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123-643: High Prussian is a Central German dialect formally spoken in Prussia . It is separated from its only adjacent German dialect, Low Prussian, by the Benrath line and the Uerdingen line , the latter dialect being Low German . This was once one of the, if not the hardest linguistic border within the German dialects . It shares some features with Low Prussian, differentiating it from other Central German dialects east of

246-452: A war criminal sentenced after the war by a Polish court to death, albeit with his penalty later commuted to life imprisonment . Following the example of earlier German policies, there was a short-lived initiative in the Polish post-World War II government to rename the newly acquired original Prussia to an invented name of Masovian Pomerania ; it was, however, quickly abandoned. In 1995,

369-669: A (more common in the east), where historic short a often fronts to [æ] and can cause softening of the preceding consonant: matk’æ. Slanted é may sometimes be retained as é, or may either lower and merge with e or raise and merge with y. Slanted ó is usually retained as ó, but may also either lower and merge with o (in the east) or raise and merge with u (elsewhere). Medial nasal vowels may raise: dziesiunti (dziesiąty), gorónce (gorące), gynsi (gęsi). Medial and final ę may also lower: bandzie (będzie). na tu łolsztyńsko droga (na tę olsztyńską drogę). Nasal vowels decompose before non-sibilants word-medially. Before sibilants, nasals may decompose (more in

492-554: A Nazi political stronghold whose existence as an exclave resulted in German irredentist demands towards Poland, blamed as one of the primary causes of the calamity of World War II and the ensuing German atrocities. An important factor was also West Germany 's rejection of the validity of the postwar Polish Western border on the Oder–Neisse line (until 1972 total, 1972-1991 de iure ) rendering any attempts of Poles to remind or maintain

615-574: A bearer of militarism and reaction in Germany . In line with this assessment and the ideological justification of Recoverred Territories , the use of Prussia as a geographic designation was discouraged by the postwar authorities of Poland and the Soviet Union. The Polish region of Pomerelia (Gdansk Pomerania and the Chełmno Land) reverted to its original name already prior to World War II, as

738-529: A centre of learning and printing through the establishment of the Albertina University in 1544 for not only the dominant German culture, but also the thriving Polish and Lithuanian communities as well. It was in Königsberg that the first Lutheran books in Polish, Lithuanian, and Prussian languages were published. Rulership of Ducal Prussia passed to the senior Hohenzollern branch,

861-673: A constituent part of the German Weimar Republic , following the 1920 East Prussian plebiscite . The democratic government of the Free State was removed as a result the 1932 Prussian coup d'état which also facilitated the Nazi takeover of government . In the March 1933 German federal election , the last pre-war German elections, the local population of East Prussia voted overwhelmingly for Adolf Hitler 's Nazi Party . After

984-482: A dialect continuum between two extreme forms. He postulates that the dialects of the south west (district of Rosenberg in Western Prussia) were closest to Standard German while those of the north east (district of Preußisch Holland) were closest to Breslauisch. Accroding to him, the dialect of the area surrounding Lauck (in the farthest east of Preußisch Holland) were almost identical to Breslauisch. In his view,

1107-733: A further German attempt to expand the meaning of the designation of Prussia was undertaken, when the westernmost portion of Soviet Belarus (which, until 1939, belonged to the Polish state ), was placed under the German Civilian Administration ( Zivilverwaltungsgebiet ) as the Bialystok District , an entity in association with (but not part of) East Prussia, nevertheless it was also denoted on some Nazi maps as South East Prussia , with both territories remaining under common management and leadership of Erich Koch ,

1230-472: A military and Christianizing mission. Adalbert, accompanied by armed guards, attempted to convert the Prussians to Christianity. He was killed by a Prussian pagan priest in 997. In 1015, Bolesław sent soldiers again, with some short-lived success, gaining regular paid tribute from some Prussians in the border regions, but it did not last. Polish rulers sent invasions to the territory in 1147, 1161–1166, and

1353-587: A missionary bishop appointed for Prussia in 1216. In the beginning of the 13th century, Konrad of Mazovia had called for Crusades and tried unsuccessfully to conquer Prussia for years. Bishop Christian of Oliva established the Order of Dobrzyń in order to defend Masovia against the raids of Old Prussians. However, the rather innumerous order (initially 15 knights, with 35 knights at its highest) did not prove effective in countering Prussians in battle. Christian achieved subjugation and conversion of Prussians only in

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1476-514: A number of times in the early 13th century. While these were repelled by the Prussians, the Chełmno Land became exposed to their frequent raids. At that time, Pomerelia belonged to the diocese of Włocławek . Chełmno Land (including Michałów Land and later Lubawa Land) belonged in turn to the diocese of Płock , since 1223 governed in the name of the Bishop of Płock by Christian of Oliva ,

1599-766: A part of the Province of Pomerania , as well as the Regierungsbezirk Westpreussen which was made part of East Prussia ), while its bulk was awarded to the recreated Polish state . On the other hand, only minor part of East Prussia around Działdowo was transferred to Poland, the Klaipėda Region formed a free city supervised by the League of Nations , annexed following the Klaipėda Revolt by Lithuania but reclaimed by Germany in 1939, while

1722-557: A part of the kingdom remaining outside of Germany until the creation of the North German Confederation in 1866 during the unification of Germany . The merged territory was, however, again split into East and West Prussia in 1878. East Prussia , West Prussia , the Province of Posen and the Starostwo of Draheim were annexed by Germany upon the formation of North German Confederation in 1866 and became

1845-517: A process of linguistical normalization to promote and save the ethnolect. In 2016, the online dictionary Glosbe introduced Masurian to their data. The oldest book written in Masurian probably is Ta Swenta Woyna , written by Jakub Szczepan in 1900. In 2018, The Little Prince by Antoine de Saint Exupéry was translated to Masurian. Several scientists consider Masurian to be a separate language in its own right; others argue that Masurian

