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85-599: The market became widely known worldwide after being identified by some sources as the epicenter site of coronavirus disease 2019 ( COVID-19 ) and the resulting pandemic . It is still one of the most likely points of origin for the disease . The World Health Organization (WHO) was notified on 31 December 2019 about an outbreak of pneumonia in Wuhan. Of the initial 41 people hospitalized with "pneumonia", who were officially identified as having laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection, by 2 January 2020, two-thirds were exposed to

170-689: A dead-end host . Examples include rabies, anthrax, tularemia, and West Nile fever. Thus, much of human exposure to infectious disease has been zoonotic. Many diseases, even epidemic ones, have zoonotic origin and measles , smallpox , influenza , HIV, and diphtheria are particular examples. Various forms of the common cold and tuberculosis also are adaptations of strains originating in other species. Some experts have suggested that all human viral infections were originally zoonotic. Zoonoses are of interest because they are often previously unrecognized diseases or have increased virulence in populations lacking immunity. The West Nile virus first appeared in

255-638: A growing human population . According to Peter Daszak, the chair of the group who produced the report, "there is no great mystery about the cause of the Covid-19 pandemic, or of any modern pandemic. The same human activities that drive climate change and biodiversity loss also drive pandemic risk through their impacts on our environment." According to a report from the United Nations Environment Programme and International Livestock Research Institute , entitled "Preventing

340-456: A preprint analysis of these samples in February 2022, concluding that the coronavirus in the samples had likely been brought in by humans, not the animals on sale, but omissions in the analysis had raised questions, and the raw sample data had not yet been released. As academic journals often require that the raw data be published prior to review, academics had been expecting the publication of

425-553: A later publication, The Lancet reported that of the first 99 people confirmed with COVID-19 in Wuhan Jinyintan Hospital between 1 and 20 January 2020, 49 had a history of exposure to the market. The publication nevertheless did not opinionate on whether the market was the origin or just a key link in the epidemic. In an attempt to discover the origin of SARS-CoV-2, samples from the market's animals were also taken between 1 and 12 January 2020. In late January 2020,

510-401: A link between the pneumonia outbreak and the market being established, it was suspected that the virus may have been passed from an animal to humans ( zoonosis ). Bats were initially suggested to be the source of the virus, although it remains unclear if bats were sold there. Later studies hypothesized that pangolins may be the intermediate host of the virus originating from bats, analogous to

595-409: A population, a pathogen either had to be a chronic infection, staying present and potentially infectious in the infected host for long periods, or it had to have other additional species as reservoir where it can maintain itself until further susceptible hosts are contacted and infected. In fact, for many "human" diseases, the human is actually better viewed as an accidental or incidental victim and

680-499: A results of many ecological and sociological changes globally. During most of human prehistory groups of hunter-gatherers were probably very small. Such groups probably made contact with other such bands only rarely. Such isolation would have caused epidemic diseases to be restricted to any given local population, because propagation and expansion of epidemics depend on frequent contact with other individuals who have not yet developed an adequate immune response . To persist in such

765-616: A set of measures to stop the rise. Foodborne zoonotic diseases are caused by a variety of pathogens that can affect both humans and animals. The most significant zoonotic pathogens causing foodborne diseases are: Escherichia coli O157:H7 , Campylobacter , Caliciviridae , and Salmonella . Contact with farm animals can lead to disease in farmers or others that come into contact with infected farm animals. Glanders primarily affects those who work closely with horses and donkeys. Close contact with cattle can lead to cutaneous anthrax infection, whereas inhalation anthrax infection

850-567: A significant source in at least one spillover event . The wildlife trade may increase spillover risk because it directly increases the number of interactions across animal species, sometimes in small spaces. The origin of the COVID-19 pandemic is traced to the wet markets in China . Zoonotic disease emergence is demonstrably linked to the consumption of wildlife meat, exacerbated by human encroachment into natural habitats and amplified by

935-440: A specific population of bats is more likely to be the intermediate host for SARS-CoV-2 than a pangolin, while an evolutionary ancestor to bats was the source for general coronaviruses. Despite the role that the market played in the pandemic, it is yet unclear whether the novel coronavirus outbreak started in the market. The earliest known symptomatic case was reported on 1 December 2019, in a person who did not have any exposure to

