Ernest Ropiequet " Jack " Hilgard (July 25, 1904 – October 22, 2001) was an American psychologist and professor at Stanford University. He became famous in the 1950s for his research on hypnosis , especially with regard to pain control. Along with André Muller Weitzenhoffer , Hilgard developed the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scales. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Hilgard as the 29th most cited psychologist of the 20th century.
75-602: Hilgard may refer to: People [ edit ] Ernest Hilgard (1904 - 2001), American psychologist Eugene W. Hilgard (1833–1916), pedologist and first dean of the University of California College of Agriculture (1874–1904) Ferdinand Heinrich Gustav Hilgard, the birth name of German-born United States journalist and financier Henry Villard (1835-1900) Josephine R. Hilgard (1906—1989), American psychologist Julius Erasmus Hilgard (1825-1890), fifth superintendent of
150-447: A combination of a long-acting (OxyContin, MS Contin, Opana ER, Exalgo and Methadone) or extended release medication is often prescribed along with a shorter-acting medication (oxycodone, morphine or hydromorphone) for breakthrough pain, or exacerbations. Most opioid treatment used by patients outside of healthcare settings is oral ( tablet , capsule or liquid), but suppositories and skin patches can be prescribed. An opioid injection
225-547: A description of the pain. Pain management will then be used to address that pain. There are many types of pain management. Each have their own benefits, drawbacks, and limits. A common challenge in pain management is communication between the health care provider and the person experiencing pain. People experiencing pain may have difficulty recognizing or describing what they feel and how intense it is. Health care providers and patients may have difficulty communicating with each other about how pain responds to treatments. There
300-417: A division of consciousness was touched upon by Carl Jung in 1935 when he stated, "The so-called unity of consciousness is an illusion ... we like to think that we are one but we are not." Ernest Hilgard believed that hypnosis causes a split in awareness and a vivid form of everyday mind splits. Drawing themes from Pierre Janet , Hilgard viewed hypnosis from this perspective as a willingness to divide
375-494: A general principle when managing any type of pain. In the treatment of chronic pain, the three-step WHO Analgesic Ladder provides guidelines for selecting the appropriate medicine. The exact medications recommended will vary by country and the individual treatment center, but the following gives an example of the WHO approach to treating chronic pain with medications. If, at any point, treatment fails to provide adequate pain relief, then
450-444: A larger effect than mobilization. Specifically in chronic low back pain, education about the way the brain processes pain in conjunction with routine physiotherapy interventions may provide short term relief of disability and pain. Physical activity interventions, such as tai chi , yoga and Pilates , promote harmony of the mind and body through total body awareness. These practices incorporate breathing techniques, meditation and
525-607: A positive alternative to opioids for decreasing one's pain in multiple injuries, illnesses, or diseases. This can include chronic low back pain, osteoarthritis of the hip and knee, or fibromyalgia . Exercise alone or with other rehabilitation disciplines (such as psychologically based approaches) can have a positive effect on reducing pain. In addition to improving pain, exercise also can improve one's well-being and general health. Manipulative and mobilization therapy are safe interventions that likely reduce pain for patients with chronic low back pain. However, manipulation produces
600-457: A review of RCTs evaluating the effectiveness of psychological therapy for the management of chronic and recurrent pain found that psychological treatments are effective in reducing pain when people under 18 years old have headaches. This beneficial effect may be maintained for at least three months following the therapy. Psychological treatments may also improve pain control for children or adolescents who experience pain not related to headaches. It
675-480: A study applying ACT to chronic pain in older adults. In addition, these primary results suggested that an ACT based treatment may significantly improve levels of physical disability, psychosocial disability, and depression post-treatment and at a three-month follow-up for older adults with chronic pain. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) helps patients with pain to understand the relationship between their pain, thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. A main goal in treatment
750-531: A study found that after daily tDCS sessions resulted in an individual's subjective report of pain to decrease when compared to a sham condition. In addition, the study found a similar improvement at 1 to 3 days before and after each tDCS session. Fibromyalgia is a disorder in which an individual experiences dysfunctional brain activity, musculoskeletal pain, fatigue, and tenderness in localized areas. Research examining tDCS for pain treatment in fibromyalgia has found initial evidence for pain decreases. Specifically,
