Early research and development:
31-587: Merging the networks and creating the Internet: Commercialization, privatization, broader access leads to the modern Internet: Examples of Internet services: The High Performance Computing Act of 1991 (HPCA) is an Act of Congress promulgated in the 102nd United States Congress as (Pub.L. 102–194) on December 9, 1991. Often referred to as the Gore Bill , it was created and introduced by then Senator Al Gore , and led to
62-497: A bill to become an act, the text must pass through both houses with a majority, then be either signed into law by the president of the United States , be left unsigned for ten days (excluding Sundays) while Congress remains in session, or, if vetoed by the president, receive a congressional override from 2 ⁄ 3 of both houses. In the United States, acts of Congress are designated as either public laws , relating to
93-644: A National Research Network submitted to Congress by a group chaired by UCLA professor of computer science Leonard Kleinrock , one of the creators of the ARPANET , which is regarded as the earliest precursor network of the Internet. The bill was enacted on December 9, 1991, and led to the National Information Infrastructure (NII) which Gore referred to as the "Information superhighway". President George H. W. Bush predicted that
124-625: A claim that he had personally invented the Internet. George W. Bush , Gore's opponent in the 2000 presidential election , mocked Gore's claim during his acceptance speech before the Republican National Convention that year. The meaning of the statement, which referred to his legislative support of key technologies in the development of the Internet, was widely reaffirmed by notable Internet pioneers, such as Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn , who stated, "No one in public life has been more intellectually engaged in helping to create
155-482: Is promulgated , or given the force of law, in one of the following ways: The president promulgates acts of Congress made by the first two methods. If an act is made by the third method, the presiding officer of the house that last reconsidered the act promulgates it. Under the United States Constitution , if the president does not return a bill or resolution to Congress with objections before
186-1352: Is a recipient of the AFIPS Harry Goode Memorial Award, the Marconi Award, the ACM SIGCOMM Award, the President's Award from ACM, the IEEE Koji Kobayashi Computer and Communications Award, the IEEE Alexander Graham Bell Medal , the IEEE Third Millennium Medal, the ACM Software Systems Award , the Computerworld/Smithsonian Award, the ASIS Special Award and the Public Service Award from the Computing Research Board. He has twice received
217-812: Is an American electrical engineer who, along with Vint Cerf , first proposed the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP), the fundamental communication protocols at the heart of the Internet. In 2004, Kahn won the Turing Award with Vint Cerf for their work on TCP/IP. Robert Elliot Kahn was born in December 1938 in New York to parents Beatrice Pauline (née Tashker) and Lawrence Kahn in an Ashkenazi Jewish family. Through his father, he
248-547: Is deprecated by some dictionaries and usage authorities. However, the Bluebook requires "Act" to be capitalized when referring to a specific legislative act. The United States Code capitalizes "act". The term "act of Congress" is sometimes used in informal speech to indicate something for which getting permission is burdensome. For example, "It takes an act of Congress to get a building permit in this town." An act adopted by simple majorities in both houses of Congress
279-541: Is related to futurist Herman Kahn . After receiving a B.E.E. degree in electrical engineering from the City College of New York in 1960, Kahn went on to Princeton University where he earned a M.A. in 1962 and Ph.D. in 1964, both in electrical engineering. At Princeton, he was advised by Bede Liu and completed a doctoral dissertation titled "Some problems in the sampling and modulation of signals." He first worked at Bolt Beranek and Newman Inc. , where he
310-430: The 111th United States Congress . Public laws are also often abbreviated as Pub. L. No. X–Y. When the legislation of those two kinds are proposed, it is called public bill and private bill respectively. The word "act", as used in the term "act of Congress", is a common, not a proper noun . The capitalization of the word "act" (especially when used standing alone to refer to an act mentioned earlier by its full name)
341-550: The SATNET satellite packet network project, he came up with the initial ideas for what later became the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which was intended as a replacement for an earlier network protocol, NCP , used in the ARPANET. TCP played a major role in forming the basis of internetworking , which would allow computers and networks all over the world to communicate with each other, regardless of what hardware or software
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#1732779531927372-660: The 1980s. The renewed effort became known in popular language as building the Information superhighway . It also included the High-Performance Computing and Communications Initiative and spurred many significant technological developments, such as the Mosaic web browser , and the creation of a high-speed fiber optic computer network . Senator Al Gore developed the Act after hearing the 1988 report Toward
403-636: The 1997 National Medal of Technology , the 2001 Charles Stark Draper Prize from the National Academy of Engineering , the 2002 Prince of Asturias Award, and the 2004 A. M. Turing Award from the Association for Computing Machinery. Kahn received the 2003 Digital ID World award for the Digital Object Architecture as a significant contribution (technology, policy or social) to the digital identity industry. In 2005 he
434-648: The Act would help "unlock the secrets of DNA," open up foreign markets to free trade, and a promise of cooperation between government, academia, and industry. The Gore Bill helped fund the National Center for Supercomputing Applications at the University of Illinois , where a team of programmers, including Netscape founder Marc Andreessen , created the Mosaic Web browser in 1993, the commercial Internet's technological springboard credited as beginning
465-642: The Constitution may be declared unconstitutional by the courts. A judicial declaration that an act of Congress is unconstitutional does not remove the act from the Statutes at Large or the United States Code; rather, it prevents the act from being enforced. However, the act as published in annotated codes and legal databases is marked with annotations indicating that it is no longer good law. Bob Kahn Bob Kahn (born December 23, 1938)