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1020-846: A study published in Scientific Reports in June 2021, 38 wildlife species, including 31 protected species, were sold between May 2017 and November 2019 in Wuhan's wet markets (Huanan seafood market, Baishazhou market, Dijiao outdoor pet market, and Qiyimen live animal market) for food and as pets. These species included raccoon dogs , Amur hedgehogs , Siberian weasels , hog badgers , Asian badgers , Chinese hares , Pallas's squirrels , masked palm civets , Chinese bamboo rats , Malayan porcupines , coypus , marmots , red foxes , minks , red squirrels , wild boars , and complex-toothed flying squirrels . The wild animals on sale suffered poor welfare and hygiene conditions and were capable of hosting

1105-404: A wide range of infectious zoonotic diseases or disease-bearing parasites. No pangolin or bat species were among the animals for sale. Even before the pandemic, the market was identified as a likely site for zoonosis (diseases hopping to humans from other species). There were over a thousand raccoon-dogs for sale in the market, and about nine thousand other animals. Samples collected in

1190-599: Is a common infection of cats; in humans it is a mild disease although it can be dangerous to pregnant women. Dirofilariasis is caused by Dirofilaria immitis through mosquitoes infected by mammals like dogs and cats. Cat-scratch disease is caused by Bartonella henselae and Bartonella quintana , which are transmitted by fleas that are endemic to cats. Toxocariasis is the infection of humans by any of species of roundworm , including species specific to dogs ( Toxocara canis ) or cats ( Toxocara cati ). Cryptosporidiosis can be spread to humans from pet lizards, such as

1275-410: Is an infectious disease of humans caused by a pathogen (an infectious agent, such as a bacterium , virus , parasite , or prion ) that can jump from a non-human vertebrate to a human . When humans infect non-humans, it is called reverse zoonosis or anthroponosis. Major modern diseases such as Ebola and salmonellosis are zoonoses. HIV was a zoonotic disease transmitted to humans in

1360-708: Is bringing people into closer contact with animal species they may never have been near before. The resulting transmission of disease from wildlife to humans, she says, is now "a hidden cost of human economic development". In a guest article, published by IPBES , President of the EcoHealth Alliance and zoologist Peter Daszak , along with three co-chairs of the 2019 Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services , Josef Settele, Sandra Díaz , and Eduardo Brondizio, wrote that "rampant deforestation, uncontrolled expansion of agriculture, intensive farming , mining and infrastructure development, as well as

1445-481: Is caused by a tapeworm, which can spread from infected sheep by food or water contaminated by feces or wool. Avian influenza is common in chickens, and, while it is rare in humans, the main public health worry is that a strain of avian influenza will recombine with a human influenza virus and cause a pandemic like the 1918 Spanish flu . In 2017, free-range chickens in the UK were temporarily ordered to remain inside due to

1530-471: Is contact with or consumption of animals, animal products, or animal derivatives. This can occur in a companionistic (pets), economic (farming, trade, butchering, etc.), predatory (hunting, butchering, or consuming wild game), or research context. Recently, there has been a rise in frequency of appearance of new zoonotic diseases. "Approximately 1.67 million undescribed viruses are thought to exist in mammals and birds, up to half of which are estimated to have

1615-588: Is intricately linked to numerous emerging infectious diseases like Ebola, HIV, and SARS , raising critical public health concerns. A review published in 2022 found evidence that zoonotic spillover linked to wildmeat consumption has been reported across all continents. Kate Jones , Chair of Ecology and Biodiversity at University College London , says zoonotic diseases are increasingly linked to environmental change and human behavior. The disruption of pristine forests driven by logging, mining, road building through remote places, rapid urbanization, and population growth

1700-411: Is more common for workers in slaughterhouses , tanneries , and wool mills . Close contact with sheep who have recently given birth can lead to infection with the bacterium Chlamydia psittaci , causing chlamydiosis (and enzootic abortion in pregnant women), as well as increase the risk of Q fever , toxoplasmosis , and listeriosis , in the pregnant or otherwise immunocompromised . Echinococcosis

