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38-720: Hikurangi Marine Reserve is a marine reserve off the coast of the Kaikōura District , in the Canterbury Region of New Zealand's South Island . It is the largest and deepest marine reserve in New Zealand. The reserve is covers an area of 10,416 hectares south of the township of Kaikōura . It includes part of the Kaikōura Canyon , a 1000 metre deep side branch of the Hikurangi Trough . It includes

76-581: A bipartite life cycle where larvae are pelagic before settling out of the plankton to live on a reef. While these fish travel varying distances during their life history, their larvae have the potential to move tens to hundreds of km, more than the more sedentary adults and juveniles, which have home ranges of <1 m to a few km. Adults and juveniles of some species travel tens to hundreds of kilometers as they mature to reach appropriate habitats (e.g., such as coral reef, mangrove and seagrass habitats) or to migrate to spawning areas. When adults and juveniles leave

114-469: A marine reserve, they become vulnerable to fishing. However, larvae can generally leave a reserve without elevated risk because of their small size and limited fishery exposure. Effective networks account for the movement patterns of target species at each life cycle stage. Given a strong, consistent current, siting marine reserves upstream increases downstream populations. Marine reserves are distinct from marine parks , and marine sanctuaries , but there

152-686: A nature restoration law aiming to restore 20% of degraded ecosystems by 2030 and 100% by 2050. On January 27, 2021, President Joe Biden issued an executive order on "Tackling the Climate Crisis at Home and Abroad". Among several initiatives to address the climate crisis , the order directed federal departments to issue a report within 90 days "recommending steps that the United States should take, working with State, local, Tribal, and territorial governments, agricultural and forest landowners, fishermen, and other key stakeholders, to achieve

190-1321: A network must respect larval dispersal and movement patterns of species that are targeted for protection. Existing ecological guidelines for designing networks independently focus on achieving either fisheries, biodiversity or climate change objectives or combinations of fisheries and biodiversity or biodiversity and climate change. These three goals have different implications for network design. The most important are reserve size and protection duration (permanent, long term, short term, or periodic closures). Maintaining diversity involves protecting all species. Generally this involves protecting adequate examples of each major habitat (e.g., each type of coral reef, mangrove and seagrass community). Resiliency to threats improves when multiple examples of each habitat are protected. To address biodiversity or climate change, reserves 4–20 km across are recommended, because they protect larger populations of more species. Protecting areas that have already proven resilient to ecological changes and/or are relatively well-protected by other protocols are likely to better survive climate change as well. Reserves 0.5–1 km across export more adults and larvae to fished areas, potentially increasing recruitment and stock replenishment there. Such small reserves are common in

228-749: A project called the "Protecting Our Planet Challenge" was announced for the initiative in September 2021. In December 2022, 30 by 30 was agreed at the COP15 meeting of the Convention on Biological Diversity , and became a target of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework . This includes the G7 and European Union . The initiative has attracted controversy over indigenous rights issues. 30 by 30

266-456: A rocky coastline of greywacke boulder and bedrock reefs. Panau Island and two smaller islets are located offshore. The marine reserve is only available for limited passive recreation. No fishing, harvesting or mining is allowed. However, whales , dolphins and sea birds can be viewed in large numbers. The park was established in 2014. In November 2016, a magnitude 7.8 earthquake caused submarine mudslides and sediment flows that devastated

304-750: Is a major fishery threat. Local practices such as overfishing, blast fishing, trawling, coastal development and pollution threaten many marine habitats. These threats decrease ecosystem health and productivity and adversely affect focal and other species. Such practices can also decrease resilience. Some practices that originate beyond reserve boundaries (e.g., runoff ) can be mitigated by considering their impacts within broader management frameworks. Areas that are not threatened by such practices and that are adjacent to other unthreatening areas may be better choices for reserves. Networks of marine reserves can support both fisheries management and biodiversity conservation . The size, spacing and location of reserves within

342-686: Is common. The review indicated that effective marine reserves are more than twice the size of the home range of focal/target species (in all directions). The presence of effective marine management outside the reserve may allow smaller reserves. Reserve size recommendations apply to the specific habitats of focal species, not the overall size. For example, coral reef species require coral reef habitats rather than open ocean or seagrass beds. Marine reserve whose boundaries are extensively fished benefit from compact shapes (e.g., squares or circles rather than elongated rectangles). Including whole ecological units (e.g., an offshore reef) can reduce exports where that