825-438: A tandem process to acceptance and change, which allows for a greater flexibility in the focus of treatment. Recent research has applied ACT successfully to chronic pain in older adults due to in part of its direction from individual values and being highly customizable to any stage of life. In line with the therapeutic model of ACT, significant increases in process variables, pain acceptance, and mindfulness were also observed in
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#1732798558484900-585: A wide variety of movements, while training the body to perform functionally by increasing strength, flexibility, and range of motion. Physical activity can also benefit chronic sufferers by reducing inflammation and sensitivity, and boosting overall energy. Physical activity and exercise may improve chronic pain (pain lasting more than 12 weeks), and overall quality of life, while minimizing the need for pain medications. More specifically, walking has been effective in improving pain management in chronic low back pain. Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS)
975-533: Is a mindfulness-based intervention (MBI) providing specific applications for people living with chronic pain and illness. Adapting the core concepts and practices of mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT), MBPM includes a distinctive emphasis on the practice of ' loving-kindness ', and has been seen as sensitive to concerns about removing mindfulness teaching from its original ethical framework within Buddhism . It
1050-504: Is a newer agent introduced in the last decade. For moderate pain, tramadol , codeine , dihydrocodeine , and hydrocodone are used, with nicocodeine , ethylmorphine and propoxyphene or dextropropoxyphene (less commonly). Drugs of other types can be used to help opioids combat certain types of pain. Amitriptyline is prescribed for chronic muscular pain in the arms, legs, neck and lower back with an opiate, or sometimes without it or with an NSAID. While opiates are often used in
1125-475: Is a non-invasive technique of brain stimulation that can modulate activity in specific brain cortex regions, and it involves the application of low-intensity (up to 2 mA) constant direct current to the scalp through electrodes in order to modulate excitability of large cortical areas. tDCS may have a role in pain assessment by contributing to efforts in distinguishing between somatic and affective aspects of pain experience. Zaghi and colleagues (2011) found that
1200-431: Is a risk in many types of pain management for the patient to take treatment that is less effective than needed or which causes other difficulties and side effects. Some treatments for pain can be harmful if overused. A goal of pain management for the patient and their health care provider is to identify the amount of treatment needed to address the pain without going beyond that limit. Another problem with pain management
1275-434: Is a self-operated portable device intended to help regulate and control chronic pain via electrical impulses. Limited research has explored the effectiveness of TENS in relation to pain management of multiple sclerosis (MS). MS is a chronic autoimmune neurological disorder, which consists of the demyelination of the nerve axons and disruption of nerve conduction velocity and efficiency. In one study, electrodes were placed over
1350-423: Is cognitive (thinking, reasoning or remembering) restructuring to encourage helpful thought patterns. This will target healthy activities such as regular exercise and pacing. Lifestyle changes are also trained to improve sleep patterns and to develop better coping skills for pain and other stressors using various techniques (e.g., relaxation, diaphragmatic breathing, and even biofeedback). Studies have demonstrated
1425-517: Is convenient for chronic pain management. In addition to the intrathecal patch and injectable fentanyl formulations, the FDA (Food and Drug Administration) has approved various immediate release fentanyl products for breakthrough cancer pain (Actiq/OTFC/Fentora/Onsolis/Subsys/Lazanda/Abstral). Oxycodone is used across the Americas and Europe for relief of serious chronic pain. Its main slow-release formula
1500-515: Is for alleviating long-lasting, ongoing pain. Morphine is the gold standard to which all narcotics are compared. Semi-synthetic derivatives of morphine such as hydromorphone (Dilaudid), oxymorphone (Numorphan, Opana), nicomorphine (Vilan), hydromorphinol and others vary in such ways as duration of action, side effect profile and milligramme potency. Fentanyl has the benefit of less histamine release and thus fewer side effects . It can also be administered via transdermal patch which
1575-405: Is going on ... The hidden observer sees more, he questions more, he's aware of what is going on all of the time but getting in touch is totally unnecessary ... He's like a guardian angel that guards you from doing anything that will mess you up ... The hidden observer is looking through the tunnel, and sees everything in the tunnel ... Unless someone tells me to get in touch with
