132-709: Hernando de Soto ( / d ə ˈ s oʊ t oʊ / ; Spanish: [eɾˈnando ðe ˈsoto] ; c. 1497 – 21 May 1542) was a Spanish explorer and conquistador who was involved in expeditions in Nicaragua and the Yucatan Peninsula . He played an important role in Francisco Pizarro 's conquest of the Inca Empire in Peru, but is best known for leading the first European expedition deep into
264-461: A chevron pattern made in Venice for a limited period of time and believed to be indicative of the de Soto expedition. Six metal objects were also found, including a silver pendant and some iron tools. The rarest items were found within what researchers believe was a large council house of the indigenous people whom de Soto was visiting. The expedition continued to present-day South Carolina . There
396-478: A certain respect and fear among the natives. In a letter addressed to the King of Spain, he expressed, somewhat ironically, that he had to act as a conciliatory force during the course of his expeditions. He succeeded in planting corn , received fresh supplies from Hispaniola and Spain, and got his men accustomed to life as explorers in the new territories. Balboa managed to collect a great deal of gold, much of it from
528-805: A chapel be erected within the Church of San Miguel in Jerez de Los Caballeros, Spain, where De Soto grew up, at a cost of 2,000 ducats, with an altarpiece featuring the Virgin Mary, Our Lady of the Conception , that his tomb be covered in a fine black broadcloth topped by a red cross of the Order of the Knights of Santiago , and on special occasions a pall of black velvet with the De Soto coat of arms be placed on
660-674: A child at each place, De Soto stipulated in his will that his body be interred at Jerez de los Caballeros, where other members of his family were buried. A few years before his birth, the Kingdoms of Castille and Aragon conquered the last Islamic kingdom of the Iberian Peninsula . Spain and Portugal were filled with young men seeking a chance for military fame after the defeat of the Moors . With Christopher Columbus 's discovery of new lands (which he thought to be East Asia ) across
792-591: A consensus (although not total) to end the expedition and try to find a way home, either down the Mississippi River, or overland across Texas to the Spanish colony of Mexico City . They decided that building boats would be too difficult and time-consuming and that navigating the Gulf of Mexico was too risky, so they headed overland to the southwest. Eventually, they reached a region in present-day Texas that
924-448: A fever on 21 May 1542, in the native village of Guachoya . Historical sources disagree as to whether de Soto died near present-day Lake Village, Arkansas McArthur, Arkansas , or Ferriday, Louisiana . Louisiana erected a historical marker at the estimated site on the western bank of the Mississippi River. Before his death, de Soto chose Luis de Moscoso Alvarado , his former maestro de campo (or field commander), to assume command of
1056-439: A few native guides, and a pack of dogs. Using a small brigantine and ten native canoes , they sailed along the coast and made landfall in cacique Careta's territory. On September 6, the expedition continued, now reinforced with 1,000 of Careta's men, and entered cacique Ponca's land. Ponca had reorganized and attacked, but he was defeated and forced to ally himself with Balboa. After a few days, and with several of Ponca's men,
1188-405: A fortified city in southern Alabama, to receive the women. De Soto gave the chief a pair of boots and a red cloak to reward him for his cooperation. The Mobilian tribe, under chief Tuskaloosa, ambushed de Soto's army. Other sources suggest de Soto's men were attacked after attempting to force their way into a cabin occupied by Tuskaloosa. The Spaniards fought their way out, and retaliated by burning
1320-593: A group of soldiers commanded by Francisco Pizarro , who arrested him in the name of the governor and accused him of trying to usurp Pedrarias' power and create a separate government in the South Sea. Outraged, Balboa denied all charges and demanded that he be taken to Spain to stand trial. Pedrarias, together with Martin Enciso, ordered that the trial take place without delay. Balboa's trial began in January 1519 and on
1452-421: A high probability, making it efficient to concentrate on the areas of high probability when they are found, and for the skipping areas of very low probability. Once an anomaly has been identified and interpreted to be a prospect, more detailed exploration of the potential reserve can be done by soil sampling, drilling, seismic surveys, and similar methods to assess the most appropriate method and type of mining and
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#17327724047771584-482: A kingdom to the south, where people were so rich that they ate and drank from plates and goblets made of gold, but that the conquerors would need at least a thousand men to defeat the tribes living inland and those on the coast of "the other sea". Balboa received the unexpected news of a new kingdom – rich in gold – with great interest. He returned to Santa María at the beginning of 1513 to recruit more men from Hispaniola. There he learned that Fernández de Enciso had told
1716-564: A month resting the horses while his men searched for gold. De Soto next entered eastern Tennessee . At this point, de Soto either continued along the Tennessee River to enter Alabama from the north (according to John R. Swanton ), or turned south and entered northern Georgia (according to Charles M. Hudson ). Swanton's final report, published by the Smithsonian, remains an important resource but Hudson's reconstruction of
1848-520: A more open government was established and a municipal council was elected (the first in the Americas). Two alcaldes were appointed: Martín Samudio and Vasco Núñez de Balboa. Shortly after this, a flotilla led by Rodrigo Enrique de Colmenares arrived in Santa María. His objective was to find Nicuesa, who was also facing some difficulties in the north of Panamá. When de Colmenares learned about
1980-764: A passage between the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean to enable trade with the Orient, the richest market in the world. Failing that, and without means to explore further, de Soto, upon Pedro Arias Dávila 's death, left his estates in Nicaragua. Bringing his own men on ships which he hired, de Soto joined Francisco Pizarro at his first base of Tumbes shortly before departure for the interior of present-day Peru . Pizarro quickly made de Soto one of his captains. When Pizarro and his men first encountered
2112-613: A passage to China or the Pacific coast. De Soto died in 1542 on the banks of the Mississippi River; sources disagree on the exact location, whether it was what is now Lake Village, Arkansas , or Ferriday, Louisiana . Hernando de Soto was born around the late 1490s or early 1500s in Extremadura , Spain, to parents who were both hidalgos , nobility of modest means. The region was poor and many people struggled to survive; young people looked for ways to seek their fortune elsewhere. He
2244-401: A pitched battle with Inca troops in front of the city, but the battle had ended before Pizarro arrived with the rest of the Spanish party. The Inca army withdrew during the night. The Spanish plundered Cuzco, where they found much gold and silver. As a mounted soldier, de Soto received a share of the plunder, which made him very wealthy. It represented riches from Atahualpa's camp, his ransom, and