1785-441: Is the outbreak of Nipah virus in peninsular Malaysia, in 1999, when intensive pig farming began within the habitat of infected fruit bats. The unidentified infection of these pigs amplified the force of infection, transmitting the virus to farmers, and eventually causing 105 human deaths. Similarly, in recent times avian influenza and West Nile virus have spilled over into human populations probably due to interactions between

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1870-425: Is the usual source of human infection. Animal populations are the principal reservoir of the pathogen and horizontal infection in humans is rare. A few examples in this category include lyssavirus infections, Lyme borreliosis, plague, tularemia, leptospirosis , ehrlichiosis, Nipah virus, West Nile virus (WNV) and hantavirus infections. Secondary transmission encompasses a category of diseases of animal origin in which

1955-408: Is uncertainty in such measurements that grows with the wavelength so the focal depth of the source of these long-wavelength (low frequency) waves is difficult to determine exactly. Very strong earthquakes radiate a large fraction of their released energy in seismic waves with very long wavelengths and therefore a stronger earthquake involves the release of energy from a larger mass of rock. Computing

2040-443: The 2009 swine flu . Zoonoses can be caused by a range of disease pathogens such as emergent viruses , bacteria, fungi and parasites; of 1,415 pathogens known to infect humans, 61% were zoonotic. Most human diseases originated in non-humans; however, only diseases that routinely involve non-human to human transmission, such as rabies , are considered direct zoonoses. Zoonoses have different modes of transmission. In direct zoonosis

2125-471: The Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention revealed that the virus was found in 33 out of 585 of environmental samples taken, 31 of which came from the area of the market where wildlife was particularly found. This was another indication of the role that the market played, but its identification as the origin of the epidemic has been disputed. A review published on 24 January 2020, noted that

2210-870: The National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians , include educational responsibilities of venue operators, limiting public animal contact, and animal care and management. Hunting involves humans tracking, chasing, and capturing wild animals, primarily for food or materials like fur. However, other reasons like pest control or managing wildlife populations can also exist. Transmission of zoonotic diseases, those leaping from animals to humans, can occur through various routes: direct physical contact, airborne droplets or particles, bites or vector transport by insects, oral ingestion, or even contact with contaminated environments. Wildlife activities like hunting and trade bring humans closer to dangerous zoonotic pathogens, threatening global health. According to

2295-413: The United Nations Environment Programme stated that the increase in zoonotic pandemics is directly attributable to anthropogenic destruction of nature and the increased global demand for meat and that the industrial farming of pigs and chickens in particular will be a primary risk factor for the spillover of zoonotic diseases in the future. Habitat loss of viral reservoir species has been identified as

2380-654: The World Health Organization (WHO) , any disease or infection that is primarily ‘naturally’ transmissible from vertebrate animals to humans or from humans to animals is classified as a zoonosis. Factors such as climate change, urbanization, animal migration and trade, travel and tourism, vector biology, anthropogenic factors, and natural factors have greatly influenced the emergence, re-emergence, distribution, and patterns of zoonoses. Zoonotic diseases generally refer to diseases of animal origin in which direct or vector mediated animal-to-human transmission

2465-559: The anthropogenic destruction of ecosystems for the purpose of expanding agriculture and human settlements reduces biodiversity and allows for smaller animals such as bats and rats, which are more adaptable to human pressures and also carry the most zoonotic diseases, to proliferate. This in turn can result in more pandemics. In October 2020, the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services published its report on

2550-685: The leopard gecko . Encephalitozoon cuniculi is a microsporidial parasite carried by many mammals, including rabbits, and is an important opportunistic pathogen in people immunocompromised by HIV/AIDS , organ transplantation , or CD4+ T-lymphocyte deficiency. Pets may also serve as a reservoir of viral disease and contribute to the chronic presence of certain viral diseases in the human population. For instance, approximately 20% of domestic dogs, cats, and horses carry anti-hepatitis E virus antibodies and thus these animals probably contribute to human hepatitis E burden as well. For non-vulnerable populations (e.g., people who are not immunocompromised)

