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104-642: The town of Hirtshals developed around the artificial harbour which was constructed between 1919 and 1931. In 1925, the Hjørring-Hirtshals railway line opened to link the port of Hirtshals with the Danish rail network. In 1966, the harbour was expanded and became one of the largest fishing ports in Denmark. On September 8 1989 Partnair flight 394 crashed off the coast of Hirtshals killing all 55 passengers on board. Until 1 January 2007, Hirtshals

208-499: A capacity factor of 24%. In 2009, Denmark's wind capacity grew to 3,482 MW; most of the increase came from the 209 MW Horns Rev 2 offshore wind farm, which was inaugurated on 17 September 2009 by Crown Prince Frederik . In 2010, capacity grew to 3,752 MW, and most of the year's increase came from the Rødsand II off-shore wind farm. On 22 March 2012, a coalition of parties representing 95% of all members of

312-559: A 1915 memo to Lloyd George . This memo was for artificial harbours to be created off the German islands of Borkum and Sylt . No further investigation was made and the memo was filed away. In 1940 the civil engineer Guy Maunsell wrote to the War Office with a proposal for an artificial harbour, but the idea was not at first adopted. Churchill issued his memo "Piers for use on beaches" on 30 May 1942, apparently in some frustration at

416-403: A consequence of the merit order effect, when large thermal plants have reserve capacities at times the spot market price of electricity is high. In any case, the export price is the intermediate between the prices of the two areas, so the exporting TSO (Energinet) uses the profit to relieve tariffs at around DKK 500 million per year. Wind power organisations state that Denmark exports power at

520-515: A cost of DKK 300m, partially financed by local people. How price of consumer electricity is composed Denmark's electricity costs (including PSO; costs for cleaner energy) are average in the EU, but taxes increase the price to the highest in Europe. The tax money is a considerable income for the state, and changing the composition of the taxes towards a "greener" mix is difficult. According to

624-473: A developer had to pay connection costs in Denmark, and also pay the state. Wind power displaces coal, oil and gas to some degree, reducing running cost for fossil fuels. Consumption of coal was more than halved from 1990 to 2020. Wind power reduces price variability slightly. In 2009, the think tank Institute for Energy Research (IER) commissioned the Danish think-tank CEPOS (Centre for Political Studies) to report on electricity exports from Denmark and

728-539: A government official, the majority of taxes are not based on environment concerns, in contrast to the DKK 5 billion per year in PSO-money for cleaner energy , paid by electricity consumers to producers of clean electricity. These tolls are not available for government consumption. Actual consumer-paid incentives (PSO) to new wind turbines depend on year of commission, but is generally around 25 øre (3.4 eurocent) per kWh for

832-461: A higher price than it imports at. The Danish wind turbine industry is the world's largest. Around 90% of the national output is exported, and Danish companies accounted for 38% of the world turbine market in 2003, when the industry employed some 20,000 people and had a turnover of around 3 billion euro . The return on investment dropped from near 20% before the financial crisis, to 10% some years later. The Danish wind turbine industry had

936-645: A joint response to the report, refuting it. The report from CEPOS was even brought to government level, where minister of Climate and Energy Lykke Friis discredited the work done by CEPOS and the report. The World Nuclear Association estimates that the report was IER's response to US president Obama 's 2009 Earth Day speech in Newton, Iowa, claiming that the United States could generate 20% of its electricity from wind by 2030, as Denmark already was. To encourage investment in wind power, families were offered

1040-525: A known expert in marine salvage, was brought in to review the plans and determined that they were not. The supplied pumps were designed for moving large volumes of sewage horizontally, and were incapable of providing the necessary lift to pump the water up and out of the caissons. Ellsberg's report resulted in Churchill's intervention, taking the task away from the Royal Engineers and giving it to

1144-455: A limited number of hours, although support is discounted if combined price exceeds 58 øre/kWh. PSO is also used for biomass, solar, and district heating; total PSO was DKK 5.8 billion in 2013, of which DKK 3.2 billion went to wind power. In 2015, the cost of power was only 32% of the price, while PSO was 9%, and tolls and VAT the remaining 59%. In 2021, the Thor offshore contract was the first time

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1248-548: A pier head capable of handling 2,000-ton ships. In July 1943 a committee of eminent civil engineers consisting of Colin R White (chairman), J D C Couper, J A Cochrane, R D Gwyther and Lt. Col. Ivor Bell was established to advise on how a number of selected sites on the French coastline could be converted into sheltered harbours. The committee initially investigated the use of compressed air breakwaters before eventually deciding on blockships and caissons. In August and September 1943

1352-529: A pontoon with four legs that rested on the sea bed to anchor it while it could float up and down freely with the tide. Components for the Mulberry harbours were constructed at many different locations in Britain, before being transferred to assembly points off the south coast. Then on the afternoon of 6 June 1944 (D-Day) over 400 towed component parts (weighing approximately 1.5 million tons) set sail to create

1456-547: A result Danish GDP is 1.8 billion DKK (US$ 270 million) lower than it would have been without wind industry subsidies of 1.7–2.6 billion DKK (roughly $ 320M – $ 480M) yearly in 2001–2005. The report was later heavily criticised. The Danish engineering magazine Ingeniøren claimed that the report was ordered and paid for by the American oil and coal lobby through IER. Later, several Danish researchers and professors from all technical universities in Denmark wrote