2376-469: A platform. The executioner beheaded Balboa and his four friends with an axe. Balboa's head did not come off clean on the first try; it took three. Their heads remained in public display for several days, as a sign of Pedrarias' might. The final location of Balboa's remains is unknown, partly because there is no record of what happened in Acla after the execution. Gaspar de Espinosa, Pedrarias' underling, sailed
2508-450: A public office in León, Nicaragua . Brave leadership, unwavering loyalty, and ruthless schemes for the extortion of native villages for their captured chiefs became de Soto's hallmarks during the conquest of Central America . He gained fame as an excellent horseman, fighter, and tactician. During that time, de Soto was influenced by the achievements of Iberian explorers: Juan Ponce de León ,
2640-469: A settlement in the region after her should they prevail. It was a difficult battle for both sides, but the Spanish were victorious. Cémaco, with his warriors, abandoned the town and headed for the jungle. The Spanish plundered the houses and gathered a treasure-trove of golden ornaments. Balboa kept his vow. In September 1510, he founded the first permanent settlement on mainland American soil, and called it Santa María la Antigua del Darién . The victory of
2772-462: A squabble among the Spaniards, unsatisfied by the meager amounts of gold they were being allotted. Comogre's eldest son, Panquiaco, angered by the Spaniards' avarice, knocked over the scales used to measure gold and exclaimed: "If you are so hungry for gold that you leave your lands to cause strife in those of others, I shall show you a province where you can quell this hunger." Panquiaco told them of
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#17327724047772904-492: A standard with the image of the Virgin Mary in the other, walked knee-deep into the ocean, and claimed possession of the new sea and all adjoining lands in the name of the Spanish sovereigns. After traveling more than 110 km (68 mi), Balboa named the bay where they ended up San Miguel , because they arrived on September 29, the feast day of the archangel Michael . He named the new sea Mar del Sur , since they had traveled south to reach it. Balboa's main purpose in
3036-404: A world map that depicted all of Earth's continents. Underwater exploration is the exploration of any underwater environment , either by direct observation by the explorer, or by remote observation and measurement under the direction of the investigators. Systematic, targeted exploration, with simultaneous survey, and recording of data, followed by data processing, interpretation and publication,
3168-453: Is disputed only in minor details. His route beyond Mabila is contested. Swanton reported the de Soto trail ran from there through Mississippi , Arkansas , and Texas . Historians have more recently considered archeological reconstructions and the oral history of the various Native American peoples who recount the expedition. Most historical places have been overbuilt and much evidence has been lost. More than 450 years have passed between
3300-496: Is not known. According to one source, de Soto's men hid his corpse in blankets weighted with sand and sank it in the middle of the Mississippi River during the night. De Soto's expedition had explored La Florida for three years without finding the expected treasures or a hospitable site for colonization. They had lost nearly half their men, and most of the horses. By this time, the soldiers were wearing animal skins for clothing. Many were injured and in poor health. The leaders came to
3432-788: Is the exploration of manmade structures, usually abandoned ruins or hidden components of the manmade environment. Photography and historical interest/documentation are heavily featured in the hobby, sometimes involving trespassing onto private property. The activity presents various risks, including physical danger and, if done illegally and/or without permission, the possibility of arrest and punishment. Some activities associated with urban exploration violate local or regional laws and certain broadly interpreted anti-terrorism laws , or can be considered trespassing or invasion of privacy. Traditionally, mineral exploration relied on direct observation of mineralisation in rock outcrops or in sediments. More recently, however, mineral exploration also includes
3564-457: Is the justice that the King and his lieutenant Pedro Arias de Ávila impose upon these men, traitors and usurpers of the Crown's territories." Balboa could not restrain his indignation and replied: "Lies, lies! Never have such crimes held a place in my heart, I have always loyally served the King, with no thought in my mind but to increase his dominions." Pedrarias observed the execution, hidden behind
3696-423: Is the most effective method to increase understanding of the ocean and other underwater regions, so they can be effectively managed, conserved, regulated, and their resources discovered, accessed, and used. Less than 10% of the ocean has been mapped in any detail, even less has been visually observed , and the total diversity of life and distribution of populations is similarly incompletely known. Space exploration
3828-487: Is the use of astronomy and space technology to explore outer space . While the exploration of space is currently carried out mainly by astronomers with telescopes , its physical exploration is conducted both by uncrewed robotic space probes and human spaceflight . Space exploration, like its classical form astronomy , is one of the main sources for space science . While the observation of objects in space, known as astronomy, predates reliable recorded history , it
3960-659: The Americas , along with Juan de la Cosa , on Rodrigo de Bastidas ' expedition. Bastidas had a license to bring back treasure for the king and queen, while keeping four-fifths for himself, under a policy known as the quinto real , or "royal fifth". In 1501, he crossed the Caribbean coasts from the east of Panama , along the Colombian coast, through the Gulf of Urabá toward Cabo de la Vela . The expedition continued to explore
4092-584: The Caddo River , where they clashed with a Native American tribe called the Tula in October 1541. The Spaniards characterized them as the most skilled and dangerous warriors they had encountered. This may have happened in the area of present-day Caddo Gap, Arkansas (a monument to the de Soto expedition was erected in that community). Eventually, the Spaniards returned to the Mississippi River. De Soto died of
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4224-467: The Gulf of Mexico to meet two ships bearing fresh supplies from Havana . De Soto demanded women and servants, and when Tuskaloosa refused, the European explorers took him hostage. The expedition began making plans to leave the next day, and Tuskaloosa gave in to de Soto's demands, providing bearers for the Spaniards. He informed de Soto that they would have to go to his town of Mabila (or Mauvila ),
4356-554: The Ice Age land bridge from Siberia to Alaska, and moved southwards to settle in the Americas. For the most part, these cultures were ignorant of each other's existence. The second period of exploration, occurring over the last 10,000 years, saw increased cross-cultural exchange through trade and exploration, and marked a new era of cultural intermingling, and more recently, convergence. Early writings about exploration date back to