2635-491: The 'era of pandemics' by 22 experts in a variety of fields and concluded that anthropogenic destruction of biodiversity is paving the way to the pandemic era and could result in as many as 850,000 viruses being transmitted from animals – in particular birds and mammals – to humans. The increased pressure on ecosystems is being driven by the "exponential rise" in consumption and trade of commodities such as meat, palm oil , and metals, largely facilitated by developed nations, and by

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2720-459: The Center for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC) hunting and consuming wild animal meat ("bushmeat") in regions like Africa can expose people to infectious diseases due to the types of animals involved, like bats and primates. Unfortunately, common preservation methods like smoking or drying aren't enough to eliminate these risks. Although bushmeat provides protein and income for many, the practice

2805-601: The Royal Society 's Part B journal, found that increased virus spillover events from animals to humans can be linked to biodiversity loss and environmental degradation , as humans further encroach on wildlands to engage in agriculture, hunting, and resource extraction they become exposed to pathogens which normally would remain in these areas. Such spillover events have been tripling every decade since 1980. An August 2020 study, published in Nature , concludes that

2890-605: The United States in 1999 , in the New York City area. Bubonic plague is a zoonotic disease, as are salmonellosis , Rocky Mountain spotted fever , and Lyme disease . A major factor contributing to the appearance of new zoonotic pathogens in human populations is increased contact between humans and wildlife. This can be caused either by encroachment of human activity into wilderness areas or by movement of wild animals into areas of human activity. An example of this

2975-519: The Wuhan lockdown and is still in operation. With local demand present for the consumption of exotic animals, the market also offered exotic game ( ye wei in Chinese) and other wild animals for sale, a feature uncommon in most Chinese wet markets . A price list posted by one vendor on the popular Chinese review site Dazhong Dianping listed 112 items, including a number of wild animals. The South China Morning Post reported on 29 January 2020, that

3060-1070: The actual transmission to humans is a rare event but, once it has occurred, human-to-human transmission maintains the infection cycle for some period of time. Some examples include human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) /acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), certain influenza A strains, Ebola virus and severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). One example is Ebola which is spread by direct transmission to humans from handling bushmeat (wild animals hunted for food) and contact with infected bats or close contact with infected animals, including chimpanzees, fruit bats, and forest antelope. Secondary transmission also occurs from human to human by direct contact with blood, bodily fluids, or skin of patients with or who died of Ebola virus disease. Some examples of pathogens with this pattern of secondary transmission are human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome, influenza A, Ebola virus and severe acute respiratory syndrome. Recent infections of these emerging and re-emerging zoonotic infections have occurred as

3145-618: The associated disease burden is, however, small. Furthermore, the trade of non domestic animals such as wild animals as pets can also increase the risk of zoonosis spread. Outbreaks of zoonoses have been traced to human interaction with, and exposure to, other animals at fairs , live animal markets , petting zoos , and other settings. In 2005, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) issued an updated list of recommendations for preventing zoonosis transmission in public settings. The recommendations, developed in conjunction with

3230-537: The atmosphere rather than strike the surface, is the closest point on the surface to the explosion. The Tunguska event occurred in Siberia in 1908 and flattened an estimated 80 million trees over an area of 2,150 km (830 sq mi) of forest. The trees at the hypocenter of the blast were left standing, but all their limbs had been blown off by the shockwave. The 2013 Chelyabinsk meteor 's hypocenter in Russia

3315-517: The atomic attacks, released in June 1946, used the term liberally, defining it as: For convenience, the term 'ground zero' will be used to designate the point on the ground directly beneath the point of detonation, or 'air zero.' William Laurence , an embedded reporter with the Manhattan Project , reported that "Zero" was "the code name given to the spot chosen for the [Trinity] test" in 1945. The Oxford English Dictionary , citing

3400-509: The attention of others. An international team of researchers assembled to analyse the new data, but when they reached out to the Chinese researchers from the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention who uploaded the data, there was no reply and the samples were removed from the public database by the uploaders. Analysis of the downloaded sequences was proceeding without Chinese collaboration, as of 16 March 2023. On 14 March,