496-529: The Internet boom of the 1990s. Andreessen later remarked that 'If it had been left to private industry, it wouldn't have happened ... at least, not until years later.' Gore reiterated the role of government financing in American success in a 1996 speech when he, as vice president, said, "That's how it has worked in America. Government has supplied the initial flicker—and individuals and companies have provided
527-692: The Secretary of Defense Civilian Service Award. He was awarded an honorary degree by the University of Pavia in 1998. He was awarded the Stibitz-Wilson Award from the American Computer & Robotics Museum in 1999 for Pioneering the Internet through Major Design and Development Contributor to the Original ARPANET NCP Protocol and Co-Inventor of the Internet's TCP/IP Protocol. He is a recipient of
558-601: The TCP/IP protocols for connecting diverse computer networks. After he became director of IPTO, he started the United States government's billion dollar Strategic Computing Initiative , the largest computer research and development program ever undertaken by the U.S. federal government. After thirteen years with DARPA, Kahn left to found the Corporation for National Research Initiatives (CNRI) in 1986, and as of 2022 remains its chairman, CEO and president. While working on
589-572: The application of networks to scientific research." He was awarded the 2008 Japan Prize for his work in "Information Communication Theory and Technology" (together with Vinton Cerf). The duo were also awarded with the Harold Pender Award , the highest honor awarded by the University of Pennsylvania School Engineering and Applied Sciences, in February 2010. He has also served on the board of directors for Qualcomm. In 2012, Kahn
620-629: The basis for the modern Internet. In 1992 he co-founded with Vint Cerf the Internet Society , to provide leadership in Internet related standards, education, and policy. In 1981, Bob Kahn was elevated to the grade of IEEE fellow for original work in packet switching mobile radio telecommunications technology. He was elected as a member to the National Academy of Engineering in 1987 for research contributions in computer networks and packet switching, and for creative management contributions to research efforts in computers and communications. He
651-653: The climate for a thriving Internet than the Vice President". PITAC was started in 1991 under the High Performance Computing Act of 1991 . On May 28, 2003, President George W. Bush extended the committee. Act of Congress An act of Congress is a statute enacted by the United States Congress . Acts may apply only to individual entities (called private laws ), or to the general public ( public laws ). For
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#1732779531927682-467: The computers on each network used. To reach this goal, TCP was designed to have the following features: Vint Cerf joined him on the project in the spring of 1973, and together they completed an early version of TCP. Later, the protocol was separated into two separate layers: host-to-host communication would be handled by TCP, with Internet Protocol (IP) handling internetwork communication. The two together are usually referred to as TCP/IP, and form part of
713-418: The creativity and innovation that kindled that spark into a blaze of progress and productivity that's the envy of the world." Following a 1999 CNN interview , then-Vice President Gore became the subject of some controversy and ridicule when his claim that he "took the initiative in creating the Internet" was widely quoted out of context or misquoted, with comedians and the popular media taking his expression as
744-603: The development of the National Information Infrastructure and the funding of the National Research and Education Network (NREN). The funding allocation was approximately $ 600 million. The act built on prior U.S. efforts of developing a national networking infrastructure, starting with the technological foundation of the ARPANET in the 1960s and continuing through the funding of the National Science Foundation Network (NSFnet) in
775-463: The general public, or private laws , relating to specific institutions or individuals. Since 1957, all Acts of Congress have been designated as "Public Law X–Y" or "Private Law X–Y", where X is the number of the Congress and Y refers to the sequential order of the bill (when it was enacted). For example, P. L. 111–5 ( American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 ) was the fifth enacted public law of
806-588: The law is accomplished by the president, or the relevant presiding officer in the case of an overridden veto, delivering the act to the archivist of the United States . The archivist provides for its publication as a slip law and in the United States Statutes at Large after receiving the act. Thereafter, the changes are published in the United States Code . Through the process of judicial review , an act of Congress that violates
837-430: The time limit expires, then the bill automatically becomes an act; however, if the Congress is adjourned at the end of this period, then the bill dies and cannot be reconsidered (see pocket veto ). If the president rejects a bill or resolution while the Congress is in session, a two-thirds vote of both houses of Congress is needed for reconsideration to be successful. Promulgation in the sense of publishing and proclaiming
868-924: Was awarded the Townsend Harris Medal from the Alumni Association of the City College of New York, the Presidential Medal of Freedom , and the C & C Prize in Tokyo, Japan. He was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in May 2006. He was inducted as a Fellow of the Computer History Museum in 2006 "for pioneering technical contributions to internetworking and for leadership in
899-588: Was elected a Founding Fellow of Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence in 1990. He was awarded the SIGCOMM Award in 1993 for "visionary technical contributions and leadership in the development of information systems technology", and shared the 2004 Turing Award with Vint Cerf, for "pioneering work on internetworking , including .. the Internet's basic communications protocols .. and for inspired leadership in networking." He
930-577: Was inducted into the Internet Hall of Fame by the Internet Society . In 2013, Kahn was one of five Internet and Web pioneers awarded the inaugural Queen Elizabeth Prize for Engineering . Kahn received the 2024 IEEE Medal of Honor for "pioneering technical and leadership contributions in packet communication technologies and foundations of the Internet." Kahn has received honorary degrees from Princeton University, University of Pavia, ETH Zurich, University of Maryland, George Mason University,
961-643: Was the principal designer of the ARPANET . In the fall of 1972, he demonstrated the ARPANET by connecting 20 different computers at the International Conference on Computer Communications (ICCC), "the watershed event that made people suddenly realize that packet switching was a real technology." In 1972, he joined the Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO) within DARPA . He then helped develop