1560-618: A route to Bergen , Stavanger , Kristiansand and Langesund . It has also been possible since autumn 2010 to travel to Tórshavn in the Faroe Islands and to Seyðisfjörður in Iceland with Smyril Line . The port has LNG facilities for the ferries, and hosts the first wind farm built without subsidies. The Hirtshals railway line connects Hirtshals with Hjørring and the rest of the Danish rail network . Hirtshals railway station

1664-641: A scheme for purchase rights and a guarantee fund. After the government expressed the long-term vision of a Denmark 100% independent of reliance on fossil fuels during the current agreement, in independent commission on climate change policy proposed detailed recommendations in September 2010 on how this vision can be achieved. This led to Energy Strategy 2050 a year later. The strategy consists of three tracks, as one of them focusses on more renewable energy with onshore and offshore wind power. It included tenders for over 1000 MW in offshore including Kriegers Flak in

1768-446: A shallow water depth of 5–15 m, where siting is most feasible. These sites offer higher wind speeds, in the range of roughly 8.5–9.0 m/s at 50 m height. There have been no major problems from wind variability, although there is a temporary problem resulting from the connection of a large bloc of wind power from offshore wind farms to a single point on a weak section of the transmission network. The wind resource over Denmark

1872-536: A similar size to Dover harbour . In the planning of Operation Neptune the term Mulberry "B" was defined as "an artificial harbour to be built in England and towed to the British beaches at Arromanches". The Mulberry harbour assembled on Omaha Beach at Saint-Laurent-sur-Mer was for use by the American invasion forces. Mulberry "A" (American) was not as securely anchored to the sea bed as Mulberry "B" had been by

1976-552: A target of cutting carbon emissions by 22% from 1988 levels by 2005. Planning of wind power was deliberately streamlined by authorities to minimise hurdles. In June 2005, the Danish government published Energy Strategy 2025, which replaced the previous strategy from 1996. The strategy formulates policy projects that are intended to accelerate the expansion of wind power and restructure the electricity market. The Danish government also succeeded in drawing up energy agreements from 2008 to 2011 with broad-based support, which included

2080-403: A tax exemption for generating their own electricity within their own or an adjoining municipality . While this could involve purchasing a turbine outright, more often families purchased shares in wind turbine cooperatives which in turn invested in community wind turbines. By 1996 there were around 2,100 such cooperatives in the country. Opinion polls show that this direct involvement has helped

2184-560: A trial of three competing designs for the cargo-handling jetties was set up together with a test of a compressed air breakwater. The pier designs were by: The western side of Wigtown Bay , in the Solway Firth , was selected for the trials as the tides were similar to those on the expected invasion beaches in Normandy, a harbour was available at Garlieston , and the area's remoteness would simplify security matters. A headquarters camp

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2288-427: A turnover of DKK 84 billion in 2014. The biggest wind turbine manufacturers with production facilities in Denmark are Vestas and Siemens Wind Power . The development of wind power in Denmark has been characterised by a close collaboration between publicly financed research and industry in key areas such as research and development , certification , testing, and the preparation of standards. For example, in

2392-408: Is a local landmark. Building was begun on 28 June 1860, and it was first lit on 1 January 1863. It is constructed of red brick and covered with Dutch tile. The sea level has been as high as 1 metre over the norm. But in days where there is no wind, the waves typically will not be higher than maximum 20 cm (8 in) over normal sea level. Due to the proximity of the town to the coast, sea fog

2496-554: Is a natural consequence of capacity growth. On 9 July 2015, in the evening, unusually strong wind conditions resulted in 116% of national electricity consumption being produced by wind farms and at 3 am the next morning at low demand, wind production exceeded 140% of current demand. The 1,000 MW Thor offshore wind (a $ 2.5 billion project scheduled for 2027 in the North Sea) was agreed in December 2021. 5 of 6 bidders bid

2600-512: Is actually consumed in Denmark has been disputed, as the larger hydropower resources of Norway (and to some extent, Sweden) is used as grid storage with low loss. Hydropower can rapidly reduce generation whenever wind farms are generating power, saving water for later, and can export electricity to Denmark when wind power output drops. Short term, Denmark imports electricity from Norway during daytime and exports in nighttime. Long term, Denmark imports electricity in summer and exports in winter. Wind

2704-622: Is expected to be constructed until 2020. The 500 MW of additional net capacity is the expected result of the scrapping of 1,300 MW capacity from obsolete wind turbines combined with the simultaneous building of 1,800 MW capacity of modern wind turbines – a process also known as repowering . In 2020, Denmark produced 16.3 TWh of wind power, of which 15 TWh (91.8%) were consumed in Denmark, measured hourly. A further 0.8 TWh of wind power were imported. In 2017, annual wind power production corresponded to about 43% of electricity consumed in Denmark. The proportion of this that

