Higinio Nicolás Morínigo Martínez (11 January 1897 – 27 January 1983) was a Paraguayan military officer and politician who served as the 35th president of Paraguay from 1940 to 1948, ruling as a military dictator .
95-531: Born to a mestizo family, Morínigo pursued a military career, serving as a prominent officer of the Paraguayan Army during the Chaco War . After the war he served in the cabinet of liberal President Félix Paiva . In May 1940, Morínigo was appointed Minister of War by President José Félix Estigarribia . After Estigarribia's death on 7 September, Morínigo succeeded him as acting president . Due to
190-530: A mestiço to be classified as pardo or caboclo. In Brazil specifically, at least in modern times, all non-Indigenous people are considered to be a single ethnicity ( os brasileiros . Lines between ethnic groups are historically fluid); since the earliest years of the Brazilian colony, the mestiço group has been the most numerous among the free people. As explained above, the concept of mestiço should not be confused with mestizo as used in either
285-652: A Semite /Afro Asiatic. This term was first documented in English in 1582. Mestizo ( Spanish: [mesˈtiθo] or [mesˈtiso] ), mestiço ( Portuguese: [mɨʃˈtisu] or [mesˈtʃisu] ), métis ( French: [meti(s)] ), mestís ( Catalan: [məsˈtis] ), Mischling ( German: [ˈmɪʃlɪŋ] ), meticcio ( Italian: [meˈtittʃo] ), mestiezen ( Dutch: [mɛsˈtizə(n)] ), mestee ( Middle English: [məsˈtiː] ), and mixed are all cognates of
380-476: A castizo ; and a castizo and a Spaniard, a Spaniard. The admixture of Indian blood should not indeed be regarded as a blemish, since the provisions of law give the Indian all that he could wish for, and Philip II granted to mestizos the privilege of becoming priests. On this consideration is based the common estimation of descent from a union of Indian and European or creole Spaniard." O’Crouley states that
475-556: A blanket term that not only refers to mixed Mexicans but includes all Mexican citizens who do not speak Indigenous languages Sometimes, particularly outside of Mexico, the word "mestizo" is used with the meaning of Mexican persons with mixed Indigenous and European blood. This usage does not conform to the Mexican social reality where a person of pure Indigenous ancestry would be considered mestizo either by rejecting his Indigenous culture or by not speaking an Indigenous language, and
570-685: A few months earlier that gave the president sweeping executive powers. To strengthen his authority, on February 4, 1941, Morínigo removed the influential Colonel Peredes from the post of interior minister . On April 17, 1941, he suppressed a febrerista uprising by supporters of the February Revolution . On April 25, 1942, he banned the Liberal Party, accusing them of conspiring with the Bolivians and exiled Party's leaders. Morínigo's only remaining supporters were radicals from
665-455: A half and two-thirds of the population, while others use the culture-based definition, and estimate the percentage of mestizos as high as 90% of the Mexican population, several others mix-up both due lack of knowledge in regards to the modern definition and assert that mixed ethnicity Mexicans are as much as 93% of Mexico's population. Paradoxically to its wide definition, the word mestizo has long been dropped off popular Mexican vocabulary, with
760-443: A loanword from French, refers to persons of mixed French or European and Indigenous ancestry, who were part of a particular ethnic group. French-speaking Canadians, when using the word métis , are referring to Canadian Métis ethnicity, and all persons of mixed Indigenous and European ancestry. Many were involved in the fur trade with Canadian First Nations peoples (especially Cree and Anishinaabeg ). Over generations, they developed
855-617: A means to retain power, on June 3 some Colorado Party loyalists under Felipe Molas López revolted and sent him into exile in Argentina. Supreme Court Chief Justice Juan Manuel Frutos was sworn in as interim president, serving the last two months of Morínigo's term until González was officially inaugurated on August 15, 1948. Mestizo Mestizo ( / m ɛ ˈ s t iː z oʊ , m ɪ ˈ -/ mest- EE -zoh, mist- , Spanish: [mesˈtiθo] or [mesˈtiso] ; fem. mestiza , literally 'mixed person')
950-520: A person with none or very low Indigenous ancestry would be considered Indigenous either by speaking an Indigenous language or by identifying with a particular Indigenous cultural heritage. In the Yucatán Peninsula , the word mestizo has a different meaning to the one used in the rest of Mexico, being used to refer to the Maya -speaking populations living in traditional communities, because during
1045-637: A person's life. Artwork created mainly in eighteenth-century Mexico, " casta paintings ," show groupings of racial types in hierarchical order, which has influenced the way that modern scholars have conceived of social difference in Spanish America. During the initial period of colonization of the Americas by the Spanish, there were three chief categories of ethnicities: Spaniard ( español ), American Indian ( indio ), and African ( negro ). Throughout
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#17327811474611140-407: A report on a genomic study of 300 mestizos from those same states. The study found that the mestizo population of these Mexican states were on average 55% of Indigenous ancestry followed by 41.8% of European, 1.8% of African, and 1.2% of East Asian ancestry. The study also noted that whereas mestizo individuals from the southern state of Guerrero showed on average 66% of Indigenous ancestry, those from