1968-515: A prothetic j-, and can then sometimes lower: jimię (imię), jenaczyj (inaczej). This happens most commonly in the north east of Szczytno and Mrągowo. Initial o- typically labializes, as does u- to a lesser extent. Soft labials decompose: b’jałi, b’źałi (biały), b’h’ijak (bijak) h and ch appear more commonly in the east and ś and ź in the west, j being rare; m’ shifts to mń: ramńona (ramiona); sometimes ᵐń: ᵐniasto; as well as ń: ńód (miód). Hardening of m also occurs, particularly in German loanwords and

2091-538: A quarter of Sangerhausen ], Saalfeld - Saalfeld , and Mühlhausen - Mühlhausen ). In line with Mitzkas theory, the village names merely reflect the origin of the upper classe settled there. Many settlement foundings were done by the patron of the Commendam of Christburg Sieghard von Schwarzburg, who was from Thuringia. For the most part, the German villages in the Oberland were established between 1290 and 1330. In

2214-694: A replacement for the dissolved Holy Roman Empire from 1815 to 1866, only those of the territories of the kingdom which were previously included in the HRE as well as the Lauenburg and Bütow Land and the former Starostwo of Draheim (both integrated into the Province of Pomerania) became part of the Confederation, while the Grand Duchy of Posen (later demoted to an ordinary Province of Posen following

2337-798: A small part of Hither Pomerania were also transferred to Poland as part of the territories recovered from Germany, following World War II . As agreed upon in the Treaty of Versailles , most of the Pomerelian part of the Province of West Prussia that had belonged to the Kingdom of Prussia and the German Empire since the Partitions of Poland was retroceded to the Second Polish Republic , becoming its Pomeranian Voivodeship ,

2460-514: A stronger mixture of origins of the settlers and, when deriving Breslau, we should be satisfied with the statement that its origin lies somewhere in a very large area in East Central German, within which Lower Silesia and Lower Lusatia may have formed focal points. Almost all High Prussian speakers were evacuated or expelled from Prussia after 1945. Since the expellees scattered throughout Western Germany (with some exceptions, like

2583-423: A target of aggressive Germanization, German settlement, anti-Catholic campaigns ( Kulturkampf ), as well as disfranchisement and expropriations of Poles. After the Treaty of Versailles , only the predominantly German-speaking western and eastern rim of the former West Prussia remained a part of Germany, forming part of the rump province of Posen-West Prussia (except for the Lauenburg and Bütow Land remaining

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2706-662: Is a historical region in Central Europe on the south-eastern coast of the Baltic Sea , that ranges from the Vistula delta in the west to the end of the Curonian Spit in the east and extends inland as far as Masuria , divided between Poland , Russia and Lithuania . This region is often also referred to as Old Prussia . Tacitus 's Germania (98 AD) is the oldest known record of an eyewitness account on

2829-420: Is a dialect of Polish , or even just a subdialect. Typical of Masovian dialects, devoicing of word-final consonants before vowels and liquids is present here, including before clitics. Also typical of Masovian dialects is the presence of mazuration , however, younger people tend to use a pronunciation that of Standard Polish, and as such, mazuration is quickly fading. The degree of mazuration can also depend on

2952-707: Is nearly non-existent, with rz generally being pronounced as in Standard Polish. ń sometimes hardens, typically in the north, as a result of German influence: drewnana studna (drewniana studnia). kie, gie, ki, and gi generally remain soft, but most people often harden k and g before one of the vowels while keeping them soft before the other, and generally k and g are soft before e more than i: k’edy (kiedy), taky (taki). Hard pronunciations are becoming rarer. A few instances of further palatalization can be heard: flakt’i (flaki), okt’eć (łokieć), mat’era (makiera). k and g may also sometimes palatalize before ę, especially in

3075-1020: The 1939 German ultimatum to Lithuania , the Klaipėda region was integrated again into East Prussia. During World War II , the Polish ethnic minorities of Catholic Warmians and Powiślans , as well as Lutheran Masurians were persecuted by the Nazi German government, which wanted to erase all aspects of Polish culture and Polish language in Warmia , Masuria and Powiśle The Jews who remained in East Prussia in 1942 were shipped to concentration camps, including Theresienstadt in occupied Czechoslovakia , Kaiserwald in occupied Latvia , and camps in Minsk in occupied Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic . The Soldau concentration camp and Hohenbruch concentration camp  [ de ] were operated in

3198-559: The Balts as the speakers of the Baltic languages . The Balts would have become differentiated into Western and Eastern Balts in the late 1st millennium BC. The region was inhabited by ancestors of Western Balts – Old Prussians , Sudovians / Jotvingians , Scalvians , Nadruvians , and Curonians while the eastern Balts settled in what is now Lithuania, Latvia and Belarus. The Greek explorer Pytheas (4th century BC) may have referred to

3321-582: The Catholic region of Warmia and adjacent East Prussian Oberland region beyond the Passarge River in the west (around Preußisch Holland and Mohrungen ), subdivided into Breslau(i)sch (from Silesian Breslau ) and Oberländisch . They were separated from the Low Prussian dialect area by the Benrath line isogloss to the west, north and east; to the south they bordered on

3444-713: The Chełmno and the Michałów Lands, as well as sometimes the Lubawa Land), resulting in its increasing usage in this context in the Polish scientific historical publications. Powiśle , Warmia and Masuria are now in Poland (most of the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship , and the four counties of Pomeranian Voivodeship east of Vistula ), the former Memelland or Klaipėda region is now divided between

3567-694: The Chełmno Land formed part of the Duchy of Warsaw following the Treaties of Tilsit , and Danzig was granted a status of a Free City . However, after the Congress of Vienna , the Polish duchy was again partitioned between Russia and Prussia, with Prussia annexing the Free City and the Chełmno Land into the reconstituted West Prussia . The annexation was associated with another attempt to artificially expand

3690-764: The Early Middle Ages , was forcibly occupied by the monastic state of the Teutonic Knights in 1308, following an invasion of Poland under the pretext of aiding the King Władysław I Łokietek to quell a rebellion against him, incited by a conspiracy of the Margraviate of Brandenburg with the local Swienca family . Teutonic atrocities against the Polish population followed, such as the Slaughter of Gdańsk . The Teutonic Knights took control of