2808-528: Is exported to neighbouring countries at lower prices. Part of the benefit of this goes to Denmark's northern neighbours: when Denmark exports power, it is sold at the spot market price which must be lower than at the importing market to be transmitted. According to the second argument, the correlation between exports and wind power is weak, and a similar correlation exists with conventional thermal plants running partly for district heating; meanwhile, causal analysis shows that export from Denmark typically occurs as

2912-436: Is from 180 MW of electrode boilers installed in powerplants or 374 MW of large heat pumps . The boilers are only used to soak up the powerplant's own electricity when prices are negative, to avoid paying tax. Expansion of wind powered district heating is calculated to be economically efficient without taxes. The number of household heat pumps has stalled at 70,000 in 2015 due to tax-free wood pellets , and

3016-856: Is higher in autumn and winter, when consumption is also high. This service of timeshifting production and consumption is also found around the world in pumped-storage hydroelectricity balancing coal and nuclear plants. For timeshifting trade with Norway, Denmark exports at DKK 157/MWh and imports at DKK 212/MWh. The correlation is low between wind power in Norway and Denmark. Market price sometimes falls to near or below zero, particularly in high winds and low consumption. In 2014, there were 46 hours with negative prices, costing DKK 37.7 million. In 2015, negative prices occurred in 65 hours in West Denmark and 36 hours in East Denmark – less than 1% of

3120-516: Is not an uncommon occurrence. In the winter, the air temperature can fall as low as 1.6 degrees, but in the summer, it can reach over 25 degrees Celsius. Hirtshals Havnekontor (Hirtshals' Harbour Office) keeps track of wave periods. Annual wave periods fluctuate between half a second, up to about 9 seconds. According to Hirtshals Havnekontor (Hirtshals' Harbour Office) normal wave heights are between 2 and 2.5 metres. The prevailing wind in Hirtshals

3224-469: Is the home of one of the largest aquariums in Europe, the Nordsøen Oceanarium . This was built in 1984 as Nordsømuseet, The North Sea Museum, and got its present name after it was extended in 1998 to include a fish tank containing 4.5 million litres of water, making it the largest in northern Europe. The Oceanarium has 70 different species in its collection. A fire in December 2003 destroyed

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3328-514: Is the principal railway station of the town. The town is also served by the railway halts Lilleheden and Emmersbæk . Artificial harbour Airborne assault British Sector American Sector Normandy landings American Sector Anglo-Canadian Sector Logistics Ground campaign American Sector Anglo-Canadian Sector Breakout Air and Sea operations Supporting operations Aftermath The Mulberry harbours were two temporary portable harbours developed by

3432-510: Is to the south or south-west. Wind speeds vary all year long, usually topping at 10 m/s during the winter. Fishing plays a big role for the town and its inhabitants, as does tourism and the renting of summer homes . Due to the ferry connections with Norway , the shops in Hirtshals thrive on the large number of visitors, especially Norwegians, who shop in the small town all year long. Hirtshals also provides good employment in manufacturing industries like ‘Jackson, Lilleheden and Scanvogn’. It

3536-566: The Baltic Sea close to the borders of Germany and Sweden in 2021. Kriegers Flak is also used to connect Denmark and Germany with a 400MW cable, through the German Baltic 2 Offshore Wind Farm , and Energinet ordered electrical equipment in early 2016. Eight groups applied for pre-qualification for Kriegers Flak, of which 7 were approved – 3 more than the 4 companies approved to compete for Horns Rev 3, both having more bidders than

3640-443: The Baltic Sea . Kriegers Flak is also used to connect Denmark and Germany with a 400MW cable, through the German Baltic 2 Offshore Wind Farm , and it is the wind farm with the lowest guaranteed price (øre/kWh) for large offshore wind farms in Denmark. In addition, the distance requirements for wind turbines were evaluated and revised. Such subsidies as compensation schemes for residents living near onshore windmills lost relevance and

3744-946: The British Admiralty and War Office during the Second World War to facilitate the rapid offloading of cargo onto beaches during the Allied invasion of Normandy in June 1944. They were designed in 1942 then built in under a year in great secrecy; within hours of the Allies creating beachheads after D-Day , sections of the two prefabricated harbours were towed across the English Channel from southern England and placed in position off Omaha Beach (Mulberry "A") and Gold Beach (Mulberry "B"), along with old ships to be sunk as breakwaters . The Mulberry harbours solved

3848-593: The Channel . Hughes-Hallett had the support of Churchill. The concept of Mulberry harbours began to take shape when Hughes-Hallett moved to be Naval Chief of Staff to the Overlord planners. In the autumn of 1942, the Chief of Combined Operations Vice-Admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten , outlined the requirement for piers at least one mile (1.6 km) long at which a continuous stream of supplies could be handled, including

3952-598: The Chernobyl disaster , the Danes passed a law forbidding the construction of nuclear power plants. In the process, the Danish grassroots movement had a substantial role. The Danish Anti-nuclear Movement 's (OOA) smiling-sun logo "Atomkraft, Nej Tak" ("Nuclear Power, No Thanks") spread worldwide, and the renewable alternatives were promoted by the Danish Organisation for Renewable Energy (OVE). Denmark adopted

