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57-518: The Huab Formation is correlated with a series of formations in the Pelotas and Paraná Basins in southeastern Brazil, deposited in a larger basinal area, 150 million years before the break-up of Pangea . The abundance of Glossopteris and Mesosaurus fossils are characteristic of the Gondwanan correlation across present-day South America, Africa, Antarctica and Australia. The Huab Formation

114-482: A barrier towards the open sea in the west. Their preferred E-W orientation coincides with tidal- and wave induced currents perpendicular to the palaeo-coastline. Lagoonal environments were established landwards of the bioherm belts, in which laminated shales developed. The lamination is due to suspension fallout in slightly agitated water. Erosive based interbeds of coarse to gritty sandstones formed during storm events and are therefore interpreted as tempestites . West of

171-736: A different history due to the Polônio paleohigh until the Late Maastrichtian . The basinal sequence starts with the Imbituba Formation, a unit consisting of basaltic volcanic rocks. Parts of these rocks have been dated at ages between 125 ± 0.7 Ma and 118 ± 1.9 Ma, more recent than the flood basaltic Serra Geral Formation of the Paraná and Etendeka traps to the west in the Paraná Basin . The basalts are exposed in

228-691: A high internal surface area. This soil weathers rapidly to imogolite and smectite. Thus they are highly fertile, rich in organic matter, and have particularly low bulk density. These properties and the aforementioned weathering products typically alter during burial, sometimes to distinctive minerals like celadonite and clinoptilolite. At least 60% recognizable pyroclastic fragments in thin sections are characteristic of this paleosol. This paleosol forms in and around volcanoes. Horizons: O, A, sometimes Bg, & C Organic-rich soils with thick peaty horizons, that form in cool, well drained localities or low-lying, permanently waterlogged areas. The primary formation process

285-709: A horizon deep within the profile, such base saturation can be assumed. If lacking in carbonate nodules, Alfisols can be distinguished by the abundance of base rich clays or by molecular weathering ratios of alumina/bases of less than 2. These soils are not found at the poles or on high mountain tops. Horizons: A, sometimes E, Bt, & C Base-poor forest soils that are similar to Alfisols at first glance. However, Ultisols are more deeply weathered of mineral nutrients. There should not be any calcareous material anywhere within an Ultisol profile and have molecular weathering ratios of alumina/bases of more than 2. Kaolinite and highly weathered aluminous minerals such as gibbsite are common in

342-897: A more nuanced reconstruction approach. Proposed seasonality proxies primarily rely on a soil wetting/drying process, during which pedogenic carbonate can form; like other proxies, this tool is continually being tested and refined. Soils form in near-constant contact with the atmosphere , so their chemical composition is affected by the composition of the atmosphere through both direct and indirect pathways. The oxidation of paleosols has been used as an indicator of atmospheric oxygen, which has risen over Earth's history. Paleosols have also been used to reconstruct atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, based on modern studies of soil carbon gas exchange, carbon isotopes in pedogenic carbonate nodules, and mass-balance approaches taking multiple atmospheric gases (typically carbon dioxide , oxygen , and methane ) into account. These methods are being actively developed in

399-782: A sequence of rift basins bordering the present-day South Atlantic on the Brazilian and southwestern African sides. The Pelotas-Namibia spreading commenced in the Hauterivian , around 133 million years ago, and reached the Santos Basin to the north in the Barremian . Seafloor spreading continued northwards to the Campos Basin in the Early Albian , at approximately 112 Ma. Five tectonic stages have been identified in

456-429: A soil profile that occur during weathering, burial, and post-burial processes. Their use depends on factors such as post-burial alteration, parent material, and soil order ; not every proxy is applicable to every paleosol. Most proxies are applicable to Phanerozoic paleosols (not older), as landscape processes changed dramatically after the rise of land plants. Seasonality (the presence and strength of seasons) requires

513-651: A stage of formation beyond Entisols, but not to the degree of development in other soil orders. Typically can be imagined as having a light-colored surface horizon over a moderately weathered subsurface horizon. Forms in low-rolling parts of landscapes in and around steep mountain fronts. Shrubby woodlands of pole trees that form during recolonization of disturbed ground by forests are particularly characteristic of this paleosol. Open woodlands and wooded grasslands are also characteristic of this paleosol. Horizons: A, Bw, & C These are soils of volcanic ash of siliceous nature, consisting of bubbles or shards of volcanic glass with

