, the Villa Montalto, erected by Domenico Fontana close to the cardinal's beloved church on the Esquiline Hill , overlooking

1357-594: The aid of the Byzantine Empire , but it was occupied with defending itself from territorial incursions by the Sasanian Empire . For a time, Hermenegild had the support of the Suebi , who had been defeated by Liuvigild in 579, but he forced them to capitulate once again in 583. Hermenegild fled to Seville and when it fell to a siege in 584, he went to Córdoba . After Liuvigild paid 30,000 pieces of gold,

1416-541: The ancient Baths of Diocletian . The first phase (1576–1580) of the building was enlarged after Peretti became pope and was able to clear buildings to open four new streets in 1585–86. The villa contained two residences, the Palazzo Sistino or "Palazzo di Termini" and the casino, called the Palazzetto Montalto e Felice . This clearance programme was an undoubted gain in the relief it brought to

1475-585: The bishops took upon themselves the nobles' right to select a king from among the royal family, the transfer of power was complete. By this time the remaining ethnic distinction between the increasingly Romanized Visigoths and their Hispano-Roman subjects had all but disappeared (the Gothic language lost its last and probably already declining function as a church language with the extirpation of Arianism, and dress and funerary customs also cease to be distinguishing features in ca. 570/580) Reportedly Reccared engaged in

1534-752: The canons of five synods during Reccared's reign, E. A. Thompson could find none disadvantaging the Jewish community. The information for the rest of Reccared's reign is scanty. John of Biclaro , Reccared's contemporary, ends his account with the Third Council of Toledo. Isidore of Seville , bishop Leander's brother, praises his peaceful government, clemency, and generosity: standard encomia. He returned various properties, even some private ones, that had been confiscated by his father, and founded many churches and monasteries. Pope Gregory, writing to Reccared in August 599 ( Epp . ix. 61, 122), extols him for embracing

1593-487: The cause of his rebellion; however, he judges Hermenegild harshly as a traitor. Of Hermenegild, Gregory wrote: "Poor prince, he did not realize that the judgment of God hangs over anyone who makes such plans against his own father, even if that father be a heretic." It is the Italian Pope Gregory I who first identifies Hermenegild as a martyr. Writing in his Dialogues , Pope Gregory states that Hermenegild

1652-672: The city reinforced the control, surveillance, and authority that alluded to his power. The subsequent administrative system of the Catholic Church owed much to Sixtus. He limited the College of Cardinals to seventy. He doubled the number of the congregations and enlarged their functions, assigning to them the principal role in the transaction of business (1588). He regarded the Jesuits with disfavour and suspicion. He considered radical changes to their constitution, but death prevented

1711-773: The completion of the dome of St. Peter's ; the loggia of Sixtus in the Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano ; the chapel of the Praesepe in Santa Maria Maggiore ; additions or repairs to the Quirinal , Lateran and Vatican palaces; the erection of four obelisks , including that in Saint Peter's Square ; the opening of six streets; the restoration of the aqueduct of Septimius Severus (" Acqua Felice ");

1770-574: The comprehensive planning that had come to fruition during his retirement, bringing water to the waterless hills via his new aqueduct , the Acqua Felice which fed twenty-seven new fountains; laying out new arteries in Rome, which connected the great basilicas, even setting his engineer-architect Domenico Fontana to replan the Colosseum as a silk-spinning factory housing its workers. Inspired by

1829-451: The congestion of the crowded medieval city. Clearly, however, Romans displaced by it were furious, and resentment was still felt centuries later until the decision was taken to build Roma Termini railway station , inaugurated by Pope Pius IX in 1863, on the site of the Villa, which became doomed to destruction. Cardinal Montalto's other occupation at this period was with his studies, one of

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1888-480: The designs of those he considered as heretical princes, and yet he mistrusted King Philip II of Spain and viewed with apprehension any extension of his power. Sixtus agreed to renew the excommunication of Queen Elizabeth I of England , and to grant a large subsidy to the Armada of Philip II, but, knowing the slowness of Spain, would give nothing until the expedition actually landed in England. This way, he saved

1947-553: The establishment of a new "Monti" and by levying new taxes, he accumulated a vast surplus, which he stored up against certain specified emergencies, such as a crusade or the defence of the Holy See . Sixtus prided himself upon his hoard, but the method by which it had been amassed was financially unsound: some of the taxes proved ruinous, and the withdrawal of so much money from circulation could not fail to cause distress. Immense sums were spent upon public works, in carrying through

2006-652: The execution of his purpose. In 1588, he established the 15 congregations by his constitution Immensa Aeterni Dei . In May 1587, the Sixtine Septuagint was published under the auspices of Sixtus V. In May 1590 the Sixtine Vulgate was issued. The edition was preceded by the Bull Aeternus ille , in which the Pope declared the authenticity of the new Bible. The bull stipulated "that it

