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133-762: The Huang-Ming Zuxun ( Ancestral Instructions of the Ming Emperor ) were admonitions left by the Hongwu Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang, the founder of the Chinese Ming dynasty , to his descendants. The text was composed in 1373 under the title Record of the Ancestor's Instructions ; this was changed to Huang Ming Zu Xun during the publication of the 1395 edition. The book was divided into thirteen sections: The Preface, composed by Zhu Yuanzhang himself, admonishes his descendants to exert

266-453: A bundle of cloth. Those who were 80 years of age or older were given 5 dou of rice, 5 jin of meat, and 3 jin of wine. These costs were covered by the wealthy families in the community through the lijia system, with the threat of property confiscation for those who did not comply. The emperor attempted to strictly regulate not only consumption, but also the entire lives of his subjects. This included enforcing standards for greetings and

399-432: A deep distrust for officials and was quick to severely punish them for any wrongdoing. For example, in 1397, when it was discovered that only candidates from the more populous and educated southern region were passing the palace examinations, he accused the examiners of favoring the southerners and exiled them, possibly even sentencing them to death. Confucian-educated officials were limited to managerial positions within

532-465: A field and every woman had a loom, all hardships would disappear. However, this ideal was not reflected in reality as the wealthy held a disproportionate amount of land ownership and often found ways to evade paying taxes. In fact, during the final years of the Yuan dynasty, the land tax revenue dropped to zero. The Hongwu Emperor attempted to transfer land into state ownership. During the wars that led to

665-489: A fortune-teller and seer. In 1344, during a plague epidemic, Zhu Yuanzhang's parents and two brothers died. He managed to survive by entering a local Buddhist monastery, which was later closed due to a lack of funds. For the next three years, Zhu wandered as a mendicant monk, becoming familiar with the landscape and people of eastern Henan and northern Anhui. He then returned to the monastery in 1348 and stayed for four years, during which he learned to read, write, and study

798-523: A gradually decreasing exchange rate. This resulted in silver and gold becoming the measure of value, with banknotes serving as the means of payment. The anti-silver policy can be interpreted as an effort to break the power of the wealthy in Jiangnan, who were formerly supporters of the Hongwu Emperor's rival, Zhang Shicheng . In the emperor's opinion, silver gave its owners undue freedom, making

931-582: A group of military and civilian figures, but the civil officials never attained the same level of prestige and influence as the military. In 1367, he granted the title of duke ( gong ) to three of his closest collaborators—generals Xu Da and Chang Yuchun , and official Li Shanchang . After the establishment of the Ming dynasty, he also bestowed ranks and titles upon a wider circle of loyal generals. These military leaders were chosen based on their abilities, but their positions were often inherited by their sons. As

1064-439: A lack of trust in its value among the population. The government attempted to support the use of paper money by manipulating the money supply, but their efforts were inconsistent, with periods of stopping printing and minting followed by periods of printing at full capacity. The mints were closed in 1375–1377 and again in 1387–1389, while the printing of money was interrupted in 1384–1389 and stopped completely in 1391. However, when

1197-519: A list of countries not be invaded ( simplified Chinese : 不征之国 ; traditional Chinese : 不征之國 ; pinyin : Bù zhēng zhī guó ). Their locations are compared to where Nanjing, the capital of the Ming Dynasty, is : This article related to the history of China is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Hongwu Emperor The Hongwu Emperor (21 October 1328   – 24 June 1398), also known by his temple name as

1330-453: A maximum of two monks in each county. School grounds and land designated for the provision of officials were also under state ownership. Overall, the state owned two-thirds of cultivated land, with private land being more prevalent in the south and the majority of land in the north being state-owned. Even the new Ming officials were not exempt from targeting large landowners. In 1380, the ownership of lands acquired by ministers and officials

1463-418: A more egalitarian society. This was a significant and far-reaching change, similar in depth and scope to the land revolution of the early communist People's Republic of China in the 1950s. To effectively govern the Ming state, the government relied on the support of the social elite, including the gentry, educated officials, and landowners. In order to compensate for the loss of wealth they experienced under