4056-609: The Combined Chiefs of Staff estimated that the artificial ports (Mulberries) would need to handle 12,000 tons per day, exclusive of motor transport, and in all weathers. On 4 September the go-ahead was given to start work immediately on the harbours. Infighting between the War Office and the Admiralty over responsibility was only resolved on 15 December 1943 by the intervention of the Vice-Chiefs of Staff. The decision

4160-800: The Noireau river in Normandy , Meuse River in Vacherauville ( Meuse ), as a bridge over the Moselle River on road D56 between Cattenom and Kœnigsmacker ( Moselle ) and in Vierville-sur-Mer ( Calvados ) along road D517. In 1954, some whales were also used to build two bridges (still visible) in Cameroon along the Edea to Kribi road. In the 1960s, three whale spans from Arromanches were used at Ford Dagenham for cars to drive from

4264-595: The World Economic Forum , and the second best energy security in the world in 2019 according to the World Energy Council . Danish inventor Poul la Cour experimented, taught and constructed wind power projects around the year 1900. As concerns over global warming grew in the 1980s, Denmark found itself with relatively high carbon dioxide emissions per capita, primarily due to the coal-fired electrical power plants that had become

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4368-547: The "Hippos" were undermined causing the "Crocodile" bridge spans to fail and the Swiss roll was washed away. Tn5's design proved the most successful and Beckett's floating roadway (subsequently codenamed whale) survived undamaged; the design was adopted and 16 km (10 mi) of whale roadway were manufactured under the management of J. D. Bernal and Brigadier Bruce White , the Director of Ports and Inland Water Transport at

4472-675: The 1980s, a large number of small Danish companies were developing wind turbines to sell to California, and the Danish Risø laboratory provided test facilities and certification procedures. These resulted in reliable products and the rapid expansion of the Danish turbine manufacturing industry. Components are tested at LORC in Odense , and new large prototype turbines between 4–8 MW (including some non-Danish ones) are being tested at Østerild . Limited production turbines (four Siemens 7MW with 66kV cabling) are to be supported at Nissum Bredning at

4576-472: The British coast. The works were let out to commercial construction firms, including Wates Construction , Balfour Beatty , Henry Boot , Bovis & Co , Cochrane & Sons , Costain , Cubitts , French , Holloway Brothers , John Laing & Son , Peter Lind & Company , Sir Robert McAlpine , Melville Dundas & Whitson , Mowlem , Nuttall , Parkinson , Halcrow Group , Pauling & Co. and Taylor Woodrow . On completion they were towed across

4680-480: The British, resulting in such severe damage during the Channel storm of June 19, 1944 that it was considered to be irreparable and its further assembly ceased, It was commanded by Augustus Dayton Clark . Mulberry "B" (British) was the harbour assembled on Gold Beach at Arromanches for use by the British and Canadian invasion forces. The harbour was decommissioned six months after D-Day, when Allied forces could use

4784-527: The Danish parliament agreed that the Danish state would increase the country's offshore wind capacity by 1,500 MW. The 1,500 MW extra capacity was achieved by constructing several offshore wind farms; the 400 MW Anholt wind farm in 2014, the 407 MW Horns Rev 3 in the North Sea at 77 øre/kWh in 2019, and the Kriegers Flak at 37.2 øre/kWh with a capacity of 600 MW in

4888-541: The English Channel by tugboats to the Normandy coast at only 8.0 kilometres per hour (4.3 kn) and assembled, operated and maintained by the Corps of Royal Engineers , under the guidance of Reginald D. Gwyther, who was appointed CBE for his efforts. Various elements of the whale piers were designed and constructed by a group of companies led by Braithwaite & Co, West Bromwich and Newport. Both locations for

4992-658: The Gold Beach area just west of Ver-sur-Mer . Two soldiers – Major Logan Scott-Bowden , of the Royal Engineers , and commando Sergeant Bruce Ogden Smith, of the East Surrey Regiment – landed on the beach at night in Operation KJH and took samples of the sand. This operation was to check the load-bearing capabilities of sand and help determine whether armoured vehicles would be able to cross

5096-505: The Mulberry Harbour off the low coastline of Normandy, and by that time they were busy building pontoon units and Bailey bridge panels ready for the breakthrough into Germany. But if they were often in the dark about the purpose and destination of the products over which they toiled for days in workshop, forge and foundry, they understood their importance. No time was lost through the war years on strikes or disputes, and absenteeism

5200-435: The Mulberry there. Both harbours were almost fully functional when on 19 June a nor'easter of force 6 to 8 blew into Normandy and devastated the Mulberry harbour at Omaha Beach. The harbours had been designed with summer weather conditions in mind, but this was the worst storm to hit the Normandy coast in 40 years. The entire harbour at Omaha was deemed irreparable, 21 of the 28 phoenix caissons were completely destroyed,

5304-413: The Normandy coast. The LCP(L)s were manned by a Royal Navy crew and a small group of hydrographers. The first sortie, Operation KJF, occurred on the night of 26/27 November 1943 when three LCP(L)s took measurements off the port of Arromanches, the location for Mulberry B. A follow-up mission, Operation KJG, to the proposed location for Mulberry A happened over 1 and 2 December but a navigation failure meant