3813-726: The First Partition of Poland , the King in Prussia gained majority of the territory of Royal Prussia including the Lauenburg and Bütow Land (but excluding Danzig and Toruń which were captured along with the region of Greater Poland in the Second Partition of Poland ), as well as the Starostwo of Draheim . The former Royal Prussia was divided in 1773. Its bulk which included the historically Prussian Malbork Land (northern parts of Pomesania and Pogesania ) but also

High Prussian dialect - Misplaced Pages Continue

3936-545: The Germersheim line . Those Borussisms are: J. A. Lilienthal, a teacher from Braunsberg , first recorded the term "Breslauisch" for High Prussian as an endonym in Warmia in 1842. Thereafter, it was considered obvious that Warmia was settled by Silesians, who brought their dialect with them. Based on a comparison of toponymy, at least for Oberländer, Thuringia was seen as a potential origin, too. The prevailing assumption

4059-563: The Greater Poland Province ) of the Kingdom of Poland , while the eastern part of the monastic state became a fief and protectorate of Poland, also considered an integral part of the "one and indivisible" Kingdom of Poland, initially called Monastic Prussia or Teutonic Prussia , secularised in 1525 to become Ducal Prussia. At the same time, the Polish monarchs assumed the title of the King of Prussia. After Pomerelia

4182-703: The Hanseatic League in 1340, thus connecting Prussia to the European trade network spanning via the North Sea and the Baltic Sea . In 1492, a life of Saint Dorothea of Montau , published in Marienburg (Malbork), became the first printed publication in Prussia. "Prussian land was my father's land and I will claim its territory till Osa river  [ pl ] i.e. all the Prussian lands until

4305-625: The Hanseatic League in 1361. These events resulted in a series of Polish–Teutonic Wars throughout the 14th and 15th centuries. Under the Teutonic rule, an influx of western, mainly German-speaking farmers, traders and craftsmen was encouraged. Subsequent rebellions organized by the local population against the Teutonic state, initially by the Lizard Union and later by the Prussian Confederation , both pledging allegiance to

4428-612: The Klaipėda and Tauragė counties of Lithuania , while the rest of the northern Prussia forms the Kaliningrad Oblast exclave of the Russian Federation . Only the latter part remains outside of the European Union . Masurian dialects The Masurian ethnolect (Masurian: mazurská gádkä ; Polish : mazurski ; German : Masurisch ), according to some linguists , is a dialect group of

4551-589: The Lubawa Land. Therefore, the pope set up further crusades. The Duke finally invited the Teutonic Knights in 1226, expelled by force of arms by King Andrew II of Hungary in the previous year following their attempts to build their own state within Transylvania. The Knights were expected to fight the inhabitants of Prussia in exchange for a fief of Chełmno Land . Prussia was conquered by

4674-545: The Malbork Land comprising northern parts of Pomesania and Pogesania ) forming (along with the northern part of Greater Poland detached from the Grand Duchy of Posen ) the Province of West Prussia , while Warmia was assigned to East Prussia , with both West and East Prussia remaining outside the German Confederation . In contrast, the Lauenburg and Bütow Land was annexed in 1777 immediately into

4797-488: The Malbork Land comprising northern parts of Pomesania and Pogesania . These were the only actual Prussian territories of Royal Prussia. Initially enjoying broad autonomy including an own local legislature, the Prussian Estates , and maintaining its own laws, customs and rights, Royal Prussia was ultimately re-absorbed directly into the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland , following the Union of Lublin in 1569 . The locally spoken language differed among social classes, with

4920-416: The Nazi Germany during the invasion of Poland in 1939, as well as renamed Reichsgau Danzig-Westpreussen , with numerous German atrocities against the local population . Nazi Germany also undertook another attempt to artificially expand the meaning of the designation of Prussia, this time by enlarging the territory of the province of East Prussia through annexation into it of parts of Northern Masovia under

5043-405: The Polish language ; others consider Masurian to be a separate language, spoken by the Masurian people in northeastern Poland . The dialect belongs to the Masovian dialect group and is located in the part of Poland as well as parts of Siberia . It borders the Lubawa dialect to the far southwest, the Ostróda dialect and Warmia dialect to the west, the new mixed dialects to the north,

High Prussian dialect - Misplaced Pages Continue

5166-402: The Province of Pomerania , but remained outside the Holy Roman Empire and was incorporated in 1815 only into its successor, the German Confederation , continuing to be a part of the Diocese of Chełmno . The Province of East Prussia (the original Prussia) and the annexed Polish territories turned into the Province of West Prussia were merged in 1829 to form a single Province of Prussia ,

5289-426: The Prussian Lithuanians in Lithuania Minor , a part of the Soviet share of the former East Prussia. The government of the Lithuanian SSR followed Soviet policy and viewed the Prussian Lithuanians as Germans. About 8,000 persons were repatriated from DP camps during 1945–50. However, their homes and farms were not returned as either Russians or Lithuanians had already occupied their property. Prussians who remained in

5412-418: The Russian SFSR . The part assigned to Poland was organized as the provisional Masurian District , later reduced by the annexation of its northern strip with the towns of Gierdawy and Iławka by the Soviet Union, and transferring its westernmost counties to Gdańsk Voivodeship and easternmost counties to Białystok Voivodeship , and finally transformed into Olsztyn Voivodeship in 1946. The Klaipėda Region

5535-450: The Starostwo of Draheim were annexed in 1777 immediately into the Province of Pomerania . The annexation of Royal Prussia allowed the Prussian king to assume the title of King of Prussia thereafter. Further attempts to expand the meaning of the designation of Prussia was undertaken following the Second Partition of Poland , when Greater Poland and Northern Masovia were annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia and renamed South Prussia , and

5658-439: The Suwałki dialect to the east, marginally the Podlachia dialect to the far east, and the Kurpie dialect and Far Mazovian dialect to the south. From the 14th century, some settlers from Masovia started to settle in southern Prussia , which had been devastated by the crusades of the Teutonic Knights against the native Old Prussians . According to other sources, people from Masovia did not move to southern Prussia until