570-400: A surprising array of histic epipedons, desert pavements, salic, and calcic horizons. Many other factors, such as ped structures, such as the presence of blocky, angular or granular peds and fabric type, like clinobimasepic plasmic fabric, are structures that can help one identify if they are dealing with a paleosol. Some of these structures are very helpful when narrowing down the paleosol that

627-600: A thick layer of salt and the pre-salt layer pinches out just in the north of the Pelotas Basin stratigraphy. Within the Brazilian Atlantic margin, the Pelotas Basin is relatively underexplored. Twenty exploration wells have been drilled in the Brazilian portion of the basin with one ultra-deepwater exploration well drilled on the Uruguayan side in 2016. No hydrocarbon accumulations have been proven in

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684-486: Is a list of soils and some of their diagnostic features that provides a framework for telling these paleosols, or even modern soils, apart: Horizons (top-to-bottom): A & C This soil has a very slight degree of soil formation. Original crystalline, metamorphic, or sedimentary features of the parent material experienced little alteration from soil formation. Most are found on young geomorphic surfaces such as flood plains and on steep slopes where erosion removes material as

741-595: Is a lithological unit with an approximate maximum thickness of 190 metres (620 ft), deposited in the eponymous basin where it underlies the Gai-As Formation , separated by a significant hiatus, and overlies the basement . The formation crops out south of the Huab River , extending from the Atlantic coast to Twyfelfontein . The thickness in the coastal area is about 75 metres (246 ft). Part of

798-507: Is a mostly offshore sedimentary basin of approximately 346,000 square kilometres (134,000 sq mi) in the South Atlantic , administratively part of the southern states Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul of Brazil and the departments Cerro Largo , Rocha and Treinta y Tres of Uruguay . The Pelotas Basin is one of the basins that formed on the present-day South Atlantic margins of South America and Africa due to

855-561: Is a stable microstructure of sand-sized spherical micropeds of iron-stained lay. Very old, often amounting to tens of millions of years. Found on stable continental locations on gentle slopes of plateaus, terraces, and plains. The natural vegetation for Oxisols is a rainforest. Horizons: A, Bw, & C These are uniform, thick, clayey soils that have deep, wide cracks. Cracking can produce a hummock-and-swale topography. Mostly composed of smectitic clays. Most Vertisols are found on intermediate to basaltic materials. Found mainly in flat terrain at

912-722: Is accumulation of peat (organic matter), meaning organic matter is produced faster than it can decompose in the soil. The leaching or formation of gley minerals (pyrite or siderite) overprinting prior soil or sedimentary features is associated with peat accumulation. Horizons: A, E, sometimes Bh, Bs, & C A subsurface horizon enriched with iron and aluminum oxides or organic matter is characteristic of Spodosols. Displays opaque cements that form distinctive radially cracked, concretionary rims to abundant quartz grains in thin sections. Spodosols form on hilly bedrock or low, rolling quartz-rich sediments. Found principally in humid climates in which clay and soluble salts are dissolved and washed out of

969-502: Is an ancient soil that formed in the past. The definition of the term in geology and paleontology is slightly different from its use in soil science . In geology and paleontology, a paleosol is a former soil preserved by burial underneath either sediments ( alluvium or loess ) or volcanic deposits ( lava flows or volcanic ash ), which in the case of older deposits have lithified into rock . In Quaternary geology, sedimentology , paleoclimatology , and geology in general, it

1026-889: Is being identified. However, any paleosol should be verified geochemically before use in proxy-based reconstructions; post-deposition alteration processes, such as potassium metasomatism , can change a paleosol's chemistry without dramatically altering its physical appearance. Palaeosols are frequently used as palaeoclimatological tools for gauging the climate in which they formed. Because rates and styles of weathering are dependent on climatic factors, paleosols can be used to reconstruct variables of past climate. Mean annual precipitation (MAP) and air temperature (MAAT) are two commonly-reconstructed variables which, along with seasonality and in conjunction with other paleoenvironmental tools, can be used to describe past terrestrial climates. A suite of paleoclimatic proxies exist and while they vary in focus, many rely on changes in chemical composition throughout