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5408-532: The Royal Navy. Newly-appointed commodore Sinclair McKenzie was put in charge and quickly assembled every salvage barge in the British Isles. The phoenixes, once refloated, were towed across the channel to form the "Mulberry" harbour breakwaters together with the gooseberry block ships. Ellsberg rode one of the concrete caissons to Normandy; once there he helped unsnarl wrecked landing craft and vehicles on

5512-577: The War Office. Mulberry was the codename for all the various structures that created the artificial harbours. These were called gooseberries, which metamorphosed into fully fledged harbours. Mulberry "A" and "B" each consisted of a floating outer breakwater called a bombardons , a static breakwater consisting of "corncobs" and reinforced concrete caissons called phoenix breakwaters , floating piers or roadways codenamed whales and beetles and pier heads codenamed spuds. These harbours when built were both of

5616-544: The Whale piers. War work by the Butterley Company included the production of steel "pontoons used to support the floating bridge between the offshore Mulberry Harbour caissons and the shore on Gold and Omaha beaches after D-Day 1944". Roy Christian wrote: "The workers who made mysterious floats had no idea of their ultimate purpose until one morning in June 1944 they realised that their products were helping to support

5720-549: The already heavily defended French harbours. Thus, the Mulberries were created to provide the port facilities necessary to offload the thousands of men and vehicles and millions of tons of supplies necessary to sustain Operation Overlord . The harbours were made up of all the elements one would expect of any harbour: breakwater , piers and roadways. With the planning of Operation Overlord at an advanced stage by

5824-652: The assembly line directly onto ships. A span from Mulberry B reused after the war at Pont-Farcy was saved from destruction in 2008 by Les Amis du Pont Bailey , a group of English and French volunteers. Seeking a permanent home for it, they gifted it to the Imperial War Museum and it was returned to England in July 2015. After conservation work it is now part of the Land Warfare exhibition at Imperial War Museum Duxford . Beetles were pontoons that supported

5928-401: The beach or become bogged down, rather than being in connection with the Mulberry harbours.) The final Mulberry harbour survey, Operation Bellpush Charlie, occurred on the night of 30–31 January but limited information was gathered due to fog and because German lookouts heard the craft. Further sorties were abandoned. An early idea for temporary harbours was sketched by Winston Churchill in

6032-416: The beach. The bombardons were large 200 ft (61 m) by 25 ft (7.6 m) plus-shaped floating breakwaters fabricated in steel and rubberized canvas that were anchored outside the main breakwaters that consisted of gooseberries (scuttled ships) and phoenixes (concrete caissons. Twenty-four bombardon units, attached to one another with hemp ropes, created 1 mi (1.6 km) breakwaters. During

6136-618: The beach. Port Winston is commonly upheld as one of the best examples of military engineering . Its remains are still visible today from the beaches at Arromanches. Wind power in Denmark Denmark was a pioneer in developing commercial wind power during the 1970s, and today a substantial share of the wind turbines around the world are produced by Danish manufacturers such as Vestas —the world's largest wind-turbine manufacturer—along with many component suppliers. Furthermore, Denmark has—as of 2022—the 2nd highest amount in

6240-463: The blockships (which remained above sea-level) and the concrete caissons were festooned with anti-aircraft guns and barrage balloons manned by the men of the 397th and 481st Anti-Aircraft Artillery (Automatic Weapons) Battalions, attached to the First US Army . Arriving first on D-Day were the bombardons, followed a day later by the first blockship. The first phoenix was sunk on 9 June and

6344-415: The bombardons were cast adrift and the roadways and piers lay smashed. The Mulberry harbour at Arromanches was more protected, and although damaged by the storm, it remained usable. It came to be known as Port Winston . While the harbour at Omaha was destroyed sooner than expected, Port Winston saw heavy use for eight months, despite being designed to last only three months. In the ten months after D-Day, it

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6448-574: The caissons and assembling all the various other units of the harbours. For the Mulberry A at Omaha Beach, the US Navy Civil Engineer Corps (CEC) would construct the harbour from prefabricated parts. The proposed harbours called for many huge caissons of various sorts to build breakwaters and piers and connecting structures to provide the roadways. The caissons were built at a number of locations, mainly existing ship building facilities or large beaches, like Conwy Morfa, around

6552-402: The coast to have the transformer on land, decreasing cost. The first 350 MW were called for tenders in 2015, with a maximum price of 70 øre/kWh. Vattenfall bid the lowest price for the 350 MW nearshore farms at 47,5 øre/kWh in September 2016, but the political situation was unclear. In addition to the offshore projects, a further 500 MW additional net capacity of onshore windfarms

6656-554: The corncobs created the sheltered waters known as gooseberries. The ships used for each beach were: Phoenixes were reinforced concrete caissons constructed by civil engineering contractors around the coast of Britain, collected and sunk at Dungeness in Kent and Pagham Harbour in West Sussex prior to D-Day. There were six different sizes of caisson (with displacements of approximately 2,000 tons to 6,000 tons each ) and each unit

6760-520: The economic impact of the Danish wind industry. The resulting report states that Danes pay the highest residential electricity rates in the European Union (mostly for government revenue, but partly to subsidise wind power), and that the cost of saving a ton of carbon dioxide between 2001 and 2008 has averaged 647 DKK (€87, US$ 124). It also estimated that 90% of wind industry jobs were transferred from other technology industries, and states that as