1235-603: A separate culture of hunters and trappers, and were concentrated in the Red River Valley and speak the Michif language . In the Spanish colonial period , the Spanish developed a complex set of racial terms and ways to describe difference. Although this has been conceived of as a "system," and often called the sistema de castas or sociedad de castas , archival research shows that racial labels were not fixed throughout
1330-459: A state of siege, which gave him the right to suspend civil liberties and arrest and detain people without trial. In a midday radio address announcing these measures, Morínigo declared, "The people and the Army from this moment will be under a single command." In his self-coup and subsequent rule, he was greatly assisted by the 1940 Constitution, a severely authoritarian document written by Estigarribia
1425-682: A synonym for miscegenation , but with positive connotations. In the modern era, particularly in Latin America, mestizo has become more of a cultural term, with the term indio being reserved exclusively for people who have maintained a separate Indigenous ethnic and cultural identity, language , tribal affiliation, community engagement, etc. In late 19th- and early 20th-century Peru , for instance, mestizaje denoted those peoples with evidence of Euro-indigenous ethno-racial "descent" and access—usually monetary access, but not always—to secondary educational institutions. Similarly, well before
1520-541: A total of 35%, while Indigenous peoples comprise the remaining 5%. A genetic study by the same university showed that the average Chilean's genes in the Mestizo segment are 60% European and 40% Indigenous American. As Easter Island is a territory of Chile and the native settlers are Rapa Nui , descendants of intermarriages of European Chileans (mostly Spanish) and Rapa Nui are even considered by Chilean law as mestizos. Gui%C3%B3n Rojo The Guión Rojo (Red Banner)
1615-531: A well-known intellectual, journalist, historian and writer, was inclined towards political romanticism. González combined national populist views with the idea of a Colorado corporate fraternity. Guión Rojo militants understood his slogan "Colorado will not be poor" as a sanction for permissiveness. In 1940, the military dictatorship of Higinio Morínigo was established in Paraguay. His regime held strong nationalist and anti-communist beliefs and showed sympathy for
1710-417: Is a Spanish word that derives from Latino . Ladino is an exonym dating to the colonial era to refer to those Spanish-speakers who were not colonial elites ( Peninsulares and Criollos ), or Indigenous peoples. As of 2012 , most Costa Ricans are primarily of Spanish or mestizo ancestry with minorities of German, Italian, Jamaican, and Greek ancestry. European migrants used Costa Rica to get across
1805-711: Is a person of mixed European and Indigenous American ancestry in the former Spanish Empire . In certain regions such as Latin America , it may also refer to people who are culturally European even though their ancestors were Indigenous. The term was used as an ethno-racial exonym for mixed-race castas that evolved during the Spanish Empire . It was a formal label for individuals in official documents, such as censuses , parish registers , Inquisition trials, and others. Priests and royal officials might have classified persons as mestizos, but individuals also used
1900-448: Is a significant Arab population (of about 100,000), mostly from Palestine (especially from the area of Bethlehem), but also from Lebanon. Salvadorans of Palestinian descent numbered around 70,000 individuals, while Salvadorans of Lebanese descent is around 27,000. There is also a small community of Jews who came to El Salvador from France, Germany, Morocco, Tunisia, and Turkey. Many of these Arab groups naturally mixed and contributed into
1995-405: Is more commonly connected to language families in both urban and rural vernacular. During the colonial era of Mexico, the category Mestizo was used rather flexibly to register births in local parishes and its use did not follow any strict genealogical pattern. With Mexican independence, in academic circles created by the " mestizaje " or " Cosmic Race " ideology, scholars asserted that Mestizos are
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#17327811474612090-532: The Araucanian ... In Chile, from the time the Spanish soldiers with Pedro de Valdivia entered northern Chile, a process of 'mestizaje' began where Spaniards began to intermarry and reproduce with the local bellicose Mapuche population of Indigenous Chileans to produce an overwhelmingly mestizo population during the first generation in all of the cities they founded. In Southern Chile, the Mapuche, were one of
2185-715: The Axis Powers . Therefore, the Colorado Party, led by González, supported the Morínigo regime. Since 1942, the Guión Rojo acted as a pro-government power structure. The militants of the organization carried out attacks and took part in violence against liberal and febrerista opposition figures. Opposition newspapers were shut down and their publishers exiled. At the same time, relying on the "Gionists", González strengthened his own positions, gradually intercepting
2280-493: The Caste War of Yucatán of the late 19th century those Maya who did not join the rebellion were classified as mestizos. In Chiapas, the term Ladino is used instead of Mestizo. Due to the extensiveness of the modern definition of mestizo, various publications offer different estimations of this group, some try to use a biological, racial perspective and calculate the mestizo population in contemporary Mexico as being around