3485-555: The carrier host and domestic animals. Highly mobile animals, such as bats and birds, may present a greater risk of zoonotic transmission than other animals due to the ease with which they can move into areas of human habitation. Because they depend on the human host for part of their life-cycle, diseases such as African schistosomiasis , river blindness , and elephantiasis are not defined as zoonotic, even though they may depend on transmission by insects or other vectors . The first vaccine against smallpox by Edward Jenner in 1800

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3570-703: The center of this open space was nicknamed "Cafe Ground Zero". During the September 11 attacks in 2001, two aircraft were hijacked by 10 al-Qaeda terrorists and were flown into the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in New York City , causing massive damage and starting fires that caused the weakened 110-story skyscrapers to collapse . The destroyed World Trade Center site soon became known as "ground zero". Rescue workers also used

3655-495: The center'), also called ground zero or surface zero , is the point on the Earth 's surface directly below a nuclear explosion , meteor air burst , or other mid-air explosion. In seismology , the hypocenter of an earthquake is its point of origin below ground; a synonym is the focus of an earthquake. Generally, the terms ground zero and surface zero are also used in relation to epidemics , and other disasters to mark

3740-577: The common cold, can use the pig as a zoonotic reservoir, constantly reinfecting the human population. Veterinarians are exposed to unique occupational hazards when it comes to zoonotic disease. In the US, studies have highlighted an increased risk of injuries and lack of veterinary awareness of these hazards. Research has proved the importance for continued clinical veterinarian education on occupational risks associated with musculoskeletal injuries, animal bites, needle-sticks, and cuts. A July 2020 report by

3825-492: The disease is directly transmitted from non-humans to humans through media such as air (influenza) or bites and saliva (rabies). In contrast, transmission can also occur via an intermediate species (referred to as a vector ), which carry the disease pathogen without getting sick. The term is from Ancient Greek : ζῷον zoon "animal" and νόσος nosos "sickness". Host genetics plays an important role in determining which non-human viruses will be able to make copies of themselves in

3910-433: The distribution and robustness of bat species harboring coronaviruses may have occurred in eastern Asian hotspots (southern China, Myanmar, and Laos), constituting a driver behind the evolution and spread of the virus. Zoonotic diseases contribute significantly to the burdened public health system as vulnerable groups such the elderly, children, childbearing women and immune-compromised individuals are at risk. According to

3995-401: The early part of the 20th century, though it has now evolved into a separate human-only disease. Human infection with animal influenza viruses is rare, as they do not transmit easily to or among humans. However, avian and swine influenza viruses in particular possess high zoonotic potential, and these occasionally recombine with human strains of the flu and can cause pandemics such as

4080-463: The exploitation of wild species have created a 'perfect storm' for the spillover of diseases from wildlife to people." Joshua Moon, Clare Wenham, and Sophie Harman said that there is evidence that decreased biodiversity has an effect on the diversity of hosts and frequency of human-animal interactions with potential for pathogenic spillover. An April 2020 study, published in the Proceedings of

4165-399: The human body. Dangerous non-human viruses are those that require few mutations to begin replicating themselves in human cells. These viruses are dangerous since the required combinations of mutations might randomly arise in the natural reservoir . The emergence of zoonotic diseases originated with the domestication of animals. Zoonotic transmission can occur in any context in which there

4250-627: The hypocenter of the attack was Shima Hospital , approximately 800 ft (240 m) away from the intended aiming point at Aioi Bridge . During the Cold War , the Pentagon (headquarters of United States Department of Defense in Arlington County, Virginia ) was an assured target in the event of nuclear war . The open space in the center of the Pentagon became known informally as ground zero. A snack bar that used to be located at

4335-466: The hypocenters of foreshocks, main shock, and aftershocks of earthquakes allows the three-dimensional plotting of the fault along which movement is occurring. The expanding wavefront from the earthquake's rupture propagates at a speed of several kilometers per second; this seismic wave is what is measured at various surface points in order to geometrically determine an initial guess as to the hypocenter. The wave reaches each station based upon how far away it