1083-768: Is characteristic of a large-scale prolonged transgression that lasted until the Oligocene . As in other areas of the Brazilian continental margin, the Late Turonian is marked by a regional unconformity . The Late Cretaceous to recent sequence is subdivided into the proximal Cidreira Formation, related to the fluvial progradation of the Rio Grande, and a distal part known as the Imbé Formation, consisting of shales , intercalated with sporadic siltstones and fine-grained sandstones . The transgressive series

1140-524: Is created by fine root systems of grassy vegetation and the burrowing activity of many soil invertebrate species. Mollisols are found in low, rolling, or flat country. Horizons: A, sometimes Bt, Bk, sometimes By, & C Forms in arid to semi-arid regions, and that lack of rain allows for the creation of shallow calcareous, gypsiferous, or salty horizons. These cements form large nodules or continuous layers. Light-colored, soft, and often vesicular surface horizon. Subsurface horizons are not cemented with any of

1197-482: Is effectively the parent material for a new soil, but it is so unweatherable that only a very poorly developed soil can exist in present dry climates, especially when they have become much drier during glacial periods in the Quaternary . In other parts of Australia and in many parts of Africa, drying out of former soils has not been so severe. This has led to large areas of relict podsols in quite dry climates in

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1254-672: Is followed by the volcanics of the Curumim Formation , dated at 113 ± 0.1 Ma, and small incursions in the northern area of Pelotas Basin of the Ariri Formation , the evaporites that form the salt layer in the Santos Basin to the north. The rapid subsidence from the Albian to Turonian created a wide marine platform with in the north elevated areas due to the doming of the Curumim Formation. On this platform,

1311-687: Is interpreted as ranging from glacial ( tillite ) at the very base, followed by a glacio- fluvial setting, and a warmer climate fluvial environment. The sequence higher up is formed by a fan deltaic setting, with a lateral shallow lake with increased salinity where stromatolite bioherms were formed. The uppermost section of the Huab Formation, underlying the Gai-As Formation, was deposited in an estuarine environment. The depositional environments have been described in detail by Wanke in 2000 as follows: Stromatolitic bioherms acted as

1368-400: Is interrupted by the presence of various Paleogene hiatuses, that appear also in the regressive Miocene to recent beds. The unconformities have been analysed in detail using Sr/ Sr ratios . The Pelotas Basin is relatively underexplored. The Brazilian part of the basin had a total of twenty exploration wells drilled until 2017. The first eight wells were drilled in the onshore section in

1425-532: Is not occurring makes ecologically sustainable management even more difficult. However, paleosols often contain the most exceptional biodiversity due to the absence of competition . The record of paleosols extends into the Precambrian in Earth's history, with rare paleosols older than 2.5 billion years. Geology, biology, and the atmosphere all changed significantly over that time, with dramatic shifts at

1482-536: Is the typical and accepted practice to use the term "paleosol" to designate such " fossil soils " found buried within sedimentary and volcanic deposits exposed in all continents. In soil science the definition differs slightly: paleosols are soils formed long ago that have no relationship in their chemical and physical characteristics to the present-day climate or vegetation. Such soils are found within extremely old continental cratons , or in small scattered locations in outliers of other ancient rock domains. Because of

1539-581: The Great Oxidation Event (2.42 billion years ago) and during the Paleozoic , when complex animals and land plants proliferated. Consequently, our modern soil classification system cannot be readily applied to paleosols. For example, a modern alfisol—broadly defined as a forest soil—would not have existed prior to the evolution of trees. More problematically, it is specifically defined by chemical properties that would not be preserved in

1596-711: The Serra Geral National Park as a 700-metre-high (2,300 ft) cliff. The volcanic deposits form seaward dipping reflectors (SDR) in the seismic surveys of the basin. The conglomerates , siltstones and diamictites of the Cassino Formation represent the top of the Gondwana break-up unconformity, dates to the Middle Aptian . The depositional environment has been interpreted as fluvio - deltaic to lacustrine . The formation