2375-705: The Colorado Party and the Army. During his dictatorship he faced widespread resistance, including general strikes and military revolts, but he survived by maintaining the loyalty of the Paraguayan Army, which received 45% of the country's budget. Morínigo relied on the right-wing Colorado faction Guión Rojo (the "Red Banner"), led by Juan Natalico Gonzalez , as a paramilitary police force to intimidate febreristas and Liberals. Opposition newspapers were shut down and publishers exiled. Morínigo finally held presidential elections on February 15, 1943; he
2470-595: The Latin word mixticius . The Portuguese cognate , mestiço , historically referred to any mixture of Portuguese and local populations in the Portuguese colonies . In colonial Brazil , most of the non-enslaved population was initially mestiço de indio , i.e. mixed Portuguese and Native Brazilian . There was no descent-based casta system, and children of upper-class Portuguese landlord males and enslaved females enjoyed privileges higher than those given to
2565-779: The Paraguayan Communist Party . Despite all this, in September 1946 he ordered suppression of opposition groups and used the Red Banner paramilitary group to attack the office of the Liberal newspaper El País . Feeling that Morínigo was favouring the right-wing Colorados, the febreristas made common cause with the Liberal Party and the Communist Party in the Civil War of 1947 . The relaxation of
2660-507: The World League for Freedom and Democracy anti-communist organization. Eventually, the group would come to support Paraguayan General Alfredo Stroessner , who was ideologically close to them and launched his own coup in 1954 to seize power for himself. The Guión Rojo were strongly associated with Juan Natalicio González, whom Stroessner considered a dangerous competitor. Even though Natalicio did not engage in oppositional activities,
2755-523: The 20th century, Euramerican "descent" did not necessarily denote Iberian American ancestry or solely Spanish American ancestry (distinct Portuguese administrative classification: mestiço ), especially in Andean regions re-infrastructured by Euramerican "modernities" and buffeted by mining labor practices. This conception changed by the 1920s, especially after the national advancement and cultural economics of indigenismo . To avoid confusion with
2850-580: The Axis in February 1945, without sending any soldiers to fight. A surge of German influence in the region and Argentina's pro-Axis leanings alarmed the United States, which sought to wean Paraguay away from German and Argentine influence. At the same time, the United States sought to enhance its presence in the region and pursued close cooperation with Brazil, Argentina's traditional rival. To this end,
2945-496: The Colorados were the only legal party in Paraguay. On February 15, 1948, Morínigo organized presidential elections which were won by the only candidate allowed to run, Juan Natalicio González —leader of the Colorado Party's Red Banner faction In return for his support of Gonzalez for president, Morínigo would have continued as commander-in-chief once he relinquished the presidency. Suspecting that Morínigo intended to use this as
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3040-571: The Inquisition. The first sizable group of self-identified Jews immigrated from Poland, beginning in 1929. From the 1930s to the early 1950s, journalistic and official antisemitic campaigns fueled harassment of Jews; however, by the 1950s and 1960s, the immigrants won greater acceptance. Most of the 3,500 Costa Rican Jews today are not highly observant, but they remain largely endogamous. Costa Rica has four small minority groups: Mulattos , Afro , Indigenous Costa Ricas , and Asians . About 8% of
3135-669: The Republic of Spaniards ( República de Españoles ) comprised the Spanish (Españoles) and all other non-Indian peoples. Indians were free vassals of the crown, whose commoners paid tribute while Indigenous elites were considered nobles and tribute exempt, as were Mestizos. Indians were nominally protected by the crown, with non-Indians (Mestizos, blacks, and mulattoes) forbidden to live in Indigenous communities. Mestizos and Indians in Mexico habitually held each other in mutual antipathy. This
3230-567: The Spanish-speaking world or the English-speaking one. It does not relate to being of Indigenous American ancestry, and is not used interchangeably with pardo , literally "brown people". (There are mestiços among all major groups of the country: Indigenous, Asian, pardo , and African, and they likely constitute the majority in the three latter groups.) In English-speaking Canada, Canadian Métis (capitalized), as
3325-502: The United States defined its interests in terms of resisting the fascist threat, Paraguayan officials believed their best interests lay in economic expediency and were reluctant to antagonize Germany until the outcome of the war was no longer in doubt. Many Paraguayans believed Germany was no more of a threat to Paraguay's sovereignty than the United States. Much to the displeasure of the United States and Britain, Morínigo refused to act against German economic and diplomatic interests until
3420-468: The United States gave the United States the leverage it needed, however, to force Morínigo to commit himself publicly to the Allied cause. Morínigo officially severed diplomatic relations with the Axis countries in 1942, although he did not declare war against Germany until February 1945. Nonetheless, Morínigo continued to maintain close relations with the heavily German-influenced Argentine military throughout