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4420-525: The initial estimated hypocenter. These equations are solved by the method of least squares which minimizes the sum of the squares of the differences between the observed and calculated arrival times, and a new estimated hypocenter is computed. The system iterates until the location is pinpointed within the margin of error for the velocity computations. Zoonosis A zoonosis ( / z oʊ ˈ ɒ n ə s ɪ s , ˌ z oʊ ə ˈ n oʊ s ɪ s / ; pl. : zoonoses ) or zoonotic disease

4505-437: The initial outbreak of the pneumonia cluster, the health authorities closed the market to conduct investigations, clean, and disinfect the location. Chinese environmentalists, researchers, and state media have called for stricter regulation of exotic animal trade in wet markets. Several Chinese scientists have called for bans on wildlife trade since 2003. On 22 January 2020, a ban on the sale of all wild animal products in Wuhan

4590-400: The international group of researchers presented a preliminary analysis at a meeting of the World Health Organization 's Scientific Advisory Group for Origins of Novel Pathogens , at which, several of the Chinese researchers were present. Shortly afterwards, changes in the status of the preprint suggested that it is now under review for print publication. The international research team welcomed

4675-725: The largest seafood wholesale market in Central China , with wild animals sold in its western zone. The market was located in the newer part of the city, near shops and apartment blocks, about 800 meters (2,600 ft) from Hankou railway station , and close to the Wuhan Center for Disease Control . In late 2019, the market passed city official inspections, according to The Wall Street Journal . However, Time reported it to have "unsanitary" conditions. It had narrow lanes and stalls in close proximity, where livestock were kept alongside dead animals. According to Business Insider , it

4760-429: The link between climate change and zoonosis found a strong link between climate change and the epidemic emergence in the last 15 years, as it caused a massive migration of species to new areas, and consequently contact between species which do not normally come in contact with one another. Even in a scenario with weak climatic changes, there will be 15,000 spillover of viruses to new hosts in the next decades. The areas with

4845-573: The market had a section selling around "120 wildlife animals across 75 species." It was incorrectly reported that koalas were sold at the market. The price list included "树熊" ( pinyin : shùxióng ; lit. 'tree bear'). This term is used for koalas in Chinese communities in Singapore, Malaysia, and Hong Kong, but in China, they are called "考拉" (read as "kǎolā"). At the Huanan market, 'tree bear' referred to large rodents. According to

4930-468: The market in early 2020 showed high levels of SARS-CoV-2 and raccoon-dog genetic material (often both in the same samples), especially from a stall ("Stall 29") that kept a cage of raccoon-dogs on top of a cage containing poultry, optimum conditions for the virus to hop the species barrier. The existence of such a stall has been contested by Chinese authorities; the stall had been photographed in 2014 by Edward C. Holmes , an Australian virologist who visited

5015-511: The market or to the remaining affected 40 people. A paper from a large group of Chinese researchers from several institutions, published in The Lancet , offered details about the first 41 hospitalized patients who had confirmed infections with SARS-CoV-2. Their data showed 13 of the initial 41 people found with the novel coronavirus had no link with the market, a significant figure, according to infectious diseases specialist Daniel Lucey . In

5100-434: The market was not associated with any COVID-19 cases outside of China. In May 2020, George Gao , the director of the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention , said animal samples collected from the seafood market had tested negative for the virus, indicating that the market was the site of an early superspreading event , but it was not the site of the initial outbreak. On 11 December 2020, Reuters reported that

5185-400: The market was still empty and barricaded. On 31 January 2021, a team of scientists led by the World Health Organization visited the wet market to investigate the origins of COVID-19. The WHO investigation determined that despite cluster cases there in an early outbreak and some contaminated surfaces found, no infected animal was found, concluding that human to human transmission at the market

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5270-525: The market while working with local researchers, and while a guest professor with the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CCDC) from 2014 to 2020; it had also been filmed by a local in December 2019 and posted on Weibo . Raccoon-dogs are known to be able to catch and spread COVID-19 easily. These samples were swabs of surfaces in the market. Samples from the actual animals in the market would be more conclusive but were not collected. The market

5355-404: The market. The market was closed permanently on 1 January 2020 for sanitary procedures and disinfection. Thirty-three out of 585 environmental samples (5.6%) obtained from the market indicated evidence of COVID-19 outbreak, according to the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention . The market occupied over 50,000 m (12 acres) and had over 1,000 tenants. It is reported to have been