1653-443: The 1950s and 1960s. After acquiring seismic survey in the 1970s, seven more wells were drilled in the shallow offshore part. Five other offshore wells were drilled between 1995 and 2001. The first and hitherto only well drilled in the Uruguayan part of the basin was drilled in 2016. Hydrocarbon accumulations have yet to be discovered in Pelotas Basin. An exploration area of approximately 15,000 square kilometres (5,800 sq mi)

1710-541: The A horizon. Rye & Holland (1998) laid out five criteria for identifying a paleosol. While this was prompted by the need for more stringent identification of Precambrian paleosols, it is applicable to paleosols of any age. The criteria are: In the field, physical signs of a paleosol include evidence of horizonation (e.g., color and textural changes), bedrock incorporated into a finer overlying lithology (corestones), and evidence of surface processes (e.g., root traces, organic matter, burrows, redox alteration). Below

1767-573: The Brazilian basins: While the basins to the north of Pelotas Basin, the Santos , Campos and Espírito Santo Basins , are characterised by a thick sequence of salt and an accompanying pre-salt layer , evaporites are almost absent in the Pelotas Basin. The sedimentary succession of the Pelotas Basin is underlain by an extremely deformed (highly stretched, thinned and faulted) continental crust , covered by grabens that can achieve thicknesses of more than 20 kilometres (66,000 ft). The nature of

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1824-1026: The Paraná Basin and the Prince Albert Formation of the Karoo. The Permian sequence in the Huab Basin is much thinner than those of the Paraná and Karoo Basins. The fossil assemblages of Glossopteris and Mesosaurus are known from other parts of Gondwana ; the Vryheid Formation of South Africa and coal deposits of the Lower Permian in Australia. Pelotas Basin The Pelotas Basin ( Portuguese : Bacia de Pelotas , Spanish : Cuenca de Pelotas )

1881-852: The Uruguayan departments Cerro Largo , Rocha and Treinta y Tres . About 40,900 square kilometres (15,800 sq mi) of the basin is onshore. The onshore part of the basin in Uruguay is locally called Merín Basin. The basin is bound by the Florianópolis High , separating it from the Santos Basin in the north and the Polônio High in the south, forming the border with the Punta del Este Basin . The coastal ranges Serras de Sudeste in Brazil and Cuchilla Grande in Uruguay form

1938-584: The aforementioned cements. Mostly found in low-lying areas because steep slopes in arid regions tend to be eroded back to bedrock. Vegetation is sparse and includes prickly shrubs and cacti. Horizons: A, sometimes By, & C Soils with ground ice or other permafrost features within one meter of the surface. In paleosols, locations of ice can be preserved as clastic dikes, freeze banding, or other deformations created by ground ice. Tillites and other glacigenic deposits are indicative of Gelisols. These soils form under polar desert, tundra, and taiga vegetation. Includes

1995-433: The basin thus far. The basin is named after the city of Pelotas , the hometown of Rodi Ávila Medeiros, the geologist who studied the area. The Pelotas Basin is an approximately 346,000-square-kilometre-large (134,000 sq mi), mostly offshore sedimentary basin, located in the South Atlantic offshore Brazil and Uruguay . It covers the southern Brazilian states of Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul and

2052-638: The bioherm belts, the fair weather wave basis reached the ground, expressed in oscillation-rippled surfaces. Channels between bioherm ridges have been interpreted as tidal channels. They host flat-pebble conglomerates, which are characterized by a high ooid content. These ooid bearing flat-pebble conglomerates support the facies concept of shallow, wave dominated water in the vicinity of the bioherms: Ooids form in very shallow, fairly agitated, carbonate saturated water probably under warm climate. The flat pebbles derived from desiccated layers of unlithified cohesive fine clastics that had been reworked, preferentially under

2109-470: The break-up of Gondwana in the Early Cretaceous . The sedimentary succession started as the other Brazilian marginal basins with a series of basalts, younger than the Paraná and Etendeka traps exposed in the Paraná Basin to the west, followed by shallow to deeper marine carbonate and clastic sediments. Other than the northern neighbours Santos and Campos Basins , the Pelotas Basin lacks

2166-426: The changes in the Earth's climate over the last 50 million years, soils formed under tropical rainforest (or even savanna ) have become exposed to increasingly arid climates which cause former oxisols , ultisols or even alfisols to dry out in such a manner that a very hard crust is formed. This process has occurred so extensively in most parts of Australia as to restrict soil development—the former soil