3515-588: The United States provided to Paraguay sizable amounts of funds and supplies under the Lend-Lease Agreement, provided loans for public works, and gave technical assistance in agriculture and health care. The United States Department of State approved of closer ties between Brazil and Paraguay and especially supported Brazil's offer to finance a road project designed to reduce Paraguay's dependence on Argentina. United States protests over German and Argentine activities in Paraguay fell on deaf ears. While
3610-815: The average Mexican mestizo was predominantly European (64.9%), followed by Indigenous American (30.8%), and African (4.2%). The European ancestry was more prevalent in the north and west (66.7–95%) and Indigenous American ancestry increased in the centre and south-east (37–50%), the African ancestry was low and relatively homogeneous (0–8.8%). The states that participated in this study were Aguascalientes, Chiapas, Chihuahua, Durango, Guerrero, Jalisco, Oaxaca, Sinaloa, Veracruz and Yucatán. A study of 104 mestizos from Sonora, Yucatán, Guerrero, Zacatecas, Veracruz, and Guanajuato by Mexico's National Institute of Genomic Medicine, reported that mestizo Mexicans are 58.96% European, 31.05% Indigenous American, and 10.03% African. Sonora shows
3705-404: The child was raised in the Indigenous world of the mother if he did not. As early as 1533, Charles V mandated the high court ( Audiencia ) to take the children of Spanish men and Indigenous women from their mothers and educate them in the Spanish sphere. This mixed group born out of Christian wedlock increased in numbers, generally living in their mother's Indigenous communities. Mestizos were
3800-553: The colonial times, eventually came to mix and merged into the much larger and vaster Mestizo mixed European Spanish/Native Indigenous population creating Pardo or Afromestizos who cluster with Mestizo people, contributing into the modern day Mestizo population in El Salvador, thus, there remains no significant extremes of African physiognomy among Salvadorans like there is in the other countries of Central America. Today, many Salvadorans identify themselves as being culturally part of
3895-609: The contemporary sense has been the closest to the historical usage from the Middle Ages. Because of important linguistic and historical differences, mestiço (mixed, mixed-ethnicity, miscegenation, etc.) is separated altogether from pardo (which refers to any kind of brown people) and caboclo (brown people originally of European–Indigenous American admixture, or assimilated Indigenous American). The term mestiços can also refer to fully African or East Asian in their full definition (thus not brown). One does not need to be
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3990-421: The dictatorship was used by political parties to assert their influence in state institutions. In January 1947 officers loyal to the Colorado Party gained control of the army, and on January 11 febreristas quit the government and called on the army to overthrow Morínigo, who responded by declaring a state of siege and arresting febreristas , Liberals and Communists. On March 7 a bloody civil war started. Despite
4085-607: The end of the decade, in general, two opposing blocs had formed: on the right the Colorado Party , and on the left the Liberal and Revolutionary Febrerista , with the Communist Party adjoining them. The Paraguayan army and state apparatus had their own goals, putting forward ambitious authoritarian politicians from their midst. In the countryside, the conservative Colorado Party relied on 15,000-strong Py Nandi peasant militia . These formations were recruited mainly from
4180-407: The establishment of Alfredo Stroessner 's dictatorship. Paramilitary formations have a long association with Paraguayan politics. A surge in their activity came in the 1930s. This was facilitated by the entry into politics of many veterans of the Chaco War and the political crisis of the February Revolution of 1936 , described as "a joint Marxist - fascist coup against the liberal government". By
4275-412: The fact that 80% of soldiers and 90% of officers were against him, Morínigo had the backing of Colorado party militias and Argentinian President Juan Peron ; he managed to win a conflict that caused many thousand deaths and up to 300,000 people to flee as refugees. The future dictator Alfredo Stroessner was one of the few officers who remained loyal to Morínigo during the civil war. For the next 15 years,
4370-699: The first group in the colonial era to be designated as a separate category from the Spanish (Españoles) and enslaved African blacks ( Negros ) and were included in the designation of "vagabonds" ( vagabundos ) in 1543 in Mexico. Although Mestizos were often classified as castas , they had a higher standing than any mixed-race person since they did not have to pay tribute, the men could be ordained as priests, and they could be licensed to carry weapons, in contrast to negros , mulattoes, and other castas. Unlike Blacks and mulattoes, Mestizos had no African ancestors. Intermarriage between Españoles and Mestizos resulted in offspring designated Castizos ("three-quarters white"), and
4465-423: The following definition: "The Ladino population has been characterized as a heterogeneous population which expresses itself in the Spanish language as a maternal language, which possesses specific cultural traits of Hispanic origin mixed with Indigenous cultural elements, and dresses in a style commonly considered as western." Initially colonial Argentina and Uruguay had a predominantly mestizo population like