5781-421: The Teutonic Knights during the Prussian Crusade and administered within their State of the Teutonic Order , which begins the process of Germanization in the area. Bishop Christian had to deal with the constant cut-back of his autonomy by the Knights and asked the Roman Curia for mediation. In 1243, the Papal legate William of Modena divided the Prussian lands of the Order's State into four dioceses, whereby

5904-407: The Third Partition of Poland , when Prussia annexed parts Masovia , Podlachia , Trakai Voivodeship and Samogitia under the name of New East Prussia . Both invented names were eventually abandoned, following the Napoleonic Wars . All the annexed Polish lands remained outside of the Holy Roman Empire until its dissolution in 1806. During the Napoleonic era the Greater Polish territories and

6027-427: The Vistula River , including Pamede , because this is my inheritance" — Vytautas the Great 's statement in no uncertain terms in 1413, long after the Battle of Grunwald , during the negotiations with the Teutonic Knights . Moreover, in 1421, the Lithuanian representatives emphasized the territorial and cultural links between Lithuanians , Sudovia , and old Yotvingian lands, but the Order continued to enjoy

6150-427: The unification of Germany . The merged territory was, however, again split into East and West Prussia in 1878. As agreed upon in the Treaty of Versailles , East Prussia, minus the Memelland , expanded by addition of the Regierungsbezirk Westpreussen (the only part of former West Prussia containing originally Prussian territory) remained within the Free State of Prussia , a successor of the Kingdom of Prussia and

6273-423: The (originally Prussian) territory of Regierungsbezirk Westpreussen east of Vistula remained with Germany as a part of East Prussia, while the western rim of Pomerelia became part of the German province of Posen-West Prussia , named so in spite of containing no originally Prussian territory. Danzig became a free city under the protection of the League of Nations . The area was occupied and illegally annexed by

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6396-408: The 1870s, Imperial German officials restricted the usage of languages other than German in Prussia's eastern provinces. While in 1880 Masurians were still treated as Poles by the German Empire, at the turn of century the German authorities undertook several measures to Germanise and separate them from the Polish nation by creating a separate identity. After World War I the East Prussian plebiscite

6519-464: The Commendam of Christburg, encompassing most of the Oberland, Old Prussians made up half of the inhabitants. Therefore, the Old Prussian language influenced the German dialect of the Oberland (e.g. Old Prussian mergo  : Margell ("girl")). While Breslauisch is a relative homogenous dialect, the Oberländisch dialect is permeated by several isogloss lines, according to Gerog Wenker, who collected data around 1880. He claimed, that this shows

6642-449: The Duchy of Prussia, Brandenburg-Prussia and the Kingdom of Prussia), the former Province of East Prussia , or to the territory of Old Prussians , but almost never when referring to contemporary geographic region. Since 1991, the name Prussia has, however, been re-acknowledged among Polish historians as the proper designation for the historic region, understood as defined by its original borders (excluding Pomerelia with Gdańsk Pomerania ,

6765-536: The East Central German dialects, he found the greatest linguistic affinity with the dialects of Lower Lusatia, the core of which lay between Lübben in the west and Guben in the east. Based on those findings, Mitzka developed the theory that Central German settlers, whose arrival can be precisely determined by numerous tangible facts, left Mark Lausitz between 1290 and 1330, when political turmoils made settling in Prussia appear more attractive. Erhard Riemann tested Mitzka's theory using further toponymy and concluded that

6888-478: The Ermländer settlement on a former military training area in Heckenbach/Eifel) the dialects are now moribund . Most of the High Prussian speakers not expelled after World War II relocated from Poland to Western Germany in the 1970s and 1980s as so-called late repatriates ( Spätaussiedler ). Today, the language is almost extinct, as its use is restricted to communication within the family and gatherings of expellees, where they are spoken out of nostalgia. In Poland,

7011-423: The German census there were 142,049 Masurians speaking Masurian. In 1925, only 40,869 people gave Masurian as their native language, many considering German their first language, considering Masurian merely as their domestic dialect , By the early 1920s there were also some Masurians who had their separate identity, claiming that Masurians are a nation. Most of them were members of Masurenbund . Their main goal

7134-408: The German mainstream. According to some scientists such as Andrzej Sakson, there are about 5,000–10,000 ethnic Masurians left in Poland. According to the Polish census from 2011, there are only 1,376 of them who identify themselves as Masurians. Most Masurians live in Germany now, but due to the German law the ethnicity and nationality are not determined in their census. There is a lack of surveys on

7257-406: The German terminology to include areas west of the Vistula , including Vistula/Eastern Pomerania, although it was never inhabited by Baltic Prussians but by the Slavic Poles. After the area was reintegrated with Poland in 1466 both names were in use: Pomerania was used when referring to the Pomeranian Voivodeship (Gdańsk Pomerania) and the Chełmno Voivodeship , while Royal Prussia was used as

7380-524: The Germans as forced labour in the region. There was also a camp for Romani people in Königsberg (see Romani Holocaust ). The Polish resistance movement was active in the region, with activities including distribution of Polish underground press , infiltration of the German arms industry, sabotage actions, executions of Nazis, theft of German weapons, ammunition and equipment, smuggling data on German concentration camps and prisons, and organization of transports of POWs who escaped German POW camps via

7503-433: The Great launched several expeditions against the Prussians. They destroyed many areas in Prussia, including Truso and Kaup, but failed to dominate the population totally. A Viking ( Varangian ) presence in the area was "less than dominant and very much less than imperial." According to a legend, recorded by Simon Grunau , the name Prussia is derived from Pruteno (or Bruteno), the chief priest of Prussia and brother of

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7626-487: The Lutheran Ducal Prussia . Brandenburg Electors obtained the separation of the Duchy of Prussia from Poland in 1660, taking advantage of the Russo-Swedish Deluge , and merged it with the Electorate of Brandenburg to form Brandenburg-Prussia , shortly thereafter becoming the Kingdom of Prussia . Subsequently, it entered into an alliance with Austria and Russia, invading Polish territories of Royal Prussia, annexing and dividing it, with its bulk (including Pomerelia and