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1596-561: A peaceful life for the inhabitants of his territory. He achieved this by working closely with local elites and understanding the needs of the villagers, having grown up as the son of a poor peasant himself. Zhu's principles also proved beneficial for the economy of the controlled territory. In 1361, he began minting coins, established a monopoly on the sale of salt and tea, and started collecting traditional customs duties in 1362. These measures resulted in an increase in tax revenues, which were crucial for funding successful military campaigns. In

1729-441: A prioritization of moral considerations over economic ones in politics. Confucianism also provided justification for the government's stance against disproportionate wealth in the hands of a few. The extreme wealth inequality, which resulted in the political power and uncontrollability of the rich, was seen as a destabilizing force in society. Additionally, Confucian beliefs viewed wealth as a limited resource, and its concentration in

1862-524: A profound impact on the future emperor's life. He developed a deep understanding of the struggles faced by ordinary people, while harboring disdain for scholars who only gained knowledge from books. In 1352, he joined one of the rebel divisions. He quickly distinguished himself among the rebels and rose to lead his own army. In 1356, he conquered Nanjing and established it as his capital. He formed his own government, consisting of both generals and Confucian scholars, rejecting Mongol rule over China. He adopted

1995-468: A result, the generals became the dominant ruling class, surpassing the bureaucracy in power and influence. The officials had little political autonomy and simply carried out the emperor's orders and requests. This system mirrored the one established during the Yuan dynasty, with the ruling class of Mongols and Semu being replaced by families of distinguished military commanders. These families were often connected through kinship ties with each other and with

2128-414: A result, the wealthy concealed their wealth, leading to a decrease in demand for luxury goods and a decline in commercial activity. In an effort to restore the prosperity of a country devastated by long-term wars, the government implemented various measures to support agricultural production. These measures included limiting slavery (only members of the imperial family were allowed to own slaves), reducing

2261-475: A secondary role. The initial exchange rate was set at 1 liang (37.3 g) of silver = 1 shi (107.4 liters) of grain = 1 guan of state banknote. ( guan was a monetary unit equal to 400 coppers.) In 1375, the use of silver and gold in trade was prohibited, coinciding with the introduction of state banknotes. However, unlike the Song and Yuan periods, paper money was not exchangeable for precious metals, leading to

2394-481: A self-sufficient village life in peace, which was unattainable during his youth. As emperor, he made every effort to make this dream a reality for his subjects. Despite his roots in the Manichaean faith of the anti-Mongol insurgents, the Hongwu Emperor chose to adopt Confucianism as the state ideology and relied on Confucian scholars in the construction of the state apparatus. This emphasis on Confucianism led to

2527-425: A series of protests from officials, who argued that the state apparatus was being demoralized and valuable human resources were being wasted. While the emperor did not punish these critics, he also did not alter his policies. The emperor was fearful of the conspiracy of the generals and as a result, he gradually executed a number of them, particularly in connection with the cases of Hu Weiyong and Lan Yu . This fear

2660-456: A significant advantage over other rivals, but also increased his prestige among his own people. The fighting began when the Han army attacked Nanjing in 1360, but they were quickly defeated by Zhu. In 1361, the war spread to the Han province of Jiangxi, which changed hands multiple times. By the following year, Zhu had gained control of the province. In January 1363, Zhang Shicheng's army launched

2793-451: A significant challenge for those at the lower levels of the hierarchy, as they were often unable to support themselves without the financial assistance of their more affluent relatives. Inflation at the end of the Yuan dynasty led to the abandonment of paper money in favor of grain as the primary medium of exchange. Copper (effectively bronze) coins were also used during this time. In 1361,

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2926-399: A small number of relatives who were appointed to important positions. In the unstable political climate, family ties were crucial for ensuring loyalty and reliability. The rivalry between Peng and Zhao escalated into a full-blown conflict. Guo was initially captured, but was later freed by his sons and Zhu, which only increased his reliance on Zhu. After Peng's death in 1353, Zhao emerged as