4488-581: The Pánuco River and the Spanish frontier town of Pánuco . There they rested for about a month. During this time many of the Spaniards, having safely returned and reflecting on their accomplishments, decided they had left La Florida too soon. There were some fights within the company, leading to some deaths. But, after they reached Mexico City and the Viceroy Don Antonio de Mendoza offered to lead another expedition to La Florida , few of
4620-462: The Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire . He was admitted into the prestigious Order of Santiago and "granted the right to conquer Florida". His share was awarded to him by the King of Spain, and he received 724 marks of gold, and 17,740 pesos. He married Isabel de Bobadilla , daughter of Pedrarias Dávila and a relative of a confidante of Queen Isabella . De Soto petitioned King Charles to lead
4752-595: The Uzita while searching for the lost Narváez expedition ; he later escaped to Mocoso . Ortiz had learned the Timucua language and served as an interpreter to de Soto as he traversed the Timucuan-speaking areas on his way to Apalachee . Ortiz developed a method for guiding the expedition and communicating with the various tribes, who spoke many dialects and languages. He recruited guides from each tribe along
4884-542: The anthropologist John R. Swanton published The Final Report of the United States De Soto Expedition Commission in 1939. Among other locations, Manatee County, Florida , claims an approximate landing site for de Soto and has a national memorial recognizing that event. In the early 21st century, the first part of the expedition's course, up to de Soto's battle at Mabila (a small fortress town in present-day central Alabama ),
5016-484: The conquest of Tierra Firme (the area roughly corresponding to the Isthmus of Panama ). He created two new territories in the region between El Cabo de la Vela (near the eastern border of Colombia) and El Cabo de Gracias a Dios (the border between Honduras and Nicaragua ). The Gulf of Urabá became the border between the two territories: Nueva Andalucía to the east, governed by Alonso de Ojeda , and Veragua to
5148-476: The hidalgo (nobleman), Nuño Arias de Balboa. Little is known of Vasco's early childhood except that he was the third of four boys in his family. During his adolescence, he served as a page and squire to Don Pedro de Portocarrero, lord of Moguer . In 1500, motivated by his master after the news of Christopher Columbus 's voyages to the New World became known, he decided to embark on his first voyage to
5280-498: The 4th millennium B.C. in ancient Egypt . One of the earliest and most impactful thinkers on exploration was Ptolemy in the 2nd century AD. Between the 5th century and 15th century AD, most exploration was done by Chinese and Arab explorers. This was followed by the Age of Discovery after European scholars rediscovered the works of early Latin and Greek geographers. While the Age of Discovery
5412-714: The Dabaibe region, along the Atrato river, for there was a rumour of the existence of a temple filled with vast riches there. However, this expedition turned out to be a failure, leaving Balboa wounded due to constant attacks by the region's natives. This setback, however, did not deter Balboa's ambitions of returning to explore the South Sea. Secretly, he arranged to recruit a contingent of men from Cuba . The ship carrying them berthed just outside Santa María, and its caretaker informed Balboa of their arrival, receiving in return 70 gold castellanos. Pedrarias, however, soon found out about
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5544-607: The Gulf of Mexico. From their winter location in the western panhandle of Florida, having heard of gold being mined "toward the sun's rising", the expedition turned northeast through what is now the modern state of Georgia . Based on archaeological finds made in 2009 at a remote, privately owned site near the Ocmulgee River , researchers believe that de Soto's expedition stopped in Telfair County . Artifacts found here include nine glass trade beads , some of which bear
5676-440: The King instructed Pedrarias to show Balboa the greatest respect and to consult him on all matters pertaining to the conquest and government of Castilla de Oro. Because of all this, Pedrarias was to release and exonerate Balboa, lifting all charges brought up against him in the matter of the clandestine recruitment of an expeditionary party. At that point, the rivalry between Balboa and Pedrarias ceased abruptly, due in large part to
5808-489: The Napituca Massacre, the first large-scale massacre by Europeans in the current United States. One of Soto’s most important battles with the natives, along his conquest of Florida, was a 1539 battle with Chief Vitachuco. Unlike other native chiefs who entered into peace with the Spanish, Vitachuco did not trust them and had secretly plotted to kill Soto and his army, but he was betrayed by interpreters who told Soto
5940-632: The Richardson/UF Village site (8AL100) in Alachua County , west of Orange Lake , appears to have been accepted by archaeologists as the site of the town of Potano visited by the de Soto expedition. The 17th-century mission of San Buenaventura de Potano is believed to have been founded here. Many archaeologists believe the Parkin Archeological State Park in northeast Arkansas was the main town for
6072-496: The South Sea aboard the very ships that Balboa had commissioned. In 1520, Ferdinand Magellan renamed the sea the Pacific Ocean because of its calm waters. Although Balboa suffered a premature death and is alleged to have used dogs to commit brutal executions against indigenous people, his actions and deeds are remembered by history as the first European to cross America . Several parks and avenues throughout Panama bear
6204-408: The South Sea, but Pedrarias did everything possible to delay his departure. In light of the new relationship between them, Pedrarias could not stop him indefinitely, and he finally consented to let Balboa go on his new expedition, giving him license to explore for a year and a half. In 1519, Balboa moved to Acla with 300 men and, using the manpower of the natives and African slaves, managed to gather
6336-468: The Spanish held Atahualpa captive in Cajamarca for months while his subjects paid for his ransom by filling a room with gold and silver objects. During this captivity, de Soto became friendly with Atahualpa and taught him to play chess . By the time the ransom had been completed, the Spanish became alarmed by rumors of an Inca army advancing on Cajamarca. Pizarro sent de Soto with 200 soldiers to scout for
6468-403: The Spanish over the natives and the founding of Santa María la Antigua del Darién, now located in a relatively calm region, earned Balboa authority and respect among his companions. They were increasingly hostile toward Alcalde Mayor Fernández de Enciso, whom they considered a greedy despot because of the restrictions he imposed on their appropriation of the natives' gold. Balboa took advantage of
6600-554: The activity of other members of the group. Geographical exploration, sometimes considered the default meaning for the more general term exploration, is the practice of discovering lands and regions of the planet Earth remote or relatively inaccessible from the origin of the explorer. The surface of the Earth not covered by water has been relatively comprehensively explored, as access is generally relatively straightforward, but underwater and subterranean areas are far less known, and even at