6864-849: The end of the war. The Navy was dismissive of Beckett's claims for his anchor's holding ability so Kite anchors were not used for mooring the bombardons. An original Kite anchor is displayed in a private museum at Vierville-sur-Mer while a full size replica forms part of a memorial to Beckett in Arromanches. In October 2018 five Kite anchors were recovered from the bed of the Solent off Woodside Beach, which had been an assembly area for Whale tows prior to D Day. The anchors were taken to Mary Rose Archaeological Services in Portsmouth for conservation treatment. The pier heads or landing wharves at which ships were unloaded were codenamed spuds. Each consisted of

6968-430: The goal of 300,000 small heat pumps in 2035 is unlikely to be reached, reducing the value of more wind power unless electricity tax is reduced. At the end of 2015 , Denmark's total nameplate capacity for wind power stood at 5,070 MW. Denmark has the highest proportion of wind power in the world. In 2015, Denmark produced 42% of electricity from wind, up from the 2014 record of 39% of total power consumption. For

7072-488: The gooseberry was finished by 11 June. By 18 June two piers and four pier heads were working. Though this harbour was abandoned in late June (see below), the beach continued to be used for landing vehicles and stores using Landing Ship Tanks (LSTs). Using this method, the Americans were able to unload a higher tonnage of supplies than at Arromanches. Salvageable parts of the artificial port were sent to Arromanches to repair

7176-499: The grid, Denmark plans to increase wind's share even further. In 2010 the plan was to reach 50% of consumption in 2020 (which was almost met), and up to 84% in 2035. Analysts expect the cost of wind power to be 30 øre/kWh and its handling cost to be 15 øre/kWh, being lower than coal and natural gas at 55 øre/kWh minimum. Due to their inability to follow load wind power gets a lower price. Danish district heating plants use 100  petajoule /year, but little of this consumption

7280-553: The lack of progress being made on finding a solution to the temporary harbour problem. Between 17 June and 6 August 1942, Hugh Iorys Hughes submitted a design concept for artificial harbours to the War Office. At a meeting following the Dieppe Raid of 19 August 1942, Vice-Admiral John Hughes-Hallett (the naval commander for the Dieppe Raid) declared that if a port could not be captured, then one should be taken across

7384-523: The land. Designed by Allan Beckett , the roadways were made from innovative torsionally flexible bridging units that had a span of 80 feet (24 m), mounted on pontoon units of either steel or concrete called "beetles". After the war many of the "Whale" bridge spans from Arromanches were used to repair bombed bridges in France, Belgium and the Netherlands. Such units are still visible as a bridge over

7488-598: The location of the harbours and the form of the breakwater; the Sub-Committee's first meeting was held at the Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE) on 4 August 1943. The minutes of the Sub-Committee's meetings show that initially it was envisaged that bubble breakwaters would be used, then blockships were proposed, and finally, because not enough block ships were available, a mix of blockships and purpose-made concrete caisson units were used. On 2 September 1943

7592-615: The minimum (guaranteed) price a plant receives during the FLH period in øre /kWh. Subsidy = guaranteed price minus market price. FLH= Full Load Hours ; the amount of production the plant receives support for. After that, the plant usually receives market price. Transmission is included in the nearshore "Vesterhav", but not the other plants. The levels are usually below levels in Germany and UK. As Denmark continues to install additional capacity, they continue to set new production records. This

7696-477: The month of January 2014, that share was over 61%. The month of lowest wind power share was July at 23%. Denmark also had 548 MW of solar power (790 MW in late 2015). A peak generation period occurred on 21 December 2013 when the wind share was 102%, and for 1 hour the share was 135%. In 2005, Denmark had installed wind capacity of 3,127 MW, which produced 23,810  TJ (6.6  TW·h ) of energy, giving an actual average production of 755 MW at

7800-451: The most far-reaching and effective programs for the expansion of wind energy to date. The parties agreed that the share of renewable energies in Danish energy consumption should be 20 % in 2011. The price for wind energy was also increased in the agreement. The parties also agreed to construct new offshore wind turbines with a capacity of 400 MW by 2012. The agreement introduced a compensation scheme for residents living near wind turbines,

7904-425: The much larger markets in Norway, Sweden, Germany and Netherlands ( COBRAcable ), and plans to add cables to England ( Viking Link ) as well, further increasing the function of being a crossroads for electricity. From 2005 to 2010, claims of up to 40% of wind power being exported have been made , countered by claims that only 1% was exported. According to the first argument, power in excess of immediate demand

8008-604: The new extension, but it was rebuilt and reopened on 22 July 2005. The 2014 Danish film The Sunfish is set in Hirtshals. Hirtshals is the Danish terminal for the services of the Norwegian ferry company, Color Line . Each year thousands of tourists travel back and forth between Hirtshals and the Norwegian cities of Kristiansand and Larvik . Previously, Color Line also offered services to Bergen , Stavanger and Oslo , but decided to stop operating these routes in early 2008. Another ferry operator, Fjord Line , now operates