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#17327985584841650-932: Is known as OxyContin . Short-acting tablets, capsules, syrups and ampules which contain oxycodone are available making it suitable for acute intractable pain or breakthrough pain . Diamorphine , and methadone are used less frequently. Clinical studies have shown that transdermal buprenorphine is effective at reducing chronic pain. Pethidine , known in North America as meperidine, is not recommended for pain management due to its low potency, short duration of action, and toxicity associated with repeated use. Pentazocine , dextromoramide and dipipanone are also not recommended in new patients except for acute pain where other analgesics are not tolerated or are inappropriate, for pharmacological and misuse-related reasons. In some countries potent synthetics such as piritramide and ketobemidone are used for severe pain. Tapentadol
1725-536: Is needed to generalize to the whole chronic pain population. A 2013 meta-analysis of studies that used techniques centered around the concept of mindfulness , concluded, "that MBIs [mindfulness-based interventions] decrease the intensity of pain for chronic pain patients." A 2019 review of studies of brief mindfulness-based interventions (BMBI) concluded that BMBI are not recommended as a first-line treatment and could not confirm their efficacy in managing chronic or acute pain. Mindfulness-based pain management (MBPM)
1800-477: Is not known if psychological therapy improves a child or adolescents mood and the potential for disability related to their chronic pain. A 2007 review of 13 studies found evidence for the efficacy of hypnosis in the reduction of pain in some conditions. However the studies had some limitations like small study sizes, bringing up issues of power to detect group differences, and lacking credible controls for placebo or expectation. The authors concluded that "although
1875-465: Is often an acute affair, whereas managing chronic pain requires additional dimensions. A typical multidisciplinary pain management team may include: medical practitioners , pharmacists , clinical psychologists , physiotherapists , occupational therapists , recreational therapists , physician assistants , nurses , and dentists . The team may also include other mental health specialists and massage therapists . Pain sometimes resolves quickly once
1950-512: Is short term in duration. CBT may have a small positive short-term effect on pain immediately following treatment. CBT may also have a small effect on reducing disability and potential catastrophizing that may be associated with adult chronic pain. These benefits do not appear to last very long following the therapy. CBT may contribute towards improving the mood of an adult who experiences chronic pain, which could possibility be maintained for longer periods of time. For children and adolescents,
2025-507: Is taken to be necessary for report and is associated with ‘the self’ as the subject of experience and its own agent of reporting. Reflexive consciousness is operative only when we attend to our own states. When we are involved in the world, reflexivity intervenes less and our consciousness is more unified. Some experimental work, such as one performed on 169 undergraduate students, some of whom performed tasks in selective attention and divided attention conditions being correlated with scores on
2100-958: Is that pain is the body's natural way of communicating a problem. Pain is supposed to resolve as the body heals itself with time and pain management. Sometimes pain management covers a problem, and the patient might be less aware that they need treatment for a deeper problem. Physical medicine and rehabilitation uses a range of physical techniques such as heat and electrotherapy , as well as therapeutic exercises and behavioral therapy. These techniques are usually part of an interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary program that might also include pharmaceutical medicines. Spa therapy has showed positive effects in reducing pain among patients with chronic low back pain. However, there are limited studies looking at this approach. Studies have shown that kinesiotape could be used on individuals with chronic low back pain to reduce pain. The Center for Disease Control recommends that physical therapy and exercise can be prescribed as
2175-520: Is there, and your Daemon is there ( Epictetus , 1998/2nd century, 14:11) The belief was that the Daemon had foreknowledge of future circumstances and events and as such could warn its Eidolon of the dangers. It was as if in some way the Daemon had already lived the life of its Eidolon. Hilgard was also the author of three hugely influential textbooks on topics other than hypnosis. The first, "Conditioning and Learning", jointly authored with Donald Marquis ,
2250-498: Is useful to assign two modes of consciousness, a receptive mode and an active mode—that is, a bimodal consciousness. In other places he mentions the concept of coconsciousness , wherein two or more states of consciousness may be equally receptive or active, as, for example, in some types of dissociative personalities. Many psychological studies assume a unity of consciousness. Doubt is cast on this assumption by psychophysical studies in normal subjects and those with blindsight showing