4560-495: The functions of Guión Rojo continued to be performed by Py Nandi and other Stronist assault brigades - Pastor Coronel 's Macheteros de Santani, Ramón Aquino 's Garroteros and Eugenio Jacquet 's Grupos de Acción Anticomunista. The term "Guión Rojo" became collective name for the far right wing of the Colorado Party. One of the constituent groups of the modern Colorado Party bears the name Movimiento Guión Rojo. Its leaders Miguel Angel Sithar and Nya Delo are positioned as bearers of
4655-527: The highest European contribution (70.63%) and Guerrero the lowest (51.98%) which also has the highest Indigenous American contribution (37.17%). African contribution ranges from 2.8% in Sonora to 11.13% in Veracruz . 80% of the Mexican population was classed as mestizo (defined as "being racially mixed in some degree"). In May 2009, the same institution (Mexico's National Institute of Genomic Medicine) issued
4750-590: The idea of "(racism) not existing here (in Mexico), as everybody is mestizo." Anthropologist Federico Navarrete concludes that reintroducing racial classification, and accepting itself as a multicultural country, as opposed to a monolithic mestizo country, would bring benefits to Mexican society as a whole. A 2012 study published by the Journal of Human Genetics found that the Y-chromosome (paternal) ancestry of
4845-556: The important Indigenous male mortality during the conquest. The genetics thus suggests the Native men were sharply reduced in numbers due to the war and disease. Large numbers of Spaniard men settled in the region and married or forced themselves with the local women. The Natives were forced to adopt Spanish names, language, and religion, and in this way, the Lencas and Pipil women and children were Hispanicized. This has made El Salvador one of
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#17327811474614940-649: The isthmus of Central America as well to reach the U.S. West Coast ( California ) in the late 19th century and until the 1910s (before the Panama Canal opened). Other ethnic groups known to live in Costa Rica include Nicaraguan, Colombians, Venezuelans, Peruvian, Brazilians, Portuguese, Palestinians , Caribbeans, Turks, Armenians, and Georgians. Many of the first Spanish colonists in Costa Rica may have been Jewish converts to Christianity who were expelled from Spain in 1492 and fled to colonial backwaters to avoid
5035-399: The levers of real power from Morinigo. In 1947, civil war broke out in Paraguay . A coalition of liberals, febreristas and communists, with the support of much of the army, tried to overthrow Morínigo. The military superiority was on the side of the opposition. The detachments of Guión Rojo and Py Nandi became the main force of the pro-government side. They played a very important role in
5130-548: The lower classes, such as formal education. Such cases were not so common and the children of enslaved women tended not to be allowed to inherit property. This right of inheritance was generally given to children of free women, who tended to be legitimate offspring in cases of concubinage (this was a common practice in certain Indigenous American and African cultures). In the Portuguese-speaking world,
5225-527: The majority Salvadoran mestizo population, even if they are racially European (especially Mediterranean), as well as Indigenous people in El Salvador who do not speak Indigenous languages nor have an Indigenous culture, and tri-racial/pardo Salvadorans or Arab Salvadorans. The Ladino population in Guatemala is officially recognized as a distinct ethnic group, and the Ministry of Education of Guatemala uses
5320-536: The majority are tri-racial Pardo Salvadorans who largely cluster with the Mestizo population. They have been mixed into and were naturally bred out by the general Mestizo population, which is a combination of a Mestizo majority and the minority of Pardo people, both of whom are racially mixed populations. A total of only 10,000 enslaved Africans were brought to El Salvador over the span of 75 years, starting around 1548, about 25 years after El Salvador's colonization. The enslaved Africans that were brought to El Salvador during
5415-404: The marriage of a castizo/a to an Español/a resulted in the restoration of Español/a status to the offspring. Don Alonso O’Crouley observed in Mexico (1774), "If the mixed-blood is the offspring of a Spaniard and an Indian, the stigma [of race mixture] disappears at the third step in descent because it is held as systematic that a Spaniard and an Indian produce a mestizo ; a mestizo and a Spaniard,
5510-482: The mestizo process or diseases brought by the Spaniards. Mestizo culture quickly became the most successful and dominant culture in El Salvador. The majority of Salvadorans in modern El Salvador identify themselves as 86.3% Mestizo roots. Historical evidence and census supports the explanation of "strong sexual asymmetry", as a result of a strong bias favoring children born to European man and Indigenous women, and to
5605-665: The modern Salvadoran Mestizo population. Pardo is the term that was used in colonial El Salvador to describe a person of tri-racial or Indigenous, European, and African descent. El Salvador is the only country in Central America that does not have a significant African population due to many factors including El Salvador not having a Caribbean coast, and because of president Maximiliano Hernández Martínez , who passed racial laws to keep people of African descent and others out of El Salvador, though Salvadorans with African ancestry , called Pardos, were already present in El Salvador,