7749-411: The Middle Ages were first called Bruzi in the brief text of the Bavarian Geographer and have since been referred to as Old Prussians , who, beginning in 997 AD, repeatedly defended themselves against conquest attempts by the newly created Duchy of the Polans . The territories of the Old Prussians and the neighboring Curonians and Livonians were politically unified in the 1230s under the State of

7872-403: The Polish Masurian dialect region. The places where Oberländisch was spoken included Marienburg , Preußisch Holland , Freystadt and Deutsch Eylau . Breslauisch (also: Breslausch, Ermländisch) was mainly spoken in between the cities of Wormditt , Heilsberg , Bischofsburg and Allenstein . This area is almost identical to the portion of the former Prince-Bishopric of Ermland governed by

7995-404: The Polish king, caused the Thirteen Years' War which ultimately led to the Second Peace of Thorn , when most of the region and was reclaimed by Poland and henceforth formed the bulk of Royal Prussia . With the Second Peace of Thorn (1466) , the territory of the Monastic State was divided into eastern and western parts. The western part became the province of Royal Prussia (later also part of

8118-444: The Prussian regional identity an easy target for the Polish authorities, interpreted as undermining future security and territorial integrity of Poland. The policy achieved its goals, and the name Prussia is nowadays used in Polish official documents and colloquial language almost exclusively in historical context, when referring to Royal Prussia , the Free State of Prussia and its preceding entities (the (post-1466) Monastic Prussia ,

8241-405: The Slavic Poles. The possession of Danzig and Pomerelia by the Teutonic Order was questioned consistently by the Polish kings Władysław I and Casimir the Great in legal suits in the papal court in 1320 and 1333. Both times, as well as in 1339, the Teutonic Knights were ordered by the Pope to return Pomerelia and other lands back to Poland, but did not comply. The conquered Danzig (Gdańsk) joined

8364-426: The State of Prussia was perceived as a primary driving force for the Partitions of Poland with subsequent persecution and attempted Germanization of Poles , politically dominated by the Prussian Junkers with strong anti-Polish sentiment , and finally, the German Province of East Prussia was regarded as an area of persecutions against Polish-speaking minority (Warmians, Masurians, Powiślans), but most importantly as

8487-399: The Teutonic Order . The former kingdom and later state of Prussia (1701–1947) derived its name from the region. The Teutonic Knights invaded and annexed the region of Pomerelia from Poland into their monastic state , which already included historical Prussia, located east of the region. After the acquisition of Pomerelia in 1308–1310, the meaning of the term Prussia was widened in

8610-421: The aristocracy and urban burghers initially highly Germanised as a result of earlier Teutonic policies, but gradually shifting towards Polish in the later years, while the peasantry continued as predominantly Kashubian- and Polish-speaking West of Vistula ; the part East of Vistula was predominantly German-speaking, with decreasing number of Old Prussian and increasing number of Polish minorities. A small area in

8733-529: The bishop, which settled it with Central German peasants. The northern part was settled with Low German speakers by the cathedral chapter. Linguistic features in consonantism are: Oberländisch was mainly spoken in the districts of Preußisch Holland and Mohrungen and in the adjacent area east of the Vistula . According to popular opinion, the Oberland was settled in the 13th and 14th century by Thuringian peasants. They are said to have brought some of their town names with them ( Mohrungen - Mohrungen [nowadays

8856-599: The bishops retained the secular rule over about one third of the diocesan territory: all suffragan dioceses under the Archbishopric of Riga . Christian was supposed to choose one of them, but did not agree to the division. He possibly retired to the Cistercians Abbey in Sulejów , where he died before the conflict was solved. The city of Königsberg (modern Kaliningrad ) was founded in 1255, and joined

8979-651: The bulk (including entire Warmia and most of Masuria) remained within the Free State of Prussia , a successor of the Kingdom of Prussia and a constituent part of the German Weimar Republic , following the 1920 East Prussian plebiscite . Since its conquest by the Soviet Army with evacuation and expulsion of the German-speaking inhabitants in 1945 in accordance with the Potsdam Agreement ,

9102-588: The dialect. Since 2015, the Sorkwity Masurian Culture Festival started to promote Masurian, locals are starting to create folk music, and some schools are organizing competitions in speaking Masurian. People are also starting to promote the ethnolect via social media . In 2016, the Masurian Union  [ pl ] was founded to promote the Masurian ethnolect and culture. Meanwhile, some activists have also started

9225-544: The early medieval period, but these populations would probably have undergone Slavicization before the 10th century. The territory was identified as Brus in the 8th-century map of the Bavarian Geographer and Bruzze/Pruzze/Przze in the Dagome iudex . Adam of Bremen mentions Prussians as Prusos/Pruzzi in 1072., while Gallus Anonymous mentions Prussia in his Gesta principum Polonorum in 1113. In

9348-432: The east), or denasalization may occur (more in the west): genś, geś (gęś), vons, wos (wąs). Word-finally and also before l, ł, both nasal vowels denasalize and often raise: wode (wodę), spsieywajo (śpiewają), nie chcu (nie chcą). Soft palatals may also sporadically harden, especially around Reszel, probably due to German influence: peśń (pieśń); or due to a more relaxed pronunciation: wyberam (wybieram). Initial i- often has

9471-430: The east: matk’e (matkę), g’enśi (gęsi). k and g may also soften before a in the east, particularly the northeast; in the west it remains hard: k’apa (kapa). This softening mostly concerns jasne a, and is rare for ká, gá. Most residents had this pronunciation through the 20th century. Also in the east, ch may soften before i, e, ę, and a to chś, ś, or szi: ožeśi (orzechy), štaśety (sztachety), l’iśa (licha), ch’ata (chata). In

9594-427: The eastern part of the region, and initiated German colonization to change the region's ethnic composition. The Province of East Prussia (the original Prussia) and the annexed Polish territories turned into the Province of West Prussia were merged in 1829 to form a single Province of Prussia , a part of the kingdom remaining outside of Germany until the creation of the North German Confederation in 1866 during