6732-632: The altar; that a chaplain be hired at the salary of 12,000 maravedis to perform five masses every week for the souls of De Soto, his parents, and wife; that thirty masses be said for him the day his body was interred, and twenty for our Lady of the Conception, ten for the Holy Ghost , sixty for souls in purgatory and masses for many others as well; that 150000 maravedis be given annually to his wife Isabel for her needs and an equal amount used yearly to marry off three orphan damsels...the poorest that can be found," to assist his wife and also serve to burnish
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#17327724047776864-515: The army of Inca Atahualpa at Cajamarca , Pizarro sent de Soto with fifteen men to invite Atahualpa to a meeting. When Pizarro's men attacked Atahualpa and his guard the next day (the Battle of Cajamarca ), de Soto led one of the three groups of mounted soldiers. The Spanish captured Atahualpa. De Soto was sent to the camp of the Inca army, where he and his men plundered Atahualpa's tents. During 1533,
6996-484: The boats. They survived through the winter, and the spring floods delayed them another two months. By July they set off on their makeshift boats down the Mississippi for the coast. Taking about two weeks to make the journey, the expedition encountered hostile fleets of war canoes along the whole course. The first was led by the powerful paramount chief Quigualtam , whose fleet followed the boats, shooting arrows at
7128-596: The change and some were planning to take up arms against Pedrarias, even as Balboa showed respect to the new colonial authorities. As soon as Pedrarias took charge, Gaspar de Espinosa had Balboa arrested and tried "in absentia", sentencing him to pay reparations to Fernández de Enciso and others. He was, however, found innocent of the charge of murdering Nicuesa, so he was freed shortly afterwards. Due to overpopulation in Santa María, Pedrarias called on several expeditionaries to search for new locations fit for settlement. Balboa requested of Pedrarias that he be allowed to explore
7260-509: The city's port, a mob appeared, and the ensuing disturbance prevented the governor from disembarking into the city. Nicuesa insisted on being received, no longer as governor, but as a simple soldier, but still the colonists did not allow him to disembark. He and 17 others were forced to board an unseaworthy boat with few supplies, and were put out to sea on March 1, 1511. The ship disappeared, leaving no trace of Nicuesa and his men. In this way, Balboa became governor ( gobernador ) of Veragua. With
7392-588: The colonial authorities what had happened at Santa María. After seeing that there would be no assistance from Hispaniola, Balboa sent Enrique de Colmenares directly to Spain to seek help. While the expedition to the South Sea (the name at the time of the Pacific Ocean ) was being organized in Santa María, some explorers travelled ten leagues (around 50 km or 30 miles) up the Atrato River toward
7524-429: The crew's pleas for his life, left Fernández de Enciso with no choice but to spare Balboa and keep him aboard. Moreover, both agreed on removing Nicuesa as governor of Veragua. After the 50 days had passed, Pizarro started preparations for the return to Hispaniola, when Enciso's ship arrived. Balboa had gained popularity among the crew because of his charisma and his knowledge of the region. By contrast Fernández de Enciso
7656-882: The economic potential. In all these definitions there is an implication of novelty, or unfamiliarity or the expectation of discovery in the exploration, whereas a survey implies directed examination, but not necessarily discovery of any previously unknown or unexpected information. The activities are not mutually exclusive, and often occur simultaneously to a variable extent. The same field of investigation or region may be explored at different times by different explorers with different motivations, who may make similar or different discoveries. Explorers: General Pre-Renaissance Exploration and Empire The Continents The Oceans The Poles Space Vasco N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez de Balboa Vasco Núñez de Balboa ( Spanish pronunciation: [ˈbasko ˈnuɲeθ ðe βalˈβo.a] ; c. 1475 – around January 12–21, 1519)
7788-421: The end of 1512 and the first months of 1513, he arrived in a region dominated by the cacique Careta, whom he easily defeated and then befriended. Careta was baptized and became one of Balboa's chief allies. He ensured the survival of the settlers by promising to supply the Spaniards with food. Balboa then proceeded on his journey, arriving in the lands of Careta's neighbour and rival, cacique Ponca, who fled to
7920-512: The events and current history tellers, but some oral histories have been found to be accurate about historic events that have been otherwise documented. The Governor Martin Site at the former Apalachee village of Anhaica , located about a mile east of the present Florida capital in Tallahassee , has been documented as definitively associated with de Soto's expedition. The Governor Martin Site
8052-578: The expedition entered the dense jungle on September 20, and, with some difficulty, arrived four days later in the lands of cacique Torecha, who ruled in the village of Cuarecuá. In this village, a fierce battle took place, during which Balboa's forces defeated Torecha, who was killed by one of Balboa's dogs. Torecha's followers decided to join the expedition. The group was by then exhausted and several men were badly wounded, so many decided to stay in Cuarecuá to regain their strength. The few men who continued
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#17327724047778184-487: The expedition recorded being received by a female chief ( The Lady of Cofitachequi ), who gave her tribe's pearls, food and other goods to the Spanish soldiers. The expedition found no gold, however, other than pieces from an earlier coastal expedition (presumably that of Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón .) De Soto headed north into the Appalachian Mountains of present-day western North Carolina , where he spent
8316-404: The expedition was the search for the gold-rich kingdoms promised by Panquiaco. To this end, he crossed through the lands of caciques Coquera and Tumaco, defeating them easily and taking their riches of gold and pearls . He then learned that pearls were abundant in the islands ruled by Terarequí, a powerful and feared cacique . Balboa set out in several canoes towards these islands, even though it
8448-470: The expedition's chaplain, intoned the Te Deum , while the men erected stone pyramids, and engraved crosses on the barks of trees with their swords, to mark the place where the discovery of the South Sea was made. After the moment of discovery, the expedition descended from the mountain range towards the sea, arriving in the lands of cacique Chiapes, who was defeated after a brief battle and invited to join
8580-465: The expedition. At the time of death, de Soto owned four Indian slaves, three horses, and 700 hogs. De Soto had deceived the local natives into believing that he was a deity, specifically an "immortal Son of the Sun ," to gain their submission without conflict. Some of the natives had already become skeptical of de Soto's deity claims, so his men were anxious to conceal his death. The actual site of his burial
8712-579: The expedition. From Chiapes' land, three groups departed in the search for routes to the coast. The group headed by Alonso Martín reached the shoreline two days later. They took a canoe for a short reconnaissance trip, thus becoming the first Europeans to navigate the Pacific Ocean off the coast of the New World. Back in Chiapes' domain, Martín informed Balboa, who, with 26 men, marched towards the coast. Once there, Balboa raised his hands, his sword in one and