2325-587: Is when a painful injury or pathology is resistant to treatment and persists. The second is when pain persists after the injury or pathology has healed. Finally, the third circumstance is when medical science cannot identify the cause of pain. Treatment approaches to chronic pain include pharmacological measures, such as analgesics (pain killer drugs), antidepressants , and anticonvulsants ; interventional procedures, physical therapy, physical exercise , application of ice or heat; and psychological measures, such as biofeedback and cognitive behavioral therapy . In
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2400-565: Is widely used in Southeast Asian countries. Research has found evidence that light therapy such as low level laser therapy is an effective therapy for relieving low back pain . Instead of thermal therapy, where reactant energy is originated through heat, Low Level Light Therapy (LLLT) utilizes photochemical reactions requiring light to function. Photochemical reactions need light in order to function. Photons , energy created from light, from these photochemical reactions provide
2475-534: The Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility —refute Hilgard's findings. The organizing principles that constitute human consciousness and other mental phenomena may be described by analysis and reconstruction of the underlying dynamics of psychophysiological measures. This idea of the basic duality of human personality is culturally and historically almost universal. The ancient Chinese called these two independent consciousnesses hun and po ,
2550-425: The hidden observer. In one of his books, Hilgard described a classic test demonstrating how this hidden entity is part of our consciousness. He wrote of a blind student who was hypnotized and, while in a trance state, was told that he would become deaf. The suggestion was so strong that he failed to react to any form of noise, even large sounds next to his ear. Of course, he also failed to respond to any questions he
2625-462: The "hidden observer" was controversial and critics claimed it could be manufactured by suggestions, indicating that it was possibly no more than an artifact of the instructions given to the research participants. Writing in the late 1970s (Hilgard, E. (1977). Divided consciousness: Multiple controls in human thought and action. New York, NY: Wiley), Ernest Hilgard became convinced that we all have another being sharing our lives. Hilgard termed this entity
2700-481: The Eidolon. The Stoic philosopher Epictetus wrote: God has placed at every man's side a guardian, the Daemon of each man, who is charged to watch over him; a Daemon that cannot sleep, nor be deceived. To what greater and more watchful guardian could He have entrusted each of us? So, when you have shut the doors, and made darkness in the house, remember, never to say that you are alone; for you are not alone. But God
2775-529: The FDA stated that "abuse and misuse of these products have created a serious and growing public health problem". Opioid medications can provide short, intermediate or long acting analgesia depending upon the specific properties of the medication and whether it is formulated as an extended release drug. Opioid medications may be administered orally, by injection, via nasal mucosa or oral mucosa, rectally, transdermally, intravenously, epidurally and intrathecally. In chronic pain conditions that are opioid responsive,
2850-797: The United States Coast and Geodetic Survey (1881-1885) Theodore Erasmus Hilgard (1790-1873), lawyer and father of Eugene W. and Julius Erasmus Places [ edit ] Hilgard, Oregon , an unincorporated community in Union County Hilgard Junction State Recreation Area , a state park in the State of Oregon in the United States Hilgard Mountain , a mountain in Utah Hilgard Peak ,
2925-458: The University of California. The 15th edition, published in 2009, is called "Atkinson and Hilgard's Introduction to Psychology". Hypnotic pain management Pain management is an aspect of medicine and health care involving relief of pain ( pain relief , analgesia , pain control ) in various dimensions, from acute and simple to chronic and challenging. Most physicians and other health professionals provide some pain control in
3000-446: The age of 97. Hilgard is specifically known for his theory that a so-called "hidden observer" is created in the mind while hypnosis is taking place. His research on the hidden observer during hypnotic pain management was intended to provide support for his neodissociationist theory. This theory held that a person undergoing hypnosis can still observe his or her own pain without consciously experiencing any suffering. The phenomenon of
3075-604: The ancient Egyptians the ka and the ba , and the ancient Greeks the Daemon and the Eidolon . In each case, the two entities shared their senses and perceptions of the external world but interpreted those perceptions with regard to their own history, knowledge, and personality. For the Greeks , the relationship was an unequal one. The higher self, the Daemon, acted as a form of guardian angel or higher self over its lower self,