9717-469: The failed Greater Poland uprising (1848) ), the Provinces of West Prussia and East Prussia (merged in the years 1829 to 1878 to form a single Province of Prussia ) remained outside of the German Confederation (thus of Germany) until the creation of the North German Confederation in 1866 at the start of the unification of Germany . Outside of the Kingdom of Prussia and later Germany, Pomerelia

9840-665: The first half of the 13th century, Bishop Christian of Prussia recorded the history of a much earlier era. In Neo-Latin the area is called Borussia and its inhabitants Borussi . After the Christianisations of the West Slavs in the 10th century, the state of the Polans was established and there were first attempts at conquering and baptizing the Baltic peoples. Bolesław I Chrobry sent Adalbert of Prague in 997 on

9963-604: The former East Prussia. The designation of Kaliningrad Oblast was promoted by the Soviet authorities in the case of the Russian part of the territory, instead. The policy was embraced by the Polish population who had hardly any sympathy for the legacy of Prussia, partially due to numerous attempts throughout history to annex various Polish territories with their subsequent artificial renaming as another part of Prussia in order to imply their originally Prussian history (see above), while

10086-527: The former Klaipėda Region were fired from their jobs and otherwise discriminated against. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, some Prussian Lithuanians and their descendants did not regain lost property in the Klaipėda region. Prussia as a political entity was abolished on 25 February 1947 by decree of the Allied Control Council . The decree declared that Prussia from early days had been

10209-500: The future perfect tense with the structure be.fut + inf , for example: (Já) Bénde koménderowač . The conjugation of regular verbs usually ending in -ač , for example znač (to know). á will shorten to a if the word has more than one syllable. For example: The conjugation of regular verbs usually ending in -eč , for example mÿšléč (to think). The conjugation of regular verbs usually ending in -owač ", for example "koménderowač" (to give an order to someone). To create

10332-400: The given phoneme. The shift of initial ja-, ra- > je-, re- is present but limited to particular words: jek (jak), reno (rano). Medial -ar- shifts to -er-: rozwer: (rozwarł), w mercu (w marcu), łosiera (ofiara). Ablaut is often levelled: wietrak (wiatrak). Often y merges with i: pisk (pysk). Slanted á may be retained as á (more common in the central part), or sometimes merge with

10455-438: The governments of Berlin and Brandenburg proposed to merge the states in order to form a new state with the name of "Berlin-Brandenburg", though some suggested calling the proposed new state "Prussia", in spite of the territories being located far away from the region of Prussia. The merger was rejected in a plebiscite in 1996 – while West Berliners voted for a merger, East Berliners and Brandenburgers voted against it. In 1525,

10578-629: The hallway, telling the room servie girl: "Dear madam, I have got a situation here, I have spilled cream and now it is splattered all over the napkin and the carpet. Would you please be so kind to bring me a cleaning rag." The girl rushes to the manager: "There is a foreigner in room #77, whom I cannot understand at all." Prussia (region) Prussia ( Polish : Prusy [ˈprusɨ] ; Lithuanian : Prūsija ; Russian : Пруссия [ˈprusʲ(ː)ɪjə] ; Prussian : Prūsa ; German : Preußen [ˈpʁɔʏsn̩] ; Latin : Pruthenia / Prussia / Borussia )

10701-400: The historically Polish Pomerelia (Vistula Pomerania) formed the newly established province of West Prussia , while the name Pomerania/Pomerelia was avoided by Prussian and later German authorities in relation to this region, aiming to eradicate its usage completely. The historically Prussian Warmia was in turn integrated into East Prussia . In contrast, the Lauenburg and Bütow Land and

10824-406: The instrumental plural ending -ami: ńemeck’i (niemiecki), nasto (miasto), myck’i (czapki), cepamy (cepami). św’, ćw’ i dźw’ typically harden: śfat (świat). Soft forms occur more often before front vowels, but not only: śf’at (świat), śf’eće (świecie). Fricative rz is retained by some speakers; however by the early 20th century it was already rare and present mostly among older speakers, and today

10947-573: The knowledge of the ethnolect both in Poland and Germany. However, the elderly can communicate in Masurian with some fluency. The sole group who speak Masurian on a daily basis are the so-called Russian Masurians, who are the descendants of colonists who arrived in Siberia at the end of the 19th century. They have lived in isolation from the other groups, thus they were neither Germanized nor Polonized, although their speech acquired many Russian loanwords. Nowadays, there are several organizations promoting

11070-579: The language of the few non-displaced people was subjected to severe repression after 1945, which meant that the active use of the language was even lower than in Germany. In both countries, the High Prussian dialects were not transmitted to the next generation, therefore, few elderly speakers remain. The German minority in Poland, recognized since 1991, uses Standard German. Subdialects of High Prussian are: High Prussian dialects were spoken mainly in

11193-718: The last Grand Master reigning in the State of the Teutonic Order , Albert of Brandenburg , a member of a cadet branch of the House of Hohenzollern , adopted the Lutheran faith, resigned his position, and assumed the title of " Duke of Prussia ". In a deal partially brokered by Martin Luther , the Duchy of Prussia became the first Protestant state and a vassal of Poland. The ducal capital of Königsberg , now Kaliningrad , became

11316-578: The leader of the city's anti-Elector opposition Hieronymus Roth . In 1663, the city burghers, forced by Elector Frederick William , swore an oath of allegiance to him, however, in the same ceremony they still also pledged allegiance to Poland. Taking advantage of the fact that Ducal Prussia lay outside of the Holy Roman Empire , Frederick I achieved the elevation of the duchy to a kingdom in 1701, styling himself King in Prussia , because his kingdom included only part of historic Prussia, and

11439-530: The legendary king Widewuto , who lived in the 6th century. The regions of Prussia and the corresponding tribes are said to bear the names of Widewuto's sons — for example, Sudovia is named after Widewuto's son Sudo. The Old Prussians spoke a variety of languages, with Old Prussian belonging to the Western branch of the Baltic language group . Old Prussian, or related Western Baltic dialects, may have been spoken as far southeast as Masovia and even Belarus in