8844-426: The fifteenth of that month, Espinosa sentenced him to death by decapitation. Four of Balboa's friends, Fernando de Argüello, Luis Botello, Hernán Muñoz, and Andrés Valderrábano, accused as accomplices, were sentenced to the same fate. The sentence was to be carried out in Acla, to show that the conspiracy had its roots in that colony. As Balboa and his friends were being led to the block, the town crier announced: "This
8976-468: The first European to reach Florida ; Vasco Núñez de Balboa , the first European to reach the Pacific Ocean coast of the Americas (he called it the "South Sea" on the south coast of Panama ); and Ferdinand Magellan , who first sailed that ocean to East Asia . In 1530, de Soto became a regidor of León, Nicaragua . He led an expedition up the coast of the Yucatán Peninsula searching for
9108-781: The government of Guatemala , with "permission to create discovery in the South Sea." He was granted the governorship of Cuba instead. De Soto was expected to colonize the North American continent for Spain within 4 years, for which his family would be given a sizable piece of land. Fascinated by the stories of Cabeza de Vaca , who had survived years in North America after becoming a castaway and had just returned to Spain, de Soto selected 620 Spanish and Portuguese volunteers, including some of mixed-race African descent known as Atlantic Creoles, to accompany him to govern Cuba and colonize North America. Averaging 24 years of age,
9240-443: The indigenous province of Casqui , which de Soto had recorded. They base this on similarities between descriptions from the journals of the de Soto expedition and artifacts of European origin discovered at the site in the 1960s. Theories of de Soto's route are based on the accounts of four chroniclers of the expedition. Milanich and Hudson warn that older translations of the chronicles are often "relatively free translations in which
9372-595: The intercession of Bishop de Quevedo and Isabel de Bobadilla , who arranged for Balboa's marriage to María de Peñalosa, one of Pedrarias' daughters, who was in Spain. Shortly thereafter, the bishop left for Spain and the marriage took place by proxy (they would never meet because she was in Spain and Balboa would never return to his homeland). The friendship between Pedrarias and Balboa lasted barely two years, but in that time Balboa came to show great filial affection toward his father-in-law. Balboa wished to continue exploring
9504-448: The interior, but returned empty handed. Balboa's request for men and supplies had been denied: Enciso's case was by then widely known in the Spanish court . Therefore, Balboa had no choice but to carry out his expedition with the few resources that he had on hand in Santa María. Using information given by various friendly caciques , Balboa started his journey across the Isthmus of Panama on September 1, 1513, together with 190 Spaniards,
9636-521: The journey with Balboa entered the mountain range along the Chucunaque River the next day. According to information from the natives, one could see the South Sea from the summit of this range. Balboa went ahead and, before noon that day, September 25, he reached the summit and saw, far in the horizon, the waters of the undiscovered sea. The emotions were such that the others eagerly joined in to show their joy at Balboa's discovery. Andrés de Vera,
9768-525: The land as Espíritu Santo after the Holy Spirit . The ships carried priests, craftsmen, engineers, farmers, and merchants; some with their families, some from Cuba, most from Europe and Africa. Few of the men had traveled before outside of Spain, or even away from their home villages. Near de Soto's port, the party found Juan Ortiz , a Spaniard living with the Mocoso people. Ortiz had been captured by
9900-436: The location where the city of Cartagena de Indias was later built. The settlers encountered resistance from natives living in the area, who used poisoned weapons, and Ojeda was injured in the leg. A short time later, Ojeda sailed for Hispaniola, leaving the colony under the supervision of Francisco Pizarro , who, at that time, was only a soldier waiting for Enciso's expedition to arrive. Ojeda asked Pizarro to leave some men in
10032-688: The materials necessary to build new ships. He traveled to the Balsas River (Río Balsas), where he had four ships built. He travelled 74 km (46 mi) through the Pacific, surrounding the Pearl Islands and the coasts of Darién, up to Puerto Piñas , so named because of the large amounts of pineapples (piñas) he found there. He then returned to Acla, to continue the construction of sturdier ships. On his return, Pedrarias wrote warm letters urging Balboa to meet him as soon as possible. Balboa quickly obeyed. Halfway to Santa María, he encountered
10164-475: The memory of De Soto as a man of charity and substance. Historians have worked to trace the route of de Soto's expedition in North America, a controversial process over the years. Local politicians vied to have their localities associated with the expedition. The most widely used version of "De Soto's Trail" comes from a study commissioned by the United States Congress . A committee chaired by
10296-463: The men embarked from Havana on seven of the King's ships and two caravels of de Soto's. With tons of heavy armor and equipment, they also carried more than 500 head of livestock, including 237 horses and 200 pigs, for their planned four-year continental expedition. De Soto wrote a new will upon arriving in what is now the Tampa Bay area of Florida. On 10 May 1539, he wrote in his will: That
10428-525: The mountains with his people, leaving his village open to plundering by the Spaniards and Careta's men. Days later, the expedition arrived in the lands of cacique Comogre, fertile but reportedly dangerous terrain. Balboa was received peacefully, and even invited to a feast in his honor; Comogre, like Careta, was then baptized. In 1513, Balboa wrote a lengthy letter to the King of Spain, requesting more men (who were already acclimatized) from Hispaniola, weapons, supplies, carpenters versed in shipbuilding, and all
10560-734: The name "Vasco Núñez de Balboa", and a number of monuments honour his discovery of the South Sea. The Panamanian currency is called the Balboa , and his likeness appears on the obverse of most Panamanian coins. His name is also attached to Panama City 's main port, Balboa (the Pacific entrance to the Panama Canal ) and the Balboa District within Panamá Province to which the Pearl Islands that he discovered belong, and
10692-504: The natural geography has not changed much since de Soto's time, scholars have analyzed those journals with modern topographic intelligence , to develop a more precise account of the De Soto Trail. In May 1539, de Soto landed nine ships with over 620 men and 220 horses in an area generally identified as south Tampa Bay . Historian Robert S. Weddle has suggested that he landed at either Charlotte Harbor or San Carlos Bay . He named
10824-473: The necessary materials for the building of a shipyard . In a subsequent letter, from 1515, he said the "Indians who had been like sheep had become like lions." He would refer to his humanitarian policies regarding the natives, while at the same time recommending extreme severity in dealing with cannibals and violent tribes. It was in Comogre's lands that Balboa first heard of "the other sea". It started with