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3150-579: The body to relieve pain or for therapeutic purposes. An analysis of the 13 highest quality studies of pain treatment with acupuncture, published in January 2009 in the British Medical Journal , was unable to quantify the difference in the effect on pain of real, sham and no acupuncture. A systematic review in 2019 reported that acupuncture injection therapy was an effective treatment for patients with nonspecific chronic low back pain, and
3225-623: The context around psychological experiences rather than to alter the makeup of the experiences, and emphasizes the use of experiential behavior change methods. The central process in ACT revolves around psychological flexibility, which in turn includes processes of acceptance, awareness, a present-oriented quality in interacting with experiences, an ability to persist or change behavior, and an ability to be guided by one's values. ACT has an increased evidence base for range of health and behavior problems, including chronic pain. ACT influences patients to adopt
3300-485: The doctor and patient move onto the next step. Paracetamol (acetaminophen), or a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) such as ibuprofen will relieve mild pain. Paracetamol, an NSAID or paracetamol in a combination product with a weak opioid such as tramadol , may provide greater relief than their separate use. A combination of opioid with acetaminophen can be frequently used such as Percocet, Vicodin , or Norco. When treating moderate to severe pain,
3375-439: The dorsal surface of the spinal cord provides a paresthesia ("tingling") sensation that alters the perception of pain by the patient. Intra-articular ozone therapy has been seen to efficiently alleviate chronic pain in patients with knee osteoarthritis. Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) is a form of cognitive behavioral therapy that focuses on behavior change rather than symptom change, includes methods designed to alter
3450-450: The field very difficult. In 2020, a systematic review of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) evaluated the clinical effectiveness of psychological therapies for the management of adult chronic pain (excluding headaches). There is no evidence that behaviour therapy (BT) is effective for reducing this type of pain, however BT may be useful for improving a person's mood immediately after treatment. This improvement appears to be small, and
3525-851: The findings provide support for the general applicability of hypnosis in the treatment of chronic pain, considerably more research will be needed to fully determine the effects of hypnosis for different chronic-pain conditions." Hypnosis has reduced the pain of some harmful medical procedures in children and adolescents. In clinical trials addressing other patient groups, it has significantly reduced pain compared to no treatment or some other non-hypnotic interventions. The effects of self hypnosis on chronic pain are roughly comparable to those of progressive muscle relaxation. A 2019 systematic review of 85 studies showed it to be significantly effective at reducing pain for people with high and medium levels of suggestibility, but of minimal effectiveness for people with low suggestibility. However, high quality clinical data
3600-442: The hidden observer I'm not in contact. It's just there. (Hilgard, 1977, p. 210) The hidden observer protects us from doing anything in hypnosis that we would not do under any circumstance consciously, such as causing someone else physical harm. Divided consciousness is a term coined by Hilgard to define a psychological state in which one's consciousness is split into distinct components, possibly during hypnosis. The theory of
3675-454: The hypnotically induced period of deafness. On being awakened, the student said that he had requested to come out of the trance state because I felt my finger rise in a way that was not a spontaneous twitch, so you must have done something to make it rise, and I want to know what you did (p. 186). The hypnotist then asked him what he remembered. Because the trance was light, the student never actually lost consciousness; all that occurred
3750-603: The lumbar spine and participants received treatment twice a day and at any time when they experienced a painful episode. This study found that TENS would be beneficial to MS patients who reported localized or limited symptoms to one limb. The research is mixed with whether or not TENS helps manage pain in MS patients. Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation has been found to be ineffective for lower back pain . However, it might help with diabetic neuropathy as well as other illnesses. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS)
3825-433: The main systems of consciousness into different sectors. He argued that this split in consciousness can not only help define the state of mind reached during hypnosis, but can also help to define a vast range of psychological issues such as dissociative identity disorder . In Hilgard's Divided Consciousness Reconsidered , he offers many examples of " dissociated " human behavior. With regard to theory, he does state that it