380-724: Is desired. Minimum sustainable population sizes have not been determined for most marine populations. Instead, fisheries ecologists use the fraction of unfished stock levels as a proxy. Meta-analyses suggest that maintaining populations above ~37% of those levels generally ensures stable populations, although variations in fishing pressure allow fractions as small as 10% or as large as 40% (to protect species such as sharks and some grouper that have lower reproductive output or slower maturation). Higher fractions of habitat protection may protect areas vulnerable to disturbances such as typhoons or climate change. 20–30% protection can achieve fisheries objectives in areas with controlled fishing pressure and

418-708: Is not on track to meet the targets. The biodiversity strategy is a core part of the European Green Deal , and also intended to support green recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic . In July 2023 after many debates the European parliament adopted a version of the Nature restoration law, aiming to restore nature on 20% of the territory of the European Union by 2030. In 2024, the European Union passed

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456-450: Is some overlap in usage. As of April 2008 no high seas marine reserves had been established. Greenpeace is campaigning for the "doughnut holes" of the western pacific to be declared as marine reserves and for 40 percent of the world's oceans to be so protected. 30 by 30 30 by 30 (or 30x30 ) is a worldwide initiative for governments to designate 30% of Earth's land and ocean area as protected areas by 2030 . The target

494-772: Is the minimum level of habitat protection recommended by IUCN - WCPA . Many fish species congregate to facilitate spawning. Such congregations are spatially and temporally predictable and increase the species' vulnerability to overfishing. Species such as groupers and rabbitfishes travel long distances to congregate for days or weeks. Such gatherings are their only opportunities to reproduce and are crucial to population maintenance. Species such as snappers and parrotfishes congregate in feeding or resting areas. Juveniles may congregate in nursery areas without adults. Such special areas may require only seasonal protections if at other times no vital activities are taking place. Such reserves must be spaced to allow focal species to journey among them. If

532-677: Is the third of 23 global biodiversity targets for 2030 in the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework , adopted in December 2022: The European Commission 's Biodiversity strategy for 2030 was proposed on May 20, 2020, as the European Union 's contribution to a post-2020 global biodiversity framework. The strategy contains several biodiversity-related commitments and actions to be delivered by 2030, including: The plan includes turning 30% of EU territory to protected area by 2030 and 10% to strictly protected area. However as of 2023 EU

570-868: The Coral Triangle , species at lower trophic levels that have smaller maximum sizes, faster growth and maturation rates and shorter life spans tend to recover more quickly than species having the opposite characteristics. For example, in the Philippines, populations of planktivores (e.g., fusiliers) and some herbivores (e.g., parrotfishes) recovered in < 5–10 years in marine reserves, while predators (e.g., groupers) took 20–40 years. Increased fishing pressure adversely affects recovery rates (e.g., Great Barrier Reef and Papua New Guinea). Long-term protection allows species with slower recovery rates to achieve and maintain ecosystem health and associated fishery benefits. Permanent protection protects these species over

608-639: The Coral Triangle , where they benefited some fisheries. Connectivity is the linking of local populations through the (voluntary) dispersal of individuals. Connected reserves are close enough to each other that larvae, juveniles or adults can cross from one to another as their behavior patterns dictate. Connectivity is a key factor in network design, since it allows a disturbed reserve to recover by recruiting individuals from other, potentially overpopulated, reserves. Effective networks spaced reserves at distances of <15 km from each other, with smaller reserves spaced more closely. Most coastal fish species have

646-507: The U.S. Department of Interior , U.S. Department of Agriculture , U.S. Department of Commerce , and Council on Environmental Quality . The report identified eight principles to guide the effort: The report outlined six early focus initiatives: The report proposed tracking progress through an American Conservation and Stewardship Atlas , an accessible online database and mapping tool which would provide current information on lands and waters conserved and restored, and an annual America