10956-506: The north east of South America, until they realized they did not have enough men and sailed to Hispaniola . With his share of the earnings from this campaign, Balboa settled in Hispaniola in 1505, where he resided for several years as a planter and pig farmer. He was not successful in this enterprise, and ended up in debt, and was forced to abandon life on the island. In 1508, the king of Spain , Ferdinand II "The Catholic" , launched
11088-464: The ocean to the west, young men were attracted to rumors of adventure, glory and wealth. De Soto sailed to the New World with Pedro Arias Dávila , appointed as the first Governor of Panama . In 1520 he participated in Gaspar de Espinosa 's expedition to Veragua , and in 1524, he participated in the conquest of Nicaragua under Francisco Hernández de Córdoba . There he acquired an encomienda and
11220-441: The ornaments worn by native women, and the rest obtained by violence. The Italian historian Peter Martyr d'Anghiera in his De orbe novo decades describes Balboa unleashing his dogs to kill 40 natives for their apparent sodomy. The writer Genny Beeman believes that this was a persecution of the natives for breaking the gender binary, since the natives had been assigned male at birth but were taking on female gender roles. At
11352-488: The plan. So, Soto struck first and, in the process, killed thousands of natives. Those that survived were surrounded and cornered by woods and water. Thousands were killed during the 3 hours battle and 900 survivors took refuge in the pond, specifically Two-mile Pond in Melrose, where they continued to fight, while swimming. Most eventually surrendered, but after 30 hours in the water, 7 men remained and had to be dragged out of
11484-529: The plunder from Cuzco. On the road to Cuzco, Manco Inca Yupanqui , a brother of Atahualpa, had joined Pizarro. Manco had been hiding from Atahualpa in fear of his life, and was happy to gain Pizarro's protection. Pizarro arranged for Manco to be installed as the Inca leader. De Soto joined Manco in a campaign to eliminate the Inca armies under Quizquiz , a general who had been loyal to Atahualpa. By 1534, de Soto
11616-485: The process of the Columbian Exchange . For instance, some of the swine brought by de Soto escaped and became the ancestors of feral razorback pigs in the southeastern United States . De Soto was instrumental in contributing to the development of a hostile relationship between many Native American tribes and Europeans. When his expedition encountered hostile natives in the new lands, more often than not it
11748-420: The recent events, he convinced the town's settlers that they should submit to the authority of Nicuesa, since their land was under his jurisdiction. Enrique de Colmenares invited two representatives, to be named by the local government, to travel with his flotilla and offer Nicuesa authority over the city. The two representatives were Diego de Albites and Diego del Corral. Enrique de Colmenares found Nicuesa near
11880-537: The regions of Teoca, Pacra, Bugue Bugue, Bononaima, and Chorizo, defeating some by force and befriending others through diplomacy. A particularly bloody battle took place against the cacique Tubanamá, whom Balboa eventually defeated. In December, the expedition arrived back in the Caribbean coast, by the Gulf of San Blas , a strip of land ruled by cacique Pocorosa. From there, he headed to the lands of Comogre, to find that his elderly ally had died. His son, Panquiaco,
12012-616: The river, the expedition continued traveling westward through modern-day Arkansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. They wintered in Autiamique , on the Arkansas River . After a harsh winter, the Spanish expedition decamped and moved on more erratically. Their interpreter Juan Ortiz had died, making it more difficult for them to get directions and food sources, and generally to communicate with the Natives. The expedition went as far inland as
12144-401: The river, which in his view was an obstacle to his mission. There has been considerable research into the exact location where de Soto crossed the Mississippi River. A commission appointed by Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1935 determined that Sunflower Landing, Mississippi , was the "most likely" crossing place. De Soto possibly traveled down Charley's Trace , which had been used as a trail through
12276-530: The route was conducted 40 years later and benefited from considerable advances in archaeological methods. De Soto's expedition spent another month in the Coosa chiefdom a vassal to Tuskaloosa , who was the paramount chief , believed to have been connected to the large and complex Mississippian culture , which extended throughout the Mississippi Valley and its tributaries. De Soto turned south toward
12408-431: The route. A chain of communication was established whereby a guide who had lived in close proximity to another tribal area was able to pass his information and language on to a guide from a neighboring area. Because Ortiz refused to dress as a hidalgo Spaniard, other officers questioned his motives. De Soto remained loyal to Ortiz, allowing him the freedom to dress and live among his native friends. Another important guide
12540-482: The rumored army. While de Soto was gone, the Spanish in Cajamarca decided to kill Atahualpa to prevent his rescue. De Soto returned to report that he found no signs of an army in the area. After executing Atahualpa, Pizarro and his men headed to Cuzco , the capital of the Incan Empire. As the Spanish force approached Cuzco, Pizarro sent his brother Hernando and de Soto ahead with 40 men. The advance guard fought
12672-505: The same ship were two representatives from Balboa, who were to inform the colonial authorities of the situation, and request more men and supplies to continue the conquest of Veragua. Balboa continued defeating various tribes and befriending others, exploring rivers, mountains, and sickly swamps, while always searching for gold and slaves and enlarging his territory. He was able to quell revolts among his men who challenged this authority, and through force, diplomacy, and negotiation, he earned
12804-489: The settlement for 50 days and, if no help arrived at the end of that time, to use all possible means to get back to Hispaniola. Before the expedition arrived at San Sebastián de Urabá, Fernández de Enciso discovered Balboa aboard the ship, and threatened to leave him at the first uninhabited island they encountered. He later reconsidered this and decided that Balboa's knowledge of that region, which he had explored eight years before, would be of great utility. This, in addition to
12936-584: The ship; furious, he had Balboa arrested, took away all his men and was planning to lock him up in a wooden cage. He was held back from doing this by Bishop de Quevedo, who appealed to him not to abuse his power on Balboa. Luckily for Balboa, around that time the Spanish Crown would finally recognize his valuable services. The king bestowed on him the titles of " Adelantado of the South Seas" and " Gobernador of Panama and Coiba ". On top of this,
13068-610: The ships at Mobile Bay , de Soto led them away from the Gulf Coast. He moved into inland Mississippi , most likely near present-day Tupelo , where they spent the winter. In the spring of 1541, de Soto demanded 200 men as porters from the Chickasaw . They refused his demand and attacked the Spanish camp during the night. On 8 May 1541, de Soto's troops reached the Mississippi River . De Soto had little interest in