2223-482: The eastern domain around the Doros crater , dark iron-oxide cements occur in the upper conglomerate horizons. In virtually all lithological units, bones of the amphibious reptile Mesosaurus tenuidens can be encountered in concretions. The laminated mudstones and marls contain a diverse ichnofauna including Skolithos , Planolites , and large exemplars of Rhizocorallium irregulare . The depositional environment

2280-774: The far southern inland of Australia (where temperate rainforest was formerly dominant) and to the formation of torrox soils (a suborder of oxisols) in southern Africa . Here, present climates allow, effectively, the maintenance of the old soils in climates under which they could not have formed from the parent material during the Mesozoic and Paleocene . Paleosols in this sense are always exceedingly infertile soils , containing available phosphorus levels orders of magnitude lower than in temperate regions with younger soils. Ecological studies have shown that this has forced highly specialised evolution amongst Australian flora to obtain minimal nutrient supplies. The fact that soil formation

2337-601: The field of early Earth research. Paleosols are an important archive of information about ancient ecosystems and various components of fossil soils can be used to study past plant life. Paleosols often contain ancient plant materials such as pollen grains and phytoliths , a biomineralized form of silica produced by many plants such as grasses. Both pollen and phytolith fossils from different plant species have characteristic shapes that can be traced back to their parent plants. Over long geological time scales, phytoliths may not necessarily be preserved in paleosols due to ability of

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2394-497: The foot of gentle slopes. Climate and vegetation are dry and sparse enough that alkaline reactions can be maintained. Vegetation ranges from grassland to open woodland, with wooded grassland being common. Horizons: A, sometimes Bt, Bk, sometimes By, & C Well-developed, base-rich, surface horizon of intimately mixed clay and organic matter. An abundance of fine root traces and crumb ped structures are characteristic of this paleosol. The surface horizon characteristic of this paleosol

2451-782: The formation in the west is composed of carbonates (domal stromatolites with an east to west orientation and thin laminae of less than 1 millimetre (0.039 in)). The stromatolites occur in a 35 kilometres (22 mi) wide zone, reaching from 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) east of the Uniab Fault to 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) east of the Bergsig Fault system. The eastward sections comprise oolitic conglomeratic horizons of up to 50 centimetres (1.6 ft) thick. The carbonates ( mudstones and marls ) are overlain by silty, partly calcareous shales . The shales interfinger with sandstones and in certain parts coal beds are found. In

2508-680: The influence of storm waves. Tidal flats or lagoons provide the conditions for the generation of both, ooids and flat-pebble conglomerates. Shales and mudstones besides algal laminites represent deposition in a slightly agitated, shallow water body with relatively intensive carbonate production. Oscillating water-levels resulted in the formation of paleosols , which were reworked in flat pebble conglomerates after flooding. Autochthonous breccias give clear evidence for frequent sea level fluctuations, that refer to palustrine soils, which underwent periodically subaerial exposure. Coarse sandstones, partly channelized, reveal fluvial influence. The coarser material

2565-651: The lower crust below the Pelotas Basin remains uncertain, but by analogy with the Namibian conjugate margin, it may correspond to a high-density igneous crust-mantle interface intruded by the Tristan da Cunha plume . The central onshore boundary of the basin is formed by the Neoproterozoic Pelotas Batholith . The stratigraphy of the Pelotas Basin and the Punta del Este Basin to the south had

2622-564: The marine limestones and siliciclastics of the Porto Belo Formation were deposited. Shales comprise the outer marine deposition of this stratigraphic unit, considered as a potential source rock . Overlying the Porto Belo Formation are the proximal Tramandaí and the distal Atlántida Formations , composed of coarse-grained fluvial to alluvial clastics, intercalated with siltstones and shales. This phase

2679-470: The measurable properties and objective features within soils to classify them. The methodology developed a hierarchical structure among the different soil taxa, classifying the soils initially at a general level, then assigning soils to progressively more limited subdivisions. The USDA soil taxonomy does come with drawbacks, including an emphasis on observable features, new nomenclature, and hierarchical organization. The emphasis on observable features can make