5700-521: The nation. In Central America , intermarriage by European men with Indigenous women, typically of Lenca , Cacaopera and Pipil backgrounds in what is now El Salvador happened almost immediately after the arrival of the Spaniards led by Pedro de Alvarado . Other Indigenous groups in the country such as Maya Poqomam people , Maya Ch'orti' people , Alaguilac , Xinca people , Mixe and Mangue language people became culturally extinct due to
5795-515: The nationalization of Quechuan languages and Aymaran languages as "official languages of the State...wherever they predominate" has increasingly severed these languages from mestizaje as an exonym (and, in certain cases, indio ), with indigenous languages tied to linguistic areas as well as topographical and geographical contexts. La sierra from the Altiplano to Huascarán , for instance,
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#17327811474615890-511: The new constitution enacted by Estigarribia shortly before his death, which gave immense power to the president, Morínigo was able to establish a military dictatorship. In 1943, after three years serving as acting president, Morínigo was elected to a full term, having run unopposed as all political parties were banned. He was overthrown and was forced to resign in 1948 due to suspicions that he wanted to perpetuate himself in power, despite Juan Natalicio González being chosen as his successor, he
5985-404: The new head of state treated him with suspicion. Therefore, the authorities did not encourage the organizational activity of Guión Rojo. However, members such as Edgar Ynsfrán Juan Manuel Frutos Fleitas became high ranking government ministers and ideologues of the new dictatorship, which was to last for 35 years. After the death of Natalicio in 1966, the organization itself ceased to exist. However,
6080-688: The northern state of Sonora displayed about 61.6% European ancestry. The study found that there was an increase in Indigenous ancestry as one traveled towards to the Southern states in Mexico, while the Indigenous ancestry declined as one traveled to the Northern states in the country, such as Sonora. The Ladino people are a mix of Mestizo or Hispanicized peoples in Latin America , principally in Central America . The demonym Ladino
6175-468: The offspring of a castizo/a [mixed Spanish - Mestizo] and an Español/a could be considered Español/a, or "returned" to that status. Racial labels in a set of eighteenth-century Mexican casta paintings by Miguel Cabrera : In the early colonial period, the children of Spaniards and American Indians were raised either in the Hispanic world, if the father recognized the offspring as his natural child; or
6270-484: The only Indigenous tribes in the Americas that were in continuous conflict with the Spanish Empire and did not submit to a European power. But because Southern Chile was settled by German settlers in 1848, many mestizos include descendants of Mapuche and German settlers. A public health book from the University of Chile states that 60% of the population is of only European origin; mestizos are estimated to amount to
6365-584: The original usage of the term mestizo , mixed people started to be referred to collectively as castas . In some Latin American countries, such as Mexico , the concept of the Mestizo became central to the formation of a new independent identity that was neither wholly Spanish nor wholly Indigenous. The word mestizo acquired another meaning in the 1930 census, being used by the government to refer to all Mexicans who did not speak Indigenous languages regardless of ancestry. In 20th- and 21st-century Peru,
6460-460: The party's paramilitary structure. On the basis of the rural Py Nandi and the urban GAC s ( Grupos de Acción Colorada - Colorado Action Groups), another militia was created in 1942, called Guión Rojo (meaning Red Banner, as the color red is historically associated with Paraguayan conservatism). In this new organization, González saw an instrument to further his populist socio-economic doctrine, close to corporatism as well as his own ambitions for
6555-431: The population is of African descent or mulatto (mix of European and African) who are called Afro-Costa Ricans , English-speaking descendants of 19th century Afro- Jamaican immigrant workers. By the late 20th century, allusions in textbooks and political discourse to "whiteness," or to Spain as the "mother country" of all Costa Ricans, were diminishing, replaced with a recognition of the multiplicity of peoples that make up
6650-524: The presidency. Politically, Guión Rojo differed little from Py Nandi. However, there were noticeable differences in social composition and organizational structure. Guión Rojo included not only peasants, representatives of the low and middle bourgeoisie in the cities, and right-wing intellectuals. The structure was more strict, closer to the Colorado branches, with direct subordination to party functionaries and personally to Juan Natalicio González. González,
6745-439: The rest of the Spanish colonies, but due to a flood of European migration in the 19th century and the repeated intermarriage with Europeans, the mestizo population became a so-called Castizo population. With more Europeans arriving in the early 20th century, the majority of these immigrants coming from Italy and Spain , the face of Argentina and Uruguay has overwhelmingly become European in culture and tradition. Because of this,