13200-566: The situation, acting as the spokesman for the disgruntled settlers. He removed Fernández de Enciso from the position of alcalde mayor , using the following legal manoeuvre: Fernández de Enciso was now controlling an area in Veragua, to the west of the Gulf of Urabá; since he was substituting for Alonso de Ojeda, his mandate was illegitimate, because the governor of Veragua was Diego de Nicuesa, not Ojeda; therefore, Fernández de Enciso should be deposed and arrested. After Fernández de Enciso's ouster ,
13332-406: The situation. Pedrarias arrived from Arbolancha, Spain with an expedition of 1,500 men and 17 ships, thereby ensuring that Balboa's requests to the crown for more men and supplies were met. This would be to that date the largest and most complete expedition to leave Spain for the New World . Pedrarias was accompanied on this expedition by Gaspar de Espinosa , who held the office of alcalde mayor ;
13464-518: The soil was more fertile and the natives presented less resistance. Fernández de Enciso gave serious consideration to this suggestion, and the regiment later went to Darién, where the native cacique (chieftain) Cémaco had 500 warriors waiting, ready for battle. The Spanish, fearing the large number of enemy combatants, made a vow to the Virgen de la Antigua , venerated in Seville , that they would name
13596-449: The soldiers for days as they drifted through their territory. The Spanish had no effective offensive weapons on the water, as their crossbows had long since ceased working. They relied on armor and sleeping mats to block the arrows. About 11 Spaniards were killed along this stretch and many more wounded. On reaching the mouth of the Mississippi, they stayed close to the Gulf shore heading south and west. After about 50 days, they made it to
13728-474: The surface, much is still to be discovered in detail in the more remote and inaccessible wilderness areas. Two major eras of geographical exploration occurred in human history: The first, covering most of Human history, saw people moving out of Africa , settling in new lands, and developing distinct cultures in relative isolation. Early explorers settled in Europe and Asia; about 14,000 years ago, some crossed
13860-505: The survivors volunteered. Of the recorded 700 participants at the start, between 300 and 350 survived (311 is a commonly accepted figure). Most of the men stayed in the New World, settling in Mexico, Peru, Cuba, and other Spanish colonies. The Spanish believed that de Soto's excursion to Florida was a failure. They acquired neither gold nor prosperity and founded no colonies. But the expedition had several major consequences. It contributed to
13992-726: The swamps of the Mississippi Delta , to reach the Mississippi River. De Soto and his men spent a month building flatboats, and crossed the river at night to avoid the Native Americans who were patrolling the river. De Soto had hostile relations with the native people in this area. In the late 20th century, research suggests other locations may have been the site of de Soto's crossing, including three locations in Mississippi: Commerce , Friars Point , and Walls , as well as Memphis, Tennessee . Once across
14124-502: The territory of the modern-day United States (through Florida , Georgia , Alabama , North Carolina , South Carolina , Mississippi , and most likely Arkansas ). He is the first European documented as having crossed the Mississippi River . De Soto's North American expedition was a vast undertaking. It ranged throughout what is now the southeastern United States , searching both for gold, which had been reported by various Native American tribes and earlier coastal explorers, and for
14256-454: The title of governor came absolute authority in Santa María and all of Veragua. One of Balboa's first acts as governor was the trial of Fernández de Enciso, accused of usurping the governor's authority. Fernández de Enciso was sentenced to prison and his possessions were confiscated. He was to remain imprisoned only for a short time. Balboa set him free under the condition that he return immediately to Hispaniola and from there to Spain. With him on
14388-531: The town of Nombre de Dios , badly wounded and with few men remaining, on account of a skirmish with local natives. After his rescue, Governor Nicuesa heard about Balboa's exploits, the chieftain Cémaco's bounty, and Santa María's prosperity. He vowed that he would punish Balboa as soon as he gained control of the city, since he regarded his actions as a challenge to his authority in Veragua. A certain Lope de Olano, who
14520-630: The town to the ground. During the nine-hour encounter, about 200 Spaniards died, and 150 more were badly wounded, according to the chronicler Elvas. Twenty more died during the next few weeks. They killed an estimated 2,000–6,000 Native Americans at Mabila, making the battle one of the bloodiest in recorded North American history. The Spaniards won a Pyrrhic victory , as they had lost most of their possessions and nearly one-quarter of their horses. The Spaniards were wounded and sickened, surrounded by enemies and without equipment in an unknown territory. Fearing that word of this would reach Spain if his men reached
14652-517: The translators took considerable liberty with the Spanish and Portuguese text." The chronicles describe de Soto's trail in relation to Havana , from which they sailed; the Gulf of Mexico , which they skirted while traveling inland then turned back to later; the Atlantic Ocean , which they approached during their second year; high mountains, which they traversed immediately thereafter; and dozens of other geographic features along their way, such as large rivers and swamps, at recorded intervals. Given that
14784-669: The travellers, among them Isabel de Bobadilla, Pedrarias' wife. More than 500 men died from starvation or due to the inclemencies of the weather soon after reaching Darién. Fernández de Oviedo was to note that knights covered in silk and brocade, who distinguished themselves valiantly in the Italian Wars , would die, consumed by hunger and fever, due to the nature of the tropical jungle. Balboa received Pedrarias and his representatives in July 1514 and accepted resignedly his replacement as governor and mayor. The settlers, however, did not like
14916-417: The treasure to the king, as the law required. The accusations of Fernández de Enciso, whom Balboa had deposed, and the removal and disappearance of Governor Ojeda, forced the king to name Pedro Arias de Ávila as governor of the newly created province of Castilla de Oro . Arias, better known as Pedrarias Dávila and who would later become notorious for his cruelty, took control of Veragua and managed to calm
15048-409: The use of geologic , geophysical , and geochemical tools to search for anomalies, which can narrow the search area. The area to be prospected should be covered sufficiently to minimize the risk of missing something important, but it can take into account previous experience that certain geological evidence correlates with a very low probability of finding the desired minerals. Other evidence indicates
15180-482: The very same Martín Fernández de Enciso whom Balboa had forced into exile, now as Chief Constable ( Alguacil Mayor ); the royal officer and chronicler Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés ; as well as several captains, among them Juan de Ayora, Pedrarias's lieutenant. There were also several clerics, most notably the Franciscan friar Juan de Quevedo , appointed bishop of Santa María. There were also women among