2065-417: The fruits of which was an edition of the works of Ambrose . As pope he would personally supervise the printing of an improved edition of Jerome's Vulgate . Though not neglecting to follow the course of affairs, Felice carefully avoided every occasion of offence. This discretion contributed not a little to his election to the papacy on 24 April 1585, with the title of Sixtus V to honour Pope Sixtus IV , also

2124-518: The ideal of the Renaissance city, Pope Sixtus V's ambitious urban reform programme transformed the old environment to emulate the "long straight streets, wide regular spaces, uniformity and repetitiveness of structures, lavish use of commemorative and ornamental elements, and maximum visibility from both linear and circular perspective." The Pope set no limit to his plans, and achieved much in his short pontificate, always carried through at top speed:

2183-633: The integration of the Leonine City in Rome as XIV rione ( Borgo ). Besides numerous roads and bridges, he improved the city's air by financing the reclamation of the Pontine Marshes . Good progress was made, with more than 9,500 acres (38 km ) reclaimed and opened to agriculture and manufacture. The project was abandoned upon his death. Sixtus had no appreciation of antiquities, which were employed as raw material to serve his urbanistic and Christianising programs: Trajan's Column and

2242-463: The king's name in May 589, set the tone for the new Catholic kingdom. The public confession of the king, read aloud by a notary, reveals by the emphatic clarity of its theological points and its quotations of scripture that it was ghost-written for the king. Bishop Leander also delivered the triumphant closing sermon, which his brother Isidore entitled Homilia de triumpho ecclesiae ob conversionem Gothorum

2301-472: The kingdom and was acclaimed king by the Visigothic nobles without opposition. In January 587, Reccared renounced Arianism for Chalcedonianism, the single great event of his reign and the turning point for Visigothic Hispania. Most Arian nobles and ecclesiastics followed his example, certainly those around him at Toledo, but there were Arian uprisings, notably in Septimania, his northernmost province, beyond

2360-477: The latter would be that the soul of the unborn child would be denied Heaven. Sixtus also attempted in 1586 to introduce into the secular law in Rome the Old Testament penalty for adultery , which is death. The measure ultimately failed. Sixtus V died on 27 August 1590 from malaria . The pope became ill with a fever on 24 August which intensified the following day. As Sixtus V lay on his deathbed, he

2419-540: The name of Fra Felice (Friar Felix) in 1535, maintaining his birth name. From this year, he started philosophical and theological studies, moving between different convents of the Order. He finally completed his studies in the Franciscan Magna Domus of Bologna on September 1544. Three years earlier he had been ordained as a deacon. About 1552 he was noticed by Cardinal Rodolfo Pio da Carpi , Protector of

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2478-501: The offspring of a Christian and a Jew be baptised, which was of little moment to the Jewish community, as whether it was not born of a Jewish mother or was born of a Jewish woman outside her community, the child was not considered a Jew anyway. Reccared eliminated the death penalty for Jews convicted of proselytising among Christians and ignored Gregory's request that the trade in Christian slaves at Narbonne be forbidden to Jews. Among

2537-535: The penalty of excommunication relating to the Roman Catholic Church's teaching on contraception and on abortion . While the Church taught that abortion and contraception were gravely sinful actions, it did not apply to all mortal sins the additional penalty of excommunication . Some theologians argued that only after proof of the "quickening" (when the mother can feel the fetus's movement in her womb, usually about 20 weeks into gestation) that there

2596-466: The prevailing lawlessness. Thousands of brigands were brought to justice: within a short time, the country was again quiet and safe. It was claimed that there were more heads on spikes across the Ponte Sant'Angelo than melons for sale in the marketplace. And clergy and nuns were executed if they broke their vows of chastity. Next Sixtus set to work to repair the finances. By the sale of offices,

2655-411: The prospect of his conversion to Catholicism raised Sixtus V's hopes, and to a corresponding degree determined Philip II to tighten his grip upon his wavering ally. The Pope's negotiations with Henry's representative evoked a bitter and menacing protest and a categorical demand for the performance of promises. Sixtus took refuge in evasion and temporised until his death on 27 August 1590. Sixtus extended

2714-546: The religious exiles, who were generally reticent in their complaints. Allen carefully consigned his publication to the fire, and it is only known of through one of Elizabeth's spies, who had stolen a copy. Sixtus excommunicated King Henry III of Navarre , who was the heir presumptive to the throne of France, and contributed to the Catholic League , but he chafed under his forced alliance with King Philip II of Spain, and looked for an escape. The victories of Henry and

2773-553: The son of Saint Hermenegild and Ingund , and his mother as Flavia Juliana, a daughter of Peter Augustus and niece of the Emperor Maurice . This imperial connection is disputed by Christian Settipani , who says that the only source for Athanagild's marriage to Flavia Julia is José Pellicer , who he claims to be a forger. Reccared I Reccared I (or Recared ; Latin : Flavius Reccaredus ; Spanish : Flavio Recaredo ; c. 559 – December 601; reigned 586–601)