2736-499: The poorly crystalline silica to dissolve. Another indicator of plant community composition in paleosols is the carbon isotopic signature . The ratio of different carbon isotopes in organic matter in paleosols reflects the proportions of plants using C3 photosynthesis , which grow in cooler and wetter climates, versus plants using C4 photosynthesis , which are better adapted to hotter and drier conditions. Other methods for detecting past plant life in paleosols are based on identifying

2793-434: The profile and most common in temperate regions. Characteristic vegetation are conifer forests and other kinds of evergreen woody vegetation that can tolerate low nutrient levels and high soil acidity. Horizons: A, sometimes E, Bt, sometimes Bk, & C Base-rich forested soils that have a light-colored surface horizon over a clayey subsurface horizon, rich in exchangeable cations. If paleosols contain nodules of carbonate in

2850-596: The profile. Low-base status is attributed to a long formation time. Form mostly on older parts of landscapes, such as rolling hills of bedrock, high alluvial terraces, and plateau tops. Natural vegetation consists of coniferous or hardwood forests. Horizons: A, Bo, sometimes Bv, & C Deeply weathered soils with texturally uniform profiles. Dominated by kaolinitic clays or other base-poor oxides such as gibbsite or boehmite. Contains molecular weathering ratios of alumina/bases of 10 or more. These soils have deeply weathered mottled horizons. Characteristic of this type of paleosol

2907-541: The rock record. While modern soil orders are often used to describe paleosols in a qualitative sense, a paleosol-specific naming scheme has been proposed, although it is only used sporadically in the literature. Until a paleosol-specific naming scheme is fully adopted, many paleo- pedologists have stuck to using the taxonomic classification of soils provided by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). The USDA soil taxonomy attempts to use

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2964-410: The soil forms. Signs of early successional vegetation of grasses and other herbs and shrubs. Root traces are diagnostic of this type of paleosol because of the small amount of alteration from their parent material in other respects. However, for Entisols of Ordivician age or older, a peak in magnetic susceptibility is indicative of an Entisol. Horizons: A, sometimes E, Bw, & C These soils represent

3021-565: The soil taxonomy similar in appearance to a legal document. The hierarchical structure cannot be applied more deeply than the order level regarding paleosols. However, despite these drawbacks, the USDA soil taxonomy is still the most comprehensive and influential soil classification system to date. To distinguish and identify paleosols from one another, certain diagnostic horizons and features need to be taken into account. For instance, all paleosols have an A horizon, but histosols have an O horizon above

3078-776: The upper Huab Formation in the eastern Huab area. The upper part of the formation is correlated with the Irati Formation of the Paraná and Pelotas Basins in Rio Grande do Sul , Brazil , and with the Whitehill Formation in the Karoo Basin of southern Namibia and the Eastern , Northern and Western Cape , South Africa . The lower section correlates with the Palermo and Rio Bonito Formations of

3135-656: The western boundary, underlain by the Sierra Ballena Shear Zone . The onshore part of the basin is from north to south crossed by the Urussanga , Araranguá , Mampituba , Jacuí , Guaíba , Camaquã , Jaguarão/Yaguarón and Cebollatí Rivers . The basins of the South Atlantic margin started forming in the Early Cretaceous with the break-up of Gondwana , the southern part of the former supercontinent Pangea . This tectonic movement resulted in

3192-675: Was offered in the Brazil Bidding Round of 2017.       De Santa Ana, Héctor; Goso Aguilar, César; Montaño, Jorge; Piñeiro, Graciela; Muzio, Rossana; Rossello, Eduardo; Perea, Daniel; Ucha, Nelson (2004). Cuencas sedimentarias de Uruguay - geología, paleontología y recursos naturales - Mesozóico (PDF) . División Relaciones y Actividades Culturales de Facultad de Ciencias . pp. 1–219 . Retrieved 2017-09-11 . Paleosol In geoscience , paleosol ( palaeosol in Great Britain and Australia )

3249-483: Was probably sourced by a nearby delta that was temporarily flooded during storm events. The dominance of those coarse sandstones towards the top of the eastern flat-pebble facies association might indicate delta progradation. The iron-oxide cements are interpreted as ferricretes, that either formed autochthonous or derived from adjacent reworked ferricrete crusts. An early uplift of the eastern hinterland might be indicated by coarse, westwardly prograding deltaic deposits of

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