15312-530: The water by the Spanish. De Soto's first winter encampment was at Anhaica , the capital of the Apalachee people. It is one of the few places on the route where archaeologists have found physical traces of the expedition. The chroniclers described this settlement as being near the "Bay of Horses" . The bay was named for events of the 1527 Narváez expedition , the members of which, dying of starvation, killed and ate their horses while building boats for escape by
15444-403: The way. Hernando de Soto's army seized the food stored in the villages, captured women to be used as slaves for the soldiers' sexual gratification, and forced men and boys to serve as guides and bearers. The army fought two battles with Timucua groups, resulting in heavy Timucua casualties. After defeating the resisting Timucuan warriors, Hernando de Soto had 200 executed, in what was to be called
15576-650: The west, governed by Diego de Nicuesa . In 1509, wishing to escape his creditors in Santo Domingo , Balboa set sail as a stowaway, hiding inside a barrel together with his dog Leoncico , in the expedition commanded by the Alcalde Mayor of Nueva Andalucía, Martín Fernández de Enciso , whose mission it was to aid Alonso de Ojeda, his superior. Ojeda, together with 70 men, had founded the settlement of San Sebastián de Urabá in Nueva Andalucía, on
15708-466: Was a Spanish explorer , governor , and conquistador . He is best known for crossing the Isthmus of Panama to the Pacific Ocean in 1513, becoming the first European to lead an expedition to have seen or reached the Pacific from the New World . He traveled to the New World in 1500 and, after some exploration, settled on the island of Hispaniola . He founded the settlement of Santa María la Antigua del Darién in present-day Colombia in 1510, which
15840-488: Was born in the current province of Badajoz. Three towns— Badajoz , Barcarrota and Jerez de los Caballeros —each claim to be his birthplace. Historian Ursula Lamb writes that the Barcarrota claim can be traced to Inca Garcilaso de la Vega and is probably incorrect, having been written down 45 years after De Soto's death. According to Lamb, his birthplace is most likely Jerez de los Caballeros. Although he spent time as
15972-683: Was discovered by archaeologist B. Calvin Jones in March 1987. It has been preserved as the DeSoto Site Historic State Park . The Hutto/Martin Site, 8MR3447, in southeastern Marion County, Florida , on the Ocklawaha River , is the most likely site of the principal town of Acuera referred to in the accounts of the entrada , as well as the site of the seventeenth-century mission of Santa Lucia de Acuera. As of 2016,
16104-438: Was dry. The native populations were made up mostly of subsistence hunter-gatherers. The soldiers found no villages to raid for food, and the army was still too large to live off the land. They were forced to backtrack to the more developed agricultural regions along the Mississippi, where they began building seven bergantines , or pinnaces . They melted down all the iron, including horse tackle and slave shackles, to make nails for
16236-457: Was his men who instigated the clashes. Exploration Exploration is the process of exploring, an activity which has some expectation of discovery . Organised exploration is largely a human activity, but exploratory activity is common to most organisms capable of directed locomotion and the ability to learn, and has been described in, amongst others, social insects foraging behaviour, where feedback from returning individuals affects
16368-432: Was jailed together with other malcontents, persuaded Santa María's representatives that they would make a serious error in handing control over to Nicuesa, whom he described as cruel, greedy, and able to singlehandedly destroy the city's prosperity. With this evidence, Albites and del Corral fled to Darién ahead of Nicuesa, and informed Balboa and the municipal authorities of the governor's intentions. When Nicuesa arrived at
16500-418: Was not well liked by the men. Many disapproved of his order to return to San Sebastián, especially after discovering, once they had arrived, that the settlement had been completely destroyed and that the natives were already waiting for them, leading to a series of relentless attacks. Balboa suggested that the settlement of San Sebastián be moved to the region of Darién , to the west of the Gulf of Urabá, where
16632-444: Was now the chieftain. From there, he crossed the lands of Ponca and Careta, arriving in Santa María on January 19, 1514, with a treasure in cotton goods, more than 100,000 castellanos worth of gold, to say nothing of the pearls. All this did not compare to the magnitude of the discovery of the South Sea on behalf of Spain. Balboa commanded Pedro de Arbolancha to set sail for Spain with news of this discovery. He also sent one fifth of
16764-548: Was partly driven by land routes outside of Europe becoming unsafe, and a desire for conquest, the 17th century also saw exploration driven by nobler motives, including scientific discovery and the expansion of knowledge about the world. This broader knowledge of the world's geography meant that people were able to make world maps , depicting all land known. The first modern atlas was the Theatrum Orbis Terrarum , published by Abraham Ortelius , which included
16896-581: Was serving as lieutenant governor of Cuzco while Pizarro was building his new capital on the coast; it later became known as Lima . In 1535 King Charles awarded Diego de Almagro , Francisco Pizarro's partner, the governorship of the southern portion of the Inca Empire. When de Almagro made plans to explore and conquer the southern part of the Inca empire (now Chile ), de Soto applied to be his second-in-command, but de Almagro turned him down. De Soto packed up his treasure and returned to Spain. De Soto returned to Spain in 1536, with wealth gathered from plunder in
17028-449: Was the beginning of October and the weather conditions were not favorable. He was barely able to make out the islands, and named the largest one Isla Rica (Rich Island, today known as Isla del Rey ). He named the entire group Archipiélago de las Perlas , which they are still called today. In November, Balboa decided to return to Santa María but by a different route to further expand his territory and procure more gold. He passed through
17160-428: Was the development of large and relatively efficient rockets during the mid-twentieth century that allowed physical extraterrestrial exploration to become a reality. Common rationales for exploring space include advancing scientific research, national prestige, uniting different nations, ensuring the future survival of humanity, and developing military and strategic advantages against other countries. Urban exploration
17292-553: Was the first permanent European settlement on the mainland of the Americas (a settlement by Alonso de Ojeda the previous year at San Sebastián de Urabá had already been abandoned). Balboa was born in Jerez de los Caballeros , Spain . He was a descendant of the Lord mason of the castle of Balboa , on the borders of León and Galicia. His mother was the Lady de Badajoz, and his father was
17424-454: Was the seventeen-year-old boy Perico , or Pedro, from what is now Georgia . He spoke several of the local tribes' languages and could communicate with Ortiz. Perico was taken as a guide in 1540. The Spanish had also captured other Indians, whom they used as slave labor. Perico was treated better due to his value to the Spaniards. The expedition traveled north, exploring Florida's West Coast, and encountering native ambushes and conflicts along
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