684-402: The sperm whale can be viewed closed to the New Zealand mainland. There are significant colonies of New Zealand fur seals , large pods of dusky dolphins and small groups of Hector's dolphins . Orca regularly visit the area and humpback whales pass through during their northern winter migration. Many other species of whales , albatross , petrel , shearwater and prion also gather in

722-436: The 'half earth' project). The 30 by 30 initiative has been openly accused of embodying a form of green colonialism or green grabbing. On November 30, 2022, a group of NGOs composed of Amnesty International , Minority Rights Group International , and Rainforest Foundation UK wrote an open letter citing concerns about potential human and indigenous rights violations if the 30 by 30 plan were to be applied. More broadly,

760-590: The Beautiful public report, which would track fish and wildlife populations, and progress on conservation and restoration efforts across the country. On 7 October 2020, California governor Gavin Newsom issued an executive order declaring it "the goal of the State to conserve at least 30 percent of California’s land and coastal waters by 2030", and directing state agencies to develop and report strategies for achieving

798-458: The absence of a persistent linking current. Their isolation (low connectivity) requires such areas to be largely self-replenishing. This leaves them less resilient to disturbance. Sustaining their marine species requires a higher fraction of living areas to be protected. Coral reef fish species recovery rates (from e.g., overfishing) depend on their life history and factors such as ecological characteristics, fishing intensity and population size. In

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836-508: The area regularly. The coast is the only breeding ground in the world for Hutton's shearwater . Encrusting and mobile invertebrates like molluscs, crustaceans, echinoderms, anemones and sponges are common on the reefs. Macro-invertebrates like pāua , kina and rock lobster also live around the reefs. Seaweed is common close to shore. Fish species along the coast include butterfish , blue cod , tarakihi , marblefish , blue moki , red moki , sea perch , wrasse and triplefin . Fish in

874-605: The conference, the Convention on Biological Diversity, was signed by every party, with the exception of two: the United States and the Vatican. Towards the end of the talks, a negotiator from Democratic Republic of the Congo raised objections to the agreement, citing a lack of funding separate from the current Global Environment Facility (GEF). After a delay, COP15 president and Chinese environment minister Huang Runqiu overruled

912-526: The deep-sea life in the canyon. Road access to the coast was also affected. In September 2017, a National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research expedition found species were recovering faster than expected. A subsidiary of Talley's Group was convicted and fined for trawling in the marine reserve in March 2019. The company denied the charge, and Talley's denied responsibility. In October 2023, two divers were caught with 486 pāua collected illegally from

950-422: The deeper waters include rattails , hapuku , tarakihi , ling , hoki , lantern fish , sharks , rays , skates and squid . The depth of the reserve makes it difficult to survey for wildlife, and very little is known about the deepest areas of the canyon. Marine reserve As of 2010, scientists had studied more than 150 marine reserves in at least 61 countries and monitored biological changes inside

988-650: The goal by February 1, 2022. The order also established a California Biodiversity Collaborative composed of representatives of government agencies, Native tribes, experts, and other stakeholders. The official report, Pathways to 30x30 California , was issued by the California Natural Resources Agency on 22 April 2022. The report outlines ten pathways, or strategies, to achieving California's biodiversity and protected area goals by 2030: Despite positive media coverage received by this global environmental decision, some scientists have nuanced

1026-592: The goal of conserving at least 30 percent of our lands and waters by 2030." On 6 May 2022, the Biden administration issued Conserving and Restoring America the Beautiful , a preliminary report to the National Climate Task Force outlining the proposed principles, measures, and early focus areas for a national "ten-year, locally-led campaign to conserve and restore the lands and waters upon which we all depend". Participating federal agencies included

1064-637: The harvest to less than the increase achieved during closure, although at greatly reduced recovery rates. Some habitats and species are better prepared environmental changes or extremes. These include coral communities that handle high sea surface temperature (SST); areas with variable SSTs and carbonate chemistry and areas adjacent to undeveloped low-lying inland areas that coastal habitats can expand into as sea levels rise. Such areas constitute climate change refugia and can potentially better protect biodiversity than more fragile areas. They may also provide fishery benefits, since habitat loss from climate change