6840-477: The result of the mixing of all the races. After the Mexican Revolution the government, in its attempts to create an unified Mexican identity with no racial distinctions, adopted and actively promoted the "mestizaje" ideology. The Spanish word mestizo is from Latin mixticius , meaning mixed. Its usage was documented as early as 1275, to refer to the offspring of an Egyptian/ Afro Hamite and
6935-588: The rural poor (in the Guaraní language , py nandi means "barefoot ones") who held strongly conservative and anti-communist views. The Py Nandi militants were notable for their particular brutality in reprisals against left-wing activists. The Spanish Civil War , with its ideologically driven militias and foreign intervention, prompted the Paraguayan far right to strengthen the paramilitary force. In 1938, Colorado leader Juan Natalicio González decided to reform
7030-554: The same juncture, after almost a century as a genre. Because the term had taken on a myriad of meanings, the designation "Mestizo" was actively removed from census counts in Mexico and is no longer in official nor governmental use. Around 50–90% of Mexicans can be classified as "mestizos", meaning in modern Mexican usage that they identify fully neither with any European heritage nor with an Indigenous ethnic group, but rather identify as having cultural traits incorporating both European and Indigenous elements. In Mexico, mestizo has become
7125-402: The same process of restoration of racial purity does not occur over generations for European-African offspring marrying whites. "From the union of a Spaniard and a Negro the mixed-blood retains the stigma for generations without losing the original quality of a mulato." The Spanish colonial regime divided groups into two basic legal categories, the Republic of Indians ( República de Indios ) and
7220-541: The spring and summer of 1948, Guión Rojo organized armed uprisings, which resulted in the overthrow of Morinigo and the ascent of González into power. The Guionists also participated in the suppression of the coup attempt in October 1948. However, following another coup, in January 1949, González was removed from power and emigrated from Paraguay. González's departure from politics reduced the Guión Rojo's activity. However,
7315-419: The structure continued to exist, consolidating Colorado's far-right forces and continuing its tradition of strong anti-communism and pro-fascist sympathies. Among the Guión Rojo's activists and ideologues were Edgar Ynsfrán , who romanticized the violent methods of the militants as "a barbaric struggle for the people's truth", and Juan Manuel Frutos Fleitas , who later became the head of the Paraguayan branch of
7410-466: The term Mestizo has fallen into disuse. Nevertheless, the cultural practice of the region is commonly centred on the figure of the Gaucho , which intrinsically mixes European and native traditions. Argentine Northwest still has a important mestizo population, especially in the provinces of Jujuy and Salta . The Chilean race, as everybody knows, is a Mestizo race made of Spanish conquistadors and
7505-492: The term in self-identification. With the Bourbon reforms and the independence of the Americas, the caste system disappeared and terms like "mestizo" fell in popularity. The noun mestizaje , derived from the adjective mestizo , is a term for racial mixing that did not come into usage until the 20th century; it was not a colonial-era term. In the modern era, mestizaje is used by scholars such as Gloria Anzaldúa as
7600-409: The territories of the Spanish Empire in the Americas, ways of differentiating individuals in a racial hierarchy, often called in the modern era the sistema de castas or the sociedad de castas , developed where society was divided based on color, calidad (status), and other factors. The main divisions were as follows: In theory, and as depicted in some eighteenth-century Mexican casta paintings,
7695-434: The very end of the war. German agents had successfully converted many Paraguayans to the Axis cause. South America's first Nazi Party branch had been founded in Paraguay in 1931. German immigrant schools, churches, hospitals, farmers' cooperatives, youth groups, and charitable societies became active Axis backers. All of those organizations prominently displayed swastikas and portraits of Adolf Hitler . Morínigo's regime
7790-467: The war and provided a haven for Axis spies and agents. The outbreak of World War II eased Morínigo's task of ruling Paraguay while keeping the army happy, because it stimulated demand for Paraguayan export products, such as meat, hides, and cotton, and boosted the country's export earnings. More important, United States policy toward Latin America at this time made Paraguay eligible for major economic assistance. Paraguay received American financial help which
7885-433: The war, allowing Morinigo to hold out until the mobilization of reinforcements, organized with Argentine help. After the defeat of the opposition, the Guión Rojo militants carried out brutal reprisals throughout the country against the defeated rebels. In February 1948, Juan Natalicio González was elected President of Paraguay. The political landscape had changed: Higinio Morínigo tried to prevent him from taking office. In
7980-406: The word sometimes having pejorative connotations, which further complicates attempts to quantify mestizos via self-identification. While for most of its history the concept of mestizo and mestizaje has been lauded by Mexico's intellectual circles, in recent times the concept has been a target of criticism, with its detractors claiming that it delegitimizes the importance of ethnicity in Mexico under