8112-415: The norm after the 1973 and 1979 energy crises . Renewable energy became the natural choice for Denmark, decreasing both dependence on other countries for energy and global warming pollution. Many countries tried to subsidise green technology such as wind power, and most failed to make it a viable industry. The Danish system was an exception, providing 30% of initial capital cost in the early years which

8216-406: The number increased to 1,463 GWh in 2020 (plus 1,066 GWh for thermal power), earning DKK 522 million. The 24-hour period of 2 September 2015 was the first occasion when most electricity came from wind, and no central power plants were running in West Denmark, while grid stability was maintained by compensators . Denmark is generally a transit country for electricity trade between

8320-413: The offshore area was taken into focus. Ever since the first energy agreement with outstanding consensus in parliament in 2008, Denmark grew their wind power share in domestic electricity production from 19% to 55% in 2019. For the policy approach, one may note the adoption of incrementalism that helps this to be developed ahead of other more rational approaches such as those adopted by USA and UK. See

8424-521: The popularity of wind turbines, with some 86% of Danes supporting wind energy when compared with existing fuel sources. The role of wind turbine cooperatives is not limited to single turbines. The Middelgrunden offshore wind farm – with 20 turbines the world's largest offshore farm at the time it was built in 2000 – is 50% owned by the 10,000 investors in the Middelgrunden Wind Turbine Cooperative, and 50% by

8528-425: The problem of needing deepwater jetties and a harbour to provide the invasion force with the necessary reinforcements and supplies, and were to be used until major French ports could be captured and brought back into use after repair of the inevitable sabotage by German defenders. Comprising floating but sinkable breakwaters, floating pontoons, piers and floating roadways, this innovative and technically difficult system

8632-408: The recently captured port of Antwerp to offload troops and supplies. Mulberry "B" was operated by 20 Port Group, Royal Engineers, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel G.C.B Shaddick. Corncobs were 61 ships that crossed the English Channel (either under their own steam or towed) and were then scuttled to act as breakwaters and create sheltered water at the five landing beaches. Once in position

8736-510: The same price of 0.01 øre/kWh, and drew lots to find the winner (RWE) for a Contract for difference , which included connection costs and a potential DKK 2.8 billion (€377m) payment to the state . The similar bids raised questions about the suitability of the auction. Three days after the auction, the Parliament agreed on a further 2 GW offshore wind by 2031 due to the success of the Thor auction. In early June 2023, an agreement

8840-489: The single bidder for Anholt. By 2018, Danish offshore wind farms had average 40% capacity factor. Newer farms had higher CF than older. Offshore operators are required to secure a decommissioning fee. Wind power output reduces spot market prices in general via the Merit Order effect; in 2008 this caused a net reduction of pre-tax electricity prices (balancing the increase from the feed-in law). The chart shows

8944-701: The storm finally abated and damage was found to be so severe that the harbour was abandoned and the Americans resorted to landing men and material over the open beaches. The Dieppe Raid of 1942 had shown that the Allies could not rely on being able to penetrate the Atlantic Wall to capture a port on the north French coast. The problem was that large ocean-going ships of the type needed to transport heavy and bulky cargoes and stores needed sufficient depth of water under their keels , together with dockside cranes , to offload their cargo. These were only available at

9048-420: The storms at the end of June 1944. some broke up and sank while others parted their anchors and drifted down onto the harbours, possibly causing more damage than the storm itself. Their design was the responsibility of the Royal Navy; the Royal Engineers designed the rest of the Mulberry harbour equipment. The dock piers were codenamed whales. They were the floating roadways that connected the "spud" pier heads to

9152-635: The summer of 1943, it was accepted that the proposed artificial harbours would need to be prefabricated in Britain and then towed across the English Channel. The need for two separate artificial harbours – one American and one British/Canadian – was agreed at the Quebec Conference in August 1943. An Artificial Harbours Sub-Committee was set up under the Chairmanship of the civil engineer Colin R. White, brother of Sir Bruce White , to advise on

9256-493: The team sounded an area 2,250 yards west of the correct area. Two attempts to take soundings were made off Pointe de Ver . The first sortie, Operation Bellpush Able, on 25/26 December had problems with their equipment. They returned on 28/29 December, in Operation Bellpush Baker, to complete the task. (On New Year's Eve 1943, the 712th Survey Flotilla carried a Combined Operations Pilotage Party (COPP) to

9360-579: The temporary harbours required detailed information concerning geology , hydrography and sea conditions. To collect this data a special team of hydrographers was created in October 1943. The 712th Survey Flotilla, operating from naval base HMS Tormentor in Hamble , were detailed to collect soundings off the enemy coast. Between November 1943 and January 1944 this team used a number of specially adapted Landing Craft Personnel (Large) , or LCP(L), to survey

9464-426: The time. Danish prices are mainly negative when German prices are even more negative; 90% of curtailment happens as a request from German power producers, and represents 2% (or DKK 80 million in 2018) of wind power production. In most years, curtailment mainly happened at thermal power plants, but became mostly by wind turbines in 2020. In 2019, Germany paid for curtailment of 420 GWh of Danish wind power, and