2832-418: The south to govern on his behalf. There, he came under the influence of Leander of Seville , the older brother of Isidore of Seville . Hermenegild was converted to Chalcedonian Christianity. His family demanded for him to return to Arianism, but he refused. Around then, he led a revolt against Liuvigild. Contemporary accounts attribute that to politics, rather than primarily religious differences. He asked for

2891-619: The tower of Seville, an Arian bishop was sent to Hermenegild for Easter but he would not accept the Eucharist from him. King Liuvigild ordered him beheaded; he was executed on 13 April 585. He had one son by his wife named Athanagild after his matrilineal great-grandfather king Athanagild . They both tried to seek refuge in Constantinople after his execution, but it was refused while they were already in Sicily . She then returned to

2950-675: The true faith and inducing his people to do so, and notably for refusing the bribes offered by Jews to procure the repeal of a law against them. He sent Reccared a piece of the True Cross , some fragments of the chains of St. Peter , and some hairs of St. John the Baptist . Reccared was married to Baddo and possibly to Chlodoswintha . He died a natural death at Toledo and was succeeded by his youthful son Liuva II . Pope Sixtus V Pope Sixtus V ( Italian : Sisto V ; 13 December 1521 – 27 August 1590), born Felice Piergentile ,

3009-471: The west, Lusitania , headed by Sunna , the Arian bishop of Mérida , and count Seggo . Claudius , Reccared's dux Lusitaniae , put down the rising, Sunna being banished to Mauritania and Seggo retiring to Gallaecia . In the later part of 588 a third conspiracy was headed by the Arian bishop Uldila and the queen dowager Goiswintha , but they were detected, and the bishop was banished. The Third Council of Toledo , organized by St. Leander but convened in

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3068-573: The whole church by Pope Urban VIII . Saint Hermenegild became celebrated through artistic representation such as poetry, painting, and plays. One example of this is El mártir del sacramento, San Hermenegildo , a Eucharistic play written in the 1680s by the Mexican nun Juana Inés de la Cruz . Another example is the Italian Cardinal Francesco Sforza Pallavicino 's 1644 tragedy Ermenegildo martire , which

3127-488: Was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 24 April 1585 to his death, in August 1590. As a youth, he joined the Franciscan order, where he displayed talents as a scholar and preacher, and enjoyed the patronage of Pius V , who made him a cardinal . As a cardinal, he was known as Cardinal Montalto . As Pope, he energetically rooted out corruption and lawlessness across Rome, and launched

3186-478: Was incontrovertible evidence that ensoulment had already occurred. Until Sixtus V, canon lawyers had applied the code from Gratian whereby excommunications were only given to abortions after the quickening. In 1588 the pope issued a papal bull, Effraenatam or Effrenatam ("Without Restraint"), which declared that the canonical penalty of excommunication would be levied for any form of contraception and for abortions at any stage in fetal development. The reasoning on

3245-477: Was killed after refusing communion from an Arian bishop. Pope Gregory credited Hermenegild's death as inspiring his brother Reccared's conversion, and thus the conversion of the Visigoth kingdom, saying that Reccared "could never have effected all this, if king Hermigildus had not died for the testimony of true religion; for, as it is written: Unless the grain of wheat falling into the earth doth die, itself remaineth alone; but if it die it bringeth forth much fruit." It

3304-448: Was loathed by his political subjects, but history has recognized him as one of the most important popes. On the negative side, he could be impulsive, obstinate, severe, and autocratic. On the positive side, he was open to large ideas and threw himself into his undertakings with energy and determination; this often led to success. His pontificate saw great enterprises and great achievements. About 5,000 bandits were executed by Sixtus V in

3363-473: Was the king of the Visigoths , ruling in Hispania , Gallaecia and Septimania . His reign marked a climactic shift in history, with the king's renunciation of Arianism in favour of Roman Christianity in 587. Reccared was the younger son of King Leovigild by his first wife. Like his father, Reccared had his capital at Toledo . The Visigothic kings and nobles were traditionally Arian Christians , while

3422-422: Was the son of Ardabast, who had journeyed from the Byzantine Empire to Hispania during the time of Chindasuinth , and married Chindasuinth's niece Goda. Ardabast (or Artavasdos), was probably an Armenian or Persian Christian exile in Constantinople or in Byzantine Africa . In Hispania he was made a count. 17th-century Spanish genealogist Luis Bartolomé de Salazar y Castro gave Ardabast's father as Athanagild,

3481-432: Was to be considered as the authentic edition recommended by the Council of Trent , that it should be taken as the standard of all future reprints, and that all copies should be corrected by it." "This edition was not to be reprinted for 10 years except at the Vatican, and after that any edition must be compared with the Vatican edition, so that "not even the smallest particle should be altered, added or removed" under pain of

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