3059-408: A strict legalist government (legalism being a Chinese school of thought ). The work pins the survival on the dynasty principally upon personal austerity and watchfulness both over practical administration of the empire, the niceties of ritual and etiquette on various occasions, and various potential traitors including their relatives, spouses, and officials both military and civil. In the preface of

3192-405: A strong state and an active monarch. As an independent ruler, Zhu advocated for moderation in tax collection. However, other rebel leaders and his own generals prioritized military needs and often confiscated grain from peasants to feed their soldiers or prevent it from falling into the hands of their enemies. In contrast, Zhu placed great importance on maintaining orderly government and promoting

3325-417: A surprise attack on Anfeng, the residence of Song emperor Han Lin'er, resulting in the death of Liu Futong , the de facto leader of the regime. Despite being formally under the control of the Song government, Zhu offered his army to assist Han Lin'er, who was still highly respected among the troops. As a result, the powerless Han Lin'er was relocated to Chuzhou , located west of Nanjing on the opposite side of

3458-491: A villager from the right bank of the Huai River . His difficult upbringing never left his mind, and even as emperor, he held onto the ideal of a self-sufficient village life in peace, a dream that was unattainable in his youth. He made every effort to make this dream a reality for his subjects. The ultimate goal of the Hongwu Emperor's reforms was to achieve political stability for the state. All policies, institutions, and

3591-624: The Emperor Taizu of Ming , personal name Zhu Yuanzhang , courtesy name Guorui , was the founding emperor of the Ming dynasty , reigning from 1368 to 1398. In the mid-14th century, China was plagued by epidemics, famines, and peasant uprisings during the rule of the Mongol Yuan dynasty . Zhu Yuanzhang, who lost his parents during this tumultuous time, was forced to survive by begging as an itinerant monk . This difficult upbringing had

3724-432: The lijia system and to determine tax obligations. In the lijia system, the population was divided into groups of ideally 110 households, known as li . Each li was further divided into ten jia groups, with ten households in each. The remaining ten wealthiest families took turns leading the hundreds after a year. Registered taxpayers were not allowed to move without approval from the authorities. Each year, one jia

3857-538: The Chief Military Commission was in charge of the army. However, under later emperors, the civil administration, which was the core of the government, became primarily focused on supporting the army financially and logistically. Initially, the provinces were under the control of the general, with the civil authorities also reporting to them. However, in the 1370s, the military's influence decreased as ministers were appointed to leadership positions in

3990-618: The Confucian belief that the ruler's moral example was the most important factor. The Hongwu Emperor also prioritized the safety of his people and the loyalty of his subordinates, demonstrating pragmatism and caution in military affairs. He maintained a disciplined army and made efforts to minimize the impact of war on civilians. Although the peak of his political system crumbled in a civil war shortly after his death, other results of his reforms , such as local and regional institutions for Ming state administration and self-government, as well as

4123-417: The Han's territories. Numerous Han prefectural and county commanders surrendered without resistance, and Huguang was pacified by General Xu Da by April 1365. By February 1365, Generals Chang Yuchun and Deng Yu had gained control over central and southern Jiangxi. This annexation of territories provided Zhu with a significant population advantage over its adversaries. The main threats to Zhu at this time were

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4256-468: The Hongwu Emperor from Daode jing ( The Way and Its Power ): Let the state be small and the people few: So that the people... So that the people... Though adjoining states be within sight of one another In the eyes of the Hongwu Emperor, the ultimate goal of government was political stability. All politics and the nature of institutions, including social and economic structures, were subordinated to this goal. The chaos and foreign rule that led to

4389-456: The Hongwu Emperor began producing his own coins, known as Dazhong Tongbao, in five different denominations: 1 wen , 2, 3, 5, and 10 multiples. However, this small emission did not have a significant economic impact and was mainly a symbol of political independence for his department. The opening of mints in conquered territories was seen as a sign of complete subjugation. In the 1360s, the Hongwu Emperor's government did not have much control over