1102-659: The life history of focal species (e.g. home ranges, nursery grounds, migration corridors and spawning aggregations), and were located to accommodate movement patterns among them. Movement patterns (home ranges, ontogenetic shifts and spawning migrations) vary among and within species, and are influenced by factors such as size, sex, behaviour, density, habitat characteristics, season, tide and time of day. For example, damselfishes, butterflyfishes and angelfishes travel <0.1–0.5 km, while some sharks and tuna migrate over thousands of kilometres. Larval dispersal distances tend to be <5–15 km, and self-recruitment to new habitat

1140-782: The location of such special areas is unknown, or is too large to include in a reserve, management approaches such as seasonal capture and sales restrictions may provide some protection. Sea turtle nesting areas, dugong feeding areas, cetacean migratory corridors and calving grounds are examples of other special areas that can be protected seasonally. Other types of special areas include isolated habitats that have unique assemblages and populations, habitats that are important for endemic species and highly diverse areas. Isolated populations (e.g. those on remote atolls ) have high conservation value where they harbor endemic species and/or unique assemblages. A location or population 20–30 km from its nearest neighbor generally qualifies as isolated in

1178-756: The long-term. Short-term protections do not allow slow-recovering species to reach or maintain stable populations. In some Coral Triangle countries (e.g., Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands), short term protections are the most common form of traditional marine resource management. These protections can help address problems at lower trophic levels (e.g., herbivores) or allow spawning to succeed. Other reasons for adopting short-term protections include allowing communities to stockpile resources for feasts or close areas for cultural reasons. Short-term/periodic reserves also may function as partial insurance by enhancing overall ecosystem resilience against catastrophes. Reopened reserves can be protected by management controls that limit

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1216-494: The most important and relevant ones to actually protect. More affluent nations would have the possibility to select vast natural parks and classify them as protected areas, without any additional benefit for flora and fauna. Several NGOs have also underlined that the 30% target is not based on a scientific consensus, but is a random choice: why not 25% or 35% ? Some researchers and public groups advocate for 50% of terrestrial and marine areas to be biologically conserved (i.e.,

1254-427: The number of protected areas raised from less than 10 000 in 1950 to over 100 000 in 2009. Some scientists thus seem to dispute the idea that there is a direct link between increase in the number of protected areas and slowdown of the biodiversity crisis. Moreover, S. Counsel underlines that the protecting 30% of areas target is not enough, as nothing guarantees that the areas that will be chosen to be protected will be

1292-477: The plan has been criticized for appropriating Indigenous lands under the guise of biodiversity conservation. The Union of British Columbia Indian Chiefs notably claimed the plan has “all the hallmarks of green colonialism”, due to its lack of consideration of Indigenous titles and rights. The COP15 included 196 parties in negotiations, with competing views regarding the adoption of the 30 by 30 target being wide-spread and well documented. The resulting agreement of

1330-608: The reserve. The depth of the canyon makes it a food basket for whale , dolphin and sea bird species. Several small rivers and streams provide nutrients from nearby mountains. Cold water from the Southland Current from the Southern Ocean and warm water from the East Cape Current from the subtropics also converge to create a nutrient-rich environment. The Kaikōura Canyon is the only place where

1368-620: The reserves. The number of species in each study ranged from 1 to 250 and the reserves ranged in size from 0.006 to 800 square kilometers (0.002 to 310 square miles). In 2014, the World Parks Association adopted a target of establishing no-take zones for 30% of each habitat globally. A review of studies of 34 families (210 species) of coral reef fishes demonstrates that the design of a marine reserve has important implications for its ability to protect habitat and focal species. Effective reserves included habitats that support

1406-487: The supposed benefits of this policy to cope with the biodiversity crisis. Hélène Soubelet, for example, underlined that in the last 60 years in Germany in protected areas, the decline in the number of insects neared 80%, thus nuancing the idea that protected areas enable to protect biodiversity. Kareiva, Lalasz and Marvier further underline that the rhythm at which wild species have been disappearing has increased, even though

1444-601: Was proposed by a 2019 article in Science Advances , "A Global Deal for Nature: Guiding principles, milestones, and targets", highlighting the need for expanded nature conservation efforts to mitigate climate change . Launched by the High Ambition Coalition for Nature and People in 2020, more than 50 nations had agreed to the initiative by January 2021, which has increased to more than 100 countries by October 2022. US$ 5 billion in funding for

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