9568-420: The two Mulberry harbours. It included all the blockships (codenamed Corncobs) to create the outer breakwater (gooseberries) and 146 concrete caissons (phoenixes). At Arromanches , the first phoenix was sunk at dawn on 8 June 1944. By 15 June a further 115 had been sunk to create a five-mile-long arc between Tracy-sur-Mer in the west to Asnelles in the east. To protect the new anchorage, the superstructures of

9672-529: The use of Wind Power development in the example section of Incrementalism . Denmark has relatively modest average wind speeds in the range of 4.9–5.6 m/s measured at 10 m height. Onshore wind resources are highest in the western part of the country, and on the eastern islands with coastlines facing south or west. Wind is higher in autumn and winter and lower in summer, and Denmark also has about 2.3 GW of solar power . The country has very large offshore wind resources, and large areas of sea territory with

9776-407: The world of wind power generation capacity installed per capita , behind only neighboring Sweden. In 2020, wind power produced 56% of total electricity generation in Denmark , up from 20% in 2010 and 11% in 2000. This contributes to the government's target of 100% renewable power generation by 2030. Denmark had the 4th best energy architecture performance in the world in 2017 according to

9880-640: Was also the seat of Hirtshals Municipality which was merged with existing Hjørring , Løkken-Vrå , and Sindal municipalities to form an enlarged Hjørring Municipality . Hirtshals is located on the sand and clay promontory Hirtshals , overlooking the Skagerrak between the Jammer Bay and the Tannis Bay . The shoreline is backed by low cliffs , beneath which is a narrow and rocky beach . The town's 35-metre-high lighthouse , Hirtshals fyr ,

9984-437: Was being used for the first time. The Mulberry B harbour at Gold Beach was used for ten months after D-Day, while over two million men, four million tons of supplies and half a million vehicles were landed before it was fully decommissioned. The partially completed Mulberry A harbour at Omaha Beach was damaged on 19 June by a violent storm that arrived from the northeast before the pontoons were securely anchored. After three days

10088-519: Was erected at Cairn Head, about 5 miles (8.0 km) south of Garlieston. Prototypes of each of the designs were built and transported to the area for testing by Royal Engineers, based at Cairn Head and in Garlieston. The tests revealed various problems (the "Swiss roll" would only take up to a seven-ton truck in the Atlantic swell). The final choice of design was determined by a storm during which

10192-419: Was gradually reduced to zero, but still maintaining a feed-in tariff. The capital cost subsidy was reduced to 20% in June 1985, when wind turbines received DKK 50 million per year. Other renewable energy forms received 37 million. The research institution Teknologisk Institut identified many specific improvement needs, pushing development from ad hoc to systemised solutions. On 29 March 1985, one year before

10296-780: Was low. Some of those workers were women, for in the first time in its history female labour was being employed at the Butterley works." 420 concrete pontoons were made by Wates Ltd. at their Barrow in Furness, West India Docks, Marchwood and Beaulieu sites. A further 40 concrete beetles were made by John Laing (for Wates)at their Southsea factory and 20 were made at R. Costain at Erith, Twelve were made by John Mowlem at Russia Dock as were 8 by Melville Dundas and Whiston. They were moored in position using wires attached to "Kite" anchors which were also designed by Allan Beckett . These anchors had such high holding power that few could be recovered at

10400-420: Was made by Germany and Denmark to link the Danish island of Bornholm's wind energy producing capacity to the mainland by the early 2030s, with a minimum capacity of 3 gigawatts. In addition 6 nearshore wind farms with a total capacity of up to 450 MW are scheduled along with 50 MW of experimental offshore wind farms. The nearshore differ from conventional offshore in having the being close enough to

10504-798: Was mapped in 1999 by EMD International A/S and Risø National Laboratory. The mapping was made using a 200 m grid resolution using the models in WindPRO and WAsP. The results were validated on more than 1200 wind turbines nationwide. Denmark is connected by transmission line to other European countries (e.g. Cross-Skagerrak ) at an electricity interconnection level (transmission capacity relative to production capacity) of 44% in 2015, and increased since then. Denmark has also retained 6 GW of its traditional power plants, therefore it does not need to install additional peak-load plants to balance its wind power. Instead, it purchases additional power from its neighbours when necessary. With some strengthening of

10608-478: Was that the Admiralty managed the blockships, bombardons and assembly of all constituent parts on the south coast of England. It would also undertake all necessary work to survey, site, tow and mark navigation. The War Office was given the task of constructing the concrete caissons (phoenixes), the roadways (whales) and protection via anti-aircraft installations. Once at the site, the army was responsible for sinking

10712-420: Was towed to Normandy by two tugs at around three knots. The caissons were initially planned to be moored along the coast, but due to a lack of mooring capacity they were sunk awaiting D-Day, and then refloated ("resurrected", hence the name). The Royal Engineers were responsible for the task, and questions had arisen about whether their plans were adequate. US Navy Captain (later Rear Admiral) Edward Ellsberg ,

10816-453: Was used to land almost three million men, four million tons of supplies and half a million vehicles to reinforce France. In response to this longer-than-planned use, the phoenix breakwater was reinforced with the addition of specially strengthened caissons. The Royal Engineers had built a complete Mulberry Harbour out of 600,000 tons of concrete between 33 jetties, and had 10 mi (16 km) of floating roadways to land men and vehicles on

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