4522-454: The Jinhua school, had a clear vision of a unified state governed by a small but efficient bureaucracy. They aimed to eliminate corruption, which was prevalent during the end of the Yuan dynasty. They believed that the state and its laws could be used to improve public morals and customs. While their motives may have differed from the emperor's, they shared a desire to bring about change through

4655-523: The Ming army, from his acquaintances who had already joined the rebels, and became their leader. Thanks to his abilities, he rose to prominence quickly, leading a 700-man squad by the spring of 1353 and becoming Guo's most trusted subordinate. Skilled in both military tactics and political maneuvering, he even married Guo's adopted daughter, surnamed Ma. A strong relationship developed between Lady Ma and Zhu, which would later give her great influence at court as empress. Unlike other leaders of his time, Zhu had

4788-573: The Ming, the local regime refused to submit. In response, General Fu Youde was ordered to lead an attack from the north in 1371. Simultaneously, Tang He and Liao Yongzhong advanced with a fleet up the Yangtze River. Although they initially faced resistance, they were able to push forward with the help of artillery and the enemy's decision to send part of their defenders north against the second army's successful advance. By September 1371, Sichuan had been conquered. This victory ensured stability in

4921-630: The Mongol warlord Köke Temür in northern China and Zhang Shicheng, who was based in Suzhou. Expansion of the army with former Han troops required a reorganization of the military. Therefore, in 1364, Zhu implemented the Weisuo system, which involved the formation of guards ( wei ) comprising 5,600 soldiers. These guards were further divided into 5 battalions ( qianhusuo ) of 1,120 soldiers each, with 10 companies ( baihusuo ) in each battalion. After 1364,

5054-461: The Nanchang garrison , led by Deng Yu ( 鄧兪 ), held out until early June 1363. In mid-August, Zhu's army and fleet finally set out from Nanjing with approximately 100,000 soldiers. The two fleets clashed on Lake Poyang on 29 August 1363, engaging in a four-day battle that resulted in the defeat of the Han fleet and the death of Chen Youliang. In 1364–1365, Zhu focused on conquering and absorbing

5187-464: The Yangtze River. However, the army remained stationed in the north until August 1363. The departure of Zhu's main forces to the north presented Chen with an opportunity to turn the tide of the war. He quickly raised an army of 300,000, outnumbering Zhu's remaining forces. Chen's plan was to capture Nanchang and then rally the local leaders in Jiangxi to join his cause and attack Nanjing. However,

5320-431: The Yuan dynasty, other members of the imperial family were excluded from the administration of the country. The state administration was organized according to Confucian principles, with officials being primarily recruited through recommendations. Initially, these recommendations were made by special commissioners at the establishment of the empire in 1368, and later by local officials. The Ministry of Personnel, or possibly

5453-399: The administration, while the Chief Military Commission oversaw the army. The emperor initially limited the number of eunuchs in the palace to 100 due to concerns about their influence. However, he later allowed their number to increase to 400, with the restriction that they were not allowed to learn to read, write, or interfere in politics. The civil administration, which became the core of

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5586-474: The age of twenty, they were sent to their designated regions, with the first being in 1378. As they settled into their roles, their importance and influence grew. The most significant of the emperor's sons were Zhu Shuang, Zhu Gang, and Zhu Di, who were based in Xi'an , Taiyuan , and Beijing , respectively, and commanded the armies on the northern frontier. In order to prevent any dynastic disputes similar to those of

5719-423: The annual production of copper coins could not exceed 160 million, which was less than three coins per person. Officials suggested reducing the copper content of the coins by 10% to increase their quantity, but the emperor rejected this proposal, refusing to devalue the currency. An alternative to copper could not be gold, which was rare and, due to its high value, unsuitable for everyday use. Additionally, silver

5852-511: The army was made up of 17 guards consisting of veterans who had previously served before 1363. The older veterans were demobilized, while the others were assigned to the garrison in Nanjing where they worked as military peasants, using their production to provide food for the army. Additional soldiers, who were reliable but had shorter periods of service, were acquired during the conquest of southern Anhui and central Zhejiang. They were stationed in