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#17327985584843900-519: The management of chronic pain, high doses are associated with an increased risk of opioid overdose . In 2009, the Food and Drug Administration stated: "According to the National Institutes of Health , studies have shown that properly managed medical use of opioid analgesic compounds (taken exactly as prescribed) is safe, can manage pain effectively, and rarely causes addiction." In 2013,
3975-425: The motor cortex, when stimulated with tDCS, increases the threshold for both the perception of non-painful and painful stimuli. Although there is a greater need for research examining the mechanism of electrical stimulation in relation to pain treatment, one theory suggests that the changes in thalamic activity may be due the influence of motor cortex stimulation on the decrease in pain sensations. In relation to MS,
4050-428: The normal course of their practice, and for the more complex instances of pain, they also call on additional help from a specific medical specialty devoted to pain, which is called pain medicine . Pain management often uses a multidisciplinary approach for easing the suffering and improving the quality of life of anyone experiencing pain, whether acute pain or chronic pain . Relief of pain in general (analgesia)
4125-411: The nursing profession, one common definition of pain is any problem that is "whatever the experiencing person says it is, existing whenever the experiencing person says it does". Pain management includes patient and communication about the pain problem. To define the pain problem, a health care provider will likely ask questions such as: After asking such questions, the health care provider will have
4200-420: The presence of pain, through any combination of lessening the pain and/or better understanding it and being able to live happily despite it. Medicine treats injuries and diseases to support and speed healing. It treats distressing symptoms such as pain and discomfort to reduce any suffering during treatment, healing, and dying . The task of medicine is to relieve suffering under three circumstances. The first
4275-415: The proliferation of techniques of doubtful quality, and the poor quality of reporting in clinical trials. The crucial content of individual interventions has not been isolated and the important contextual elements, such as therapist training and development of treatment manuals, have not been determined. The widely varying nature of the resulting data makes useful systematic review and meta-analysis within
4350-992: The reactants with energy provide the reactants with energy to embed in muscles, thus managing pain. One study conducted by Stausholm et al. showed that at certain wavelengths, LLLT reduced pain in participants with knee osteoarthritis. LLLT stimulates a variety oof cell types, which in turn can help treat tendonitis, arthritis, and pain relating to muscles. Audioanalgesia and music therapy are both examples of using auditory stimuli to manage pain or other distress. They are generally viewed as insufficient when used alone, but also as helpful adjuncts to other forms of therapy . Interventional radiology procedures for pain control, typically used for chronic back pain , include epidural steroid injections , facet joint injections , neurolytic blocks , spinal cord stimulators and intrathecal drug delivery system implants. Pulsed radiofrequency , neuromodulation , direct introduction of medication and nerve ablation may be used to target either
4425-414: The simultaneous dissociation of different modes of reporting of a sensation, and by clinical studies of anosognosic patients showing dissociations of awareness of their own states. These and other phenomena are interpreted to imply two kinds of division of consciousness: the separation of phenomenal experience from reflexive consciousness and the non-unity of reflexive consciousness. Reflexive consciousness
4500-406: The spinal fluid. This is similar to epidural infusions used in labour and postoperatively. The major differences are that it is much more common for the drug to be delivered into the spinal fluid (intrathecal) rather than epidurally, and the pump can be fully implanted under the skin. A spinal cord stimulator is an implantable medical device that creates electric impulses and applies them near
4575-458: The stimulation of the primary motor cortex resulted in significantly greater pain improvement in comparison to the control group (e.g., sham stimulation, stimulation of the DLPFC). However, this effect decreased after treatment ended, but remained significant for three weeks following the extinction of treatment. Acupuncture involves the insertion and manipulation of needles into specific points on
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#17327985584844650-539: The tallest mountain in the Madison Range in the State of Montana in the United States Ships [ edit ] USC&GS Hilgard (1942) a survey ship in commission in the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey from 1942 to 1967 See also [ edit ] Hilgardite Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with