5440-431: The most possibilities for spillover are the mountainous tropical regions of Africa and southeast Asia. Southeast Asia is especially vulnerable as it has a large number of bat species that generally do not mix, but could easily if climate change forced them to begin migrating. A 2021 study found possible links between climate change and transmission of COVID-19 through bats. The authors suggest that climate-driven changes in

5525-482: The move and hoped the Chinese team's paper would be revised to include the full genetic data, saying they would also be publishing an analysis and hoped that, as scientists, they would work together on the issues. The New York Times was not able to reach the Chinese scientists for comment by 16 March, but George Gao , the former head of the CCDC and lead author on the February 2022 preprint, told Science that there

5610-670: The next pandemic – Zoonotic diseases and how to break the chain of transmission", climate change is one of the 7 human-related causes of the increase in the number of zoonotic diseases. The University of Sydney issued a study, in March 2021, that examines factors increasing the likelihood of epidemics and pandemics like the COVID-19 pandemic. The researchers found that "pressure on ecosystems, climate change and economic development are key factors" in doing so. More zoonotic diseases were found in high-income countries . A 2022 study dedicated to

5695-418: The pathogenic landscape of traded wildlife is crucial for guiding effective measures to combat zoonotic diseases and documenting the societal and environmental costs associated with this practice. Pets can transmit a number of diseases. Dogs and cats are routinely vaccinated against rabies . Pets can also transmit ringworm and Giardia , which are endemic in both animal and human populations. Toxoplasmosis

5780-599: The point of the most severe damage or destruction. The term is distinguished from the term zero point in that the latter can also be located in the air, underground, or underwater. The term "ground zero" originally referred to the hypocenter of the Trinity test in Jornada del Muerto desert near Socorro, New Mexico , and the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan . The United States Strategic Bombing Survey of

5865-542: The potential to spill over into humans", says a study led by researchers at the University of California, Davis . According to a report from the United Nations Environment Programme and International Livestock Research Institute a large part of the causes are environmental like climate change , unsustainable agriculture, exploitation of wildlife, and land use change . Others are linked to changes in human society such as an increase in mobility. The organizations propose

5950-425: The proximal origin of the pandemic. In December 2019, an epidemic of a pneumonia cluster occurred in Wuhan. By 2 January 2020, a new strain of coronavirus, later determined to be SARS-CoV-2 , was confirmed in an initial 41 people hospitalized with the pneumonia, two-thirds of whom had direct exposure to the market. As coronaviruses (like SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV ) mainly circulate among non-human animals, and with

6035-477: The raw data behind the preprint paper. No raw genetic data had previously been accessible to any academics not working at Chinese institutions until the genetic sequences from some of the market swabs were uploaded to an international database . Florence Débarre , a researcher at the French National Center for Scientific Research , stumbled across the samples on March 4, 2023, and brought them to

6120-400: The relationship between SARS-CoV and civets . Phylogenetic analysis indicates that pangolins are a potential reservoir host rather than the intermediate host of SARS-CoV-2. While there is scientific consensus that bats are the ultimate source of coronaviruses, SARS-CoV-2 originated from a pangolin, jumped back to bats, and then jumped to humans, according to phylogenetic analysis. Therefore,

6205-501: The site labeled it the " Ground Zero mosque ". In advance of the 10th anniversary of the attacks, New York City mayor Michael Bloomberg urged that the "ground zero" moniker be retired, saying, "…the time has come to call those 16 acres [6.5 hectares] what they are: The World Trade Center and the National September 11th Memorial and Museum." The hypocenter of a meteor air burst , an asteroid or comet that explodes in

6290-532: The term "The Big Momma!", referring to the pile of rubble that was left after the buildings collapsed. Even after the site was cleaned up and construction on the new One World Trade Center and the National September 11 Memorial & Museum were well under way, the term was still frequently used to refer to the site, as when opponents of the Park51 project that was to be located two blocks away from