8075-538: The worlds most highly mixed race nations. In 1932, ruthless dictator Maximiliano Hernández Martínez was responsible for La Matanza ("The Slaughter"), known as the 1932 Salvadoran peasant massacre in which the Indigenous people were murdered in an effort to wipe out the Indigenous people in El Salvador during the 1932 Salvadoran peasant uprising. Indigenous peoples, mostly of Lenca, Cacaopera, and Pipil descent are still present in El Salvador in several communities, conserving their languages, customs, and traditions. There
8170-431: Was a Paraguayan paramilitary organization of the 1930-1950s, which was formed in 1942 as the paramilitary wing of the Colorado Party . It united supporters of Colorado leader Juan Natalicio González , far-right nationalists, anti-communists and adherents of Falangist and pro-fascist ideas. It played a prominent role under the dictatorial regime of the 1940s, in the civil war of 1947 , the subsequent political struggle and
8265-624: Was appointed the Army's Chief of Staff in 1936. Morínigo gained fame in Paraguay during the February Revolution of 1936 by heading an expedition to the site of the Battle of Cerro Corá to retrieve the remains of Francisco Solano López . President José Félix Estigarribia , himself a Chaco War hero and supporter of the Liberal Party , promoted Morínigo to general and appointed him as Minister of War on May 2, 1940. After Estigarribia's unexpected death in an airplane crash on September 7, Morínigo
8360-675: Was chosen by the army and Liberal ministers as interim President for the two-month period leading to new Presidential elections. On September 30, 1940, after growing disagreements with the President, the Liberal ministers resigned from the government. On October 16 Morínigo announced that the aPresidential elections would be postponed for two years. Soon afterward he announced a policy of "discipline, hierarchy and order" (disciplina, jerarquia, y orden) and stated that persons who spread subversive ideas would be "subject to confinement". On November 30, Morínigo banned all political parties and imposed
8455-451: Was closely tied to social status, wealth, culture, and language use. Wealthy people paid to change or obscure their actual ancestry. Many Indigenous people left their traditional villages and sought to be counted as Mestizos to avoid tribute payments to the Spanish. Many Indigenous people, and sometimes those with partial African descent, were classified as Mestizo if they spoke Spanish and lived as Mestizos. In colonial Venezuela , pardo
8550-529: Was more commonly used instead of mestizo . Pardo means being mixed without specifying which mixture; it was used to describe anyone born in the Americas whose ancestry was a mixture of European, Native American, and African. When the First Mexican Republic was established in 1824, legal racial categories ceased to exist. The production of casta paintings in New Spain ceased at
8645-544: Was particularly the case with commoner American Indians against Mestizos, some of whom infiltrated their communities and became part of the ruling elite. Spanish authorities turned a blind eye to the Mestizos' presence, since they collected commoners' tribute for the crown and came to hold offices. They were useful intermediaries for the colonial state between the Republic of Spaniards and the Republic of Indians. A person's legal racial classification in colonial Spanish America
8740-571: Was pro-Axis. Large numbers of Paraguayan military officers and government officials were openly sympathetic to the Axis. Among these officials was the national police chief, who named his son Adolfo Hirohito after the best-known Axis leaders. By 1941, the official newspaper El País had adopted an overtly pro-German stance. At the same time, the government strictly controlled pro- Allied labor unions. Police cadets wore swastikas and Italian insignia on their uniforms. The December 1941 Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and Germany's declaration of war against
8835-531: Was replaced by then President of the Supreme Court of Justice Juan Manuel Frutos as Provisional President. Higinio Nicolás Morínigo Martínez was born on 11 January 1897 in Paraguarí , Paraguarí Department , to a mestizo family of merchants. He grew up speaking both Spanish and Guarani . He attended military college and entered the Paraguayan Army in 1922. He participated in the Chaco War and
8930-414: Was the sole candidate. Just as in other South American countries, pro- Nazi and pro- fascist sympathies at this time were quite strong in the society and among military officers. After it entered World War II in 1941, the United States tried to exert some pressure on Morínigo to limit the influence of Axis supporters. He kept Paraguay neutral for most of the war. He only officially declared war against
9025-548: Was used for improving roads and other infrastructure projects. Pressure from the US for democratization swept South America after the war. On June 9, 1946, Morínigo dismissed Colonel Benitez Vera, the right-wing head of the army, and crushed a short uprising by Vera's supporters. He then created a civilian coalition government formed by Colorado Party members and leftist febreristas , followers of former dictator Rafael Franco and allowed some political freedoms, going so far as legalizing
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