11562-567: The local dialects of Mohrungen we the transition forms. The last two Wenker sentences (Nr. 39 and 40) should exemplify this: According to Stuhrmann, Mitzka, Ziesemer, Teßmann Oberländisch forms a uniform subdialect. According to Kuck and more recent Szulc the language of the former district of Rosenberg had a special subdialect of High Prussian, which they called Rosenbergisch . The phonological characteristics mentioned above for Breslauisch do mostly apply to Oberlänisch, too, and are therefore common High Prussian features. The following features are

11685-522: The material was not sufficient to allow a reliable location of the origin of High Prussian. While the spread of words like brüh ("hot") and Mache ("girl) would lead to the conclusion of High Prussian being of Silesian origin, other words contradict it. These lead to different regional dialects in Eastern Central Germany or to even wider spread among the dialects of Central German. According to Riemann, we must therefore reckon with

11808-495: The meaning of the designation of Prussia by transferring the northern part of Netze District , a fragment of Greater Poland detached from its bulk (the Grand Duchy of Posen ), to West Prussia , while the district's easternmost fragment was awarded to the Russian-ruled Congress Poland . Though the Kingdom of Prussia was a member of the German Confederation established by the Congress of Vienna as

11931-415: The most common, except in the north-east where szi, żi are more common. ć and dź more commonly harden in the north due to German influence. Elsewhere, soft realizations are more common. A few cases of kaszubienie can be found. Masurian has three to five dialects: In the singular it is possible to replace u with ÿ for example: (Já) buł/bÿł, tÿsź buł/bÿł, (Ón) buł/bÿł. It is also possible to create

12054-1041: The most prominent ones: Teßmann lists the following features as prominent: A mixture of Oberländisch substrate, or regiolect, was spoken in Elbing. August Schemionek published the following anectode in 1881, in which the regiolect of Elbing is featured: Ein Elbinger kommt nach Dresden und frühstückt im Hotel auf seinem Zimmer, wobei ihm der Napf mit Sahne umfällt. Er eilt nach dem Flur, wo er der Schleußerin zuruft: "Trautstes Margellche, öch hoab Mallöhr gehatt, der Schmandtopp es mer umgekäkelt on Salwiött on Teppich eene Gloms. Bring se urschend e Seelader rauffert." Die Schleußerin eilt zum Oberkellner: "Auf Nr. 77 sei ein Ausländer, dem sie kein Wort verstehen könne." A man from Elbing visits Dresden and has breakfirst in his hotel room, when he spills his milk jug full of cream. He rushes to

12177-476: The name West Prussia was always regarded in Poland as an artificial German invention. In the case of East Prussia (the original Prussia), Polish authorities promoted using the designations of Powiśle in the case of Pomesania and Pogesania, approximately translated in English: “Vistula Plains” , Warmia in the case of the former Prince-Bishopric of Warmia and Masuria in the case of the remainder of Polish share of

12300-672: The name of Regierungsbezirk Zichenau , as well as of the Suwałki Region , both referred to as South East Prussia , in relation to the New East Prussia of the times of Polish Partitions (see above). At the same time, the Regierungsbezirk Westpreussen was separated from East Prussia and integrated into Reichsgau Danzig-Westpreussen . In the aftermath of the German attack on the Soviet Union in June 1941,

12423-613: The name of the wider province, which, however, also included the Malbork Voivodeship and the Prince-Bishopric of Warmia , covering the Prussian historical areas of Pomesania , Pogesania and Warmia , the only actual Prussian territories of the province, while the rump Teutonic state, called the Monastic Prussia thereafter, formed a part of Poland as a fief, finally secularised in 1525 to become

12546-403: The phonemes s, z and ż sz from rz. This confusion with rz can sometimes result in mazuration of rz as well as hypercorrections, which contributes to the loss of mazuration of ż and sz. sz shows more fluctuation than ż. However, mazuration still predominates, with żi being less common and ź being rare. Fricative rz was very common at the beginning 20th century; by the middle of the 20th century it

12669-593: The ports of Gdańsk and Gdynia to neutral Sweden . Beginning in 1944 with the East Prussian offensive of Soviet troops, the German-speaking population was evacuated . The province of East Prussia ceased to exist in 1945, following the Potsdam Agreement , when it was divided between Poland and the Soviet Union , with the latter dividing its part further between the Lithuanian SSR and

12792-401: The region from Poland, integrating it into their monastic state , which already included historical Prussia, located east of the region. After the acquisition of Pomerelia in 1308–1310, the meaning of the term Prussia was widened in the German terminology to include areas west of the Vistula , including Vistula/Eastern Pomerania, although it was never inhabited by Baltic Prussians but by

12915-577: The region mostly for Polish prisoners, as well as several subcamps of the Stutthof concentration camp , and several prisoner-of-war camps for Allied POWs, including Polish, Belgian, British, French , Dutch, Serbian, Italian, Soviet, Australian, Canadian, New Zealander, South African, such as Stalag I-A , Stalag I-B , Stalag I-C , Stalag I-D, Stalag XX-B , Stalag Luft VI and Oflags 52, 53, 60 and 63 with numerous forced labour subcamps. Many expelled Poles from German-occupied Poland were enslaved by

13038-465: The region of Prussia remains divided between northern Poland (most of the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship , and the four counties of Pomeranian Voivodeship east of Vistula ), Russia 's Kaliningrad exclave , and southwestern Lithuania (former Klaipėda Region ). Indo-European settlers first arrived in the region during the 4th millennium BC, which in the Baltic would diversify into the satem Balto-Slavic branch which would ultimately give rise to

13161-418: The ruling Electors of Brandenburg , in 1618, and Polish sovereignty over the duchy ended in 1657 with the Treaty of Wehlau . There was strong opposition to the separation of the region from Poland, especially in Königsberg. A confederation was formed in the city to maintain Poland's sovereignty over the city and region. The Brandenburg Elector and his army, however, entered the city and abducted and imprisoned

13284-522: The southeastern shores of the Baltic Sea in the 7th and 8th centuries. The largest trade centres of the Prussians, such as Truso and Kaup , seem to have absorbed a number of Norse people . Prussians used the Baltic Sea as a trading route, frequently travelling from Truso to Birka (in present-day Sweden ). At the end of the Viking Age , the sons of Danish kings Harald Bluetooth and Cnut