6375-407: The threat of avian influenza. Cattle are an important reservoir of cryptosporidiosis , which mainly affects the immunocompromised. Reports have shown mink can also become infected. In Western countries, hepatitis E burden is largely dependent on exposure to animal products, and pork is a significant source of infection, in this respect. Similarly, the human coronavirus OC43 , the main cause of

6460-462: The unsanitary conditions of wildlife markets. These markets, where diverse species converge, facilitate the mixing and transmission of pathogens, including those responsible for outbreaks of HIV-1, Ebola, and mpox , and potentially even the COVID-19 pandemic. Notably, small mammals often harbor a vast array of zoonotic bacteria and viruses, yet endemic bacterial transmission among wildlife remains largely unexplored. Therefore, accurately determining

6545-487: The use of the term in a 1946 New York Times report on the destroyed city of Hiroshima , defines ground zero as "that part of the ground situated immediately under an exploding bomb, especially an atomic one." The term was military slang, used at the Trinity site where the weapon tower for the first nuclear weapon was at "point zero", and moved into general use very shortly after the end of World War II . At Hiroshima,

6630-545: Was "nothing new" in the raw data, and refused to answer questions about why his research team had removed it from the database. On 17 March, the WHO director-general said that the data should have been shared three years earlier, and called on China to be more transparent in its data-sharing. Maria Van Kerkhove , the WHO’s COVID-19 technical lead, called for this data to be made public immediately. On 1 January 2020, in response to

6715-582: Was announced. In May 2020, the city banned eating wild animals and limited hunting and breeding of wild animals. On 24 February 2020, the Chinese government announced that the trade and consumption of wild animals would be banned throughout China, amidst mounting domestic criticism of the industry. However, the ban does not cover the consumption of wild animal products in traditional Chinese medicine , according to The New York Times . Ground zero A hypocenter or hypocentre (from Ancient Greek ὑπόκεντρον ( hupókentron )  'below

6800-526: Was by infection of a zoonotic bovine virus which caused a disease called cowpox . Jenner had noticed that milkmaids were resistant to smallpox. Milkmaids contracted a milder version of the disease from infected cows that conferred cross immunity to the human disease. Jenner abstracted an infectious preparation of 'cowpox' and subsequently used it to inoculate persons against smallpox. As a result of vaccination, smallpox has been eradicated globally, and mass inoculation against this disease ceased in 1981. There are

6885-545: Was closed on January 1, and the animals had been removed before public-health authorities from the Chinese CDC came in. Although the samples do not definitively prove that the raccoon dog is the "missing" intermediate animal host in the bat-to-human transmission chain, it does show that raccoon dogs were present in the Huanan market at the time of the initial SARS-CoV-2 outbreak, in areas that were also positive for SARS-CoV-2 RNA, and substantially strengthens this hypothesis as

6970-427: Was common to see animals openly slaughtered and carcasses skinned in the market. The New York Times reported that "sanitation was dismal, with poor ventilation and garbage piled on wet floors." The Huanan seafood market was the ground floor of the building. Following its closure, it was sanitized in depth and did not reopen. On the second floor, there is Huanan Glasses Wholesale City (华南眼镜批发城), which closed only during

7055-427: Was from the hypocenter. A number of things need to be taken into account, most importantly variations in the waves speed based upon the materials that it is passing through. With adjustments for velocity changes, the initial estimate of the hypocenter is made, then a series of linear equations is set up, one for each station. The equations express the difference between the observed arrival times and those calculated from

7140-443: Was likely, with the origin site still unknown. In late July 2022, two papers were published in the journal Science , both describing evidence that the pandemic likely began at the market, and probably did not originate at a laboratory. The Chinese government has long insisted that the virus originated outside China, and until June 2021, denied that live animals were traded at the Huanan market. Some Chinese researchers had published

7225-559: Was more populated than that of Tunguska, resulting in civil damage and injury, mostly from flying glass shards from broken windows. An earthquake's hypocenter or focus is the position where the strain energy stored in the rock is first released, marking the point where the fault begins to rupture. This occurs directly beneath the epicenter , at a distance known as the hypocentral depth or focal depth . The focal depth can be calculated from measurements based on seismic wave phenomena. As with all wave phenomena in physics , there

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