4725-454: The tissue structures and organ/systems responsible for persistent nociception or the nociceptors from the structures implicated as the source of chronic pain. Radiofrequency treatment has been seen to improve pain in patients for facet joint low back pain. However, continuous radiofrequency is more effective in managing pain than pulsed radiofrequency. An intrathecal pump used to deliver very small quantities of medications directly to
4800-563: The title Hilgard . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hilgard&oldid=898380333 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Ernest Hilgard Born in Belleville , Illinois , Ernest Ropiequet Hilgard
4875-400: The type of the pain, acute or chronic, needs to be considered. The type of pain can result in different medications being prescribed. Certain medications may work better for acute pain, others for chronic pain, and some may work equally well on both. Acute pain medication is for rapid onset of pain such as from an inflicted trauma or to treat post-operative pain . Chronic pain medication
4950-449: The underlying trauma or pathology has healed, and is treated by one practitioner, with drugs such as pain relievers ( analgesics ) and occasionally also anxiolytics . Effective management of chronic (long-term) pain , however, frequently requires the coordinated efforts of the pain management team. Effective pain management does not always mean total eradication of all pain. Rather, it often means achieving adequate quality of life in
5025-403: The usefulness of cognitive behavioral therapy in the management of chronic low back pain, producing significant decreases in physical and psychosocial disability. CBT is significantly more effective than standard care in treatment of people with body-wide pain, like fibromyalgia. Evidence for the usefulness of CBT in the management of adult chronic pain is generally poorly understood, due partly to
5100-438: Was asked while in his trance state. The hypnotist was keen to discover if anybody else was able to hear. He quietly said to the student, Perhaps there is some part of you that is hearing my voice and processing the information. If there is, I should like the index finger of your right hand to rise as a sign that this is the case (Hilgard, 1977, p. 186). The finger rose. At this, the student requested that he be brought out of
5175-409: Was developed by Vidyamala Burch and is delivered through the programs of Breathworks . It has been subject to a range of clinical studies demonstrating its effectiveness. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends a pain ladder for managing pain relief with pharmaceutical medicine. It was first described for use in cancer pain . However it can be used by medical professionals as
5250-664: Was elected to the American Philosophical Society . In 1984 Hilgard was awarded the NAS Award for Scientific Reviewing from the National Academy of Sciences , of which he was also a member. Hilgard met fellow psychologist Josephine Rohrs at Yale; they married in 1931 and had two children, Henry (born 1936) and Elizabeth Ann (born 1944). Hilgard died in 2001 in Palo Alto, California, at
5325-418: Was not. Not only that, but somebody else in his head was responding to an external request that he had not heard. As far as Hilgard was concerned, the person who responded was the hidden observer. One of Hilgard's subjects made the following interesting statement about what she experienced, making particular reference to what she sensed was her higher self: The hidden observer is cognizant of everything that
5400-402: Was that his hearing had ceased. In order to deal with the boredom of being deprived of both sight and sound, he had decided to work on some statistical problems in his head. It was while he was doing this that he suddenly felt his finger lift. This was obviously strange to him, because under normal circumstances he was, like all of us, the person who decides on how the body moves. In this case he
5475-524: Was the son of a physician, Dr. George Engelmann Hilgard, and Laura Ropiequet Hilgard. Hilgard was initially drawn to engineering; he received a bachelor's degree in chemical engineering from the University of Illinois in 1924. He then studied psychology, receiving a Ph.D. from Yale University in 1930. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1958. In 1969, he
5550-557: Was the well written and wide-ranging " Introduction to Psychology " (1953), which was, according to his biography on the website of the American Psychological Association, "for a long period, the most widely used introductory psychology text in the world." Several editions were co-authored by Rita L. Atkinson or Richard C. Atkinson , another colleague at Stanford and later chancellor of the University of California at San Diego and then president and regent of
5625-452: Was very widely cited up until the 1960s. When Gregory Kimble updated a second edition in 1961, Hilgard and Marquis's names were made part of the title, a distinction, as Hilgard himself noted, usually reserved for deceased authors. A second text, "Theories of Learning" (1948), was also widely cited, and lasted for five editions (through 1981); the last three editions involved Hilgard's Stanford colleague Gordon H. Bower . The third textbook
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