13407-555: The support of the Holy Roman Empire , and the Western nobility (e.g. French, English). The Teutonic Knights soon turned against their Polish benefactors in the same way, as they earlier did in Hungary. The Polish region of Pomerelia (including Gdańsk Pomerania and the city of Gdańsk as its parts) which was never inhabited by the Old Prussians , and which was called Pomorze ('Pomerania') in Polish language since

13530-746: The territory and its inhabitants. Pliny the Elder had already confirmed that the Romans had navigated into the waters beyond the Cimbric peninsula ( Jutland ). Suiones , Sitones , Goths and other Germanic people had temporarily settled to the east and west of the Vistula River during the Migration Period , adjacent to the Aesti , who lived further to the east. The region's inhabitants of

13653-732: The territory as Mentenomon and to the inhabitants as Guttones (neighbours of the Teutones , probably referring to the Goths ). A river to the east of the Vistula was called the Guttalus , perhaps corresponding to the Nemunas , the Łyna , or the Pregola . In AD 98 Tacitus described one of the tribes living near the Baltic Sea ( Latin : Mare Suebicum ) as Aestiorum gentes and amber -gatherers. The Vikings started to penetrate

13776-631: The time of the Protestant Reformation , Prussia having become Lutheran in 1525. The Masurians were mostly of the Protestant faith, in contrast to the neighboring Roman Catholic people of the Duchy of Masovia , which was incorporated into the Polish kingdom in 1526. A new dialect developed in Prussia, isolated from the remaining Polish language area. The Masurian dialect group has many Low Saxon , German and Old Prussian words mixed in with Polish-language endings. Beginning in

13899-714: The title King of Prussia was still held by the Polish monarchs. Lithuanian culture thrived in the part of the region known as Lithuania Minor , while the Kursenieki lived along the coast in the vicinity of the Curonian and Vistula Spits . The Old Prussian language had mostly disappeared by 1700. The last speakers may have died in the plague and famine that ravaged Prussia in 1709 to 1711. In 1724, King Frederick William I of Prussia prohibited Poles , Samogitians and Jews from settling in Lithuania Minor in

14022-607: The west of Pomerelia, the Lębork and Bytów Land, was granted to the rulers of the Duchy of Pomerania as a Polish fief before it was reintegrated with Poland in 1637, and later again transformed into a Polish fief , which it remained along the Starostwo of Draheim until the First Partition of Poland . The realm of the King in Prussia established in 1701 from the former Ducal Prussia subsequently entered into an alliance with Austria and Russia, invading Polish territories of Royal Prussia. In

14145-409: The west, a hard pronunciation is most common. cz is most commonly merged with c, but words related to education often have cz, spread through schools. Rarely it may soften to czi or ć. dż is generally realized az dz, but is not a common enough phone to establish statistics. ż and sz show much more fluctuation, due to influence from both Standard Polish as well as German, but also the common presence of

14268-707: Was forbidden to hold church services in Masurian. The replacement of Masurian in favor of German was not completed by the time the Soviet Red Army conquered Masurian East Prussia in January 1945, in World War II . The territory was transferred to Poland according to the postwar Potsdam Conference . During the wartime fighting and post-war deportations in the subsequent decades, most Masurian-speakers left Masuria for western Germany, especially to post-war West Germany , where they were quickly assimilated into

14391-559: Was held on July 11, 1920, according to the Treaty of Versailles , in which the Masurians had to decide whether they wanted to be part of the Second Polish Republic or remain in German East Prussia; about 98% voted for Germany. By the early 20th century, most Masurians were at least bilingual and could speak Low Saxon and German; in some areas about half of them still spoke Masurian, at least at home. In 1900, according to

14514-559: Was reintegrated with Poland in 1466, the designation Pomerania was restored and used when referring to the Pomeranian Voivodeship (Gdańsk Pomerania) and the Chełmno Voivodeship , while the entire territory conquered by the Kingdom of Poland from the Teutonic Order was known as Royal Prussia . The latter also included, however, also the truly Prussian historical areas of Prince-Bishopric of Warmia , as well as

14637-606: Was returned to the Lithuanian SRR, while the remaining territory, annexed by the Russian FSSR, was in turn named the Kaliningrad Oblast in 1946. The inhabitants not evacuated during the war were expelled in accordance with the Potsdam Agreement, with the exception of Polish minorities of Powiślans , Warmians and Masurians , considered to be of Polish descent. The situation was different, however, for

14760-409: Was still used by some speakers, generally being replaced with ż/sz or rarely r: rec-i (rzeczy). Similarly, the palatal sibilants ś, ź, ć, dź may be realized in many ways. Sometimes they are the same as in Standard Polish. They may also harden to szi, żi, czi, and dżi, or as sz, ż, cz, dż. Most rarely, they may completely depatalize. ś ź show more fluctuation than ć dź. Palatal pronunciations of ś ź are

14883-478: Was termed Polish Pomerania ( Pomorze Polskie ) since at least the 18th century to distinguish it from Hither and Farther Pomerania , territories long outside of Polish rule. In the late 19th century this term was used in order to underline Polish claims to that area that was then ruled by the German Kingdom of Prussia . The designation of Polish Pomerania became obsolete since Farther Pomerania and

15006-476: Was that the upper class emigrating to Prussia, most of which is known have come from Thuringia, would have brought their peasants with them. Walther Mitzka disputed this insisting on using linguistic criteria only. He determined that High Prussian deviated from the Silesian characteristics recognized as such in linguisitcs, leading him to conclusion that High Prussian could not be of Silesian origin. Instead, within

15129-687: Was to grant Masurians some minority laws inside Germany, but there were also some separatists. In the early 1930s, support for the Nazi Party was high in Masuria, especially in elections in 1932 and 1933. Nazi political rallies were organized in the Masurian dialect during the campaigning. After 1933 the usage of the Masurian dialect was prohibited by the National Socialist authorities. By 1938 most Masurian place and personal names had been changed to "pure" German substitutes. From 1939 on it

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