5985-645: The army with food during times of peace. In addition to reclaiming abandoned land, efforts were made to repair and improve irrigation systems. The Hongwu Emperor instructed local authorities to report any requests or feedback from the people regarding the maintenance or construction of irrigation structures. In 1394, he issued a special decree for the Ministry of Works to ensure that canals and dams were properly maintained in case of drought or heavy rains. He also dispatched graduates from state schools and technical specialists to oversee flood protection structures throughout

6118-502: The attacking troops, and the plan was executed with ease due to the attacking army's superiority. The ten-month siege of Suzhou began in December 1366. In January 1367, Han Lin'er drowned in the Yangtze River. As a result, Zhu's state of Wu officially declared its independence. A year later, in 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang proclaimed himself emperor and changed the name of the state. He followed the Mongol tradition of elevating titles and named

6251-602: The basics of Buddhism. In 1352, when the Mongol army burned down the monks' dwellings during the Red Turban Rebellion , Zhu joined one of the rebel divisions. The harsh taxation policies, famine, and catastrophic flooding in the Yellow River basin, caused by inadequate flood control measures, led to widespread opposition to the rule of the Mongol Yuan dynasty. This discontent was further fueled by

6384-520: The beginning of 1360, Zhu controlled the southwestern part of Jiangsu, all of Anhui south of the Yangtze River, and the inland of Zhejiang. By 1393, these territories had a population of 7.8 million. The domain (known as the Kingdom of Wu since 1363), led by Zhang Shicheng, had comparable power with a larger population but worse organization. Chen Youlang's state of Han had a similar situation. The state of Han , located west of Zhu's territory, included

6517-426: The border with Zhang's state was fortified on both sides and remained stable until 1366. In Zhejiang , from 1358 to 1359, he controlled four impoverished inland prefectures, while Zhang Shicheng held control over four prosperous northern coastal prefectures, and Fang Guozhen occupied the eastern coast of the province. In the summer of 1359, the Mongol warlord Chaghan Temur expelled Han Lin'er from Kaifeng . Han

6650-463: The captured prince Maidilibala to Mongolia. A favorite passage of the Hongwu Emperor from Daode jing ( The Way and Its Power ): Let the state be small and the people few: So that the people... So that the people... Though adjoining states be within sight of one another The Hongwu Emperor's public statements were filled with sympathy for the peasants and a deep distrust of the wealthy landowners and scholars. He often referred to himself as

6783-621: The central and eastern armies were ultimately defeated by the Mongols. These failures in 1372 shattered the Hongwu Emperor's dream of becoming the heir to the entire Yuan Empire, both in China and on the steppe. Furthermore, Japanese piracy increased and rebellions broke out in the provinces of Guangxi , Huguang , Sichuan, and Shaanxi. As a result, the Chinese forces in the north shifted their focus to defense, and two years later, they returned

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6916-480: The city. After conquering it, he renamed the city Yingtian, which means "In response to Heaven". In May 1356, Han Lin'er appointed Zhu as the head of Jiangnan Province, one of the five provinces of the Song state. Guo's remaining son was chosen as his deputy. However, Zhu soon accused Guo's son of plotting against him and had him executed. This allowed Zhu to establish clear leadership and he immediately began to build his administration. However, he could not fully trust

7049-454: The concept of country administration from them and implemented it in the territory he controlled, eventually expanding it to the entire country. He gradually defeated rival rebel leaders, with the decisive moment being his victory over Chen Youliang in the Battle of Lake Poyang in 1363. In 1364, he declared himself King of Wu. In 1367, however, he still acknowledged his formal subordination to

7182-437: The country. By the winter of 1395, a total of 40,987 dikes and drainage canals had been constructed across the nation. The villages formed self-governing communities, resolving their internal disputes without the intervention of officials. This was in line with the Hongwu Emperor's recommendation to keep officials out of the countryside. These communities operated based on Confucian morality rather than laws. For tax purposes,

7315-414: The desire to defend against the import of silver. Additionally, the circulation of silver was seen as a threat to the established economic order. Ideally, people should have obtained everything they needed in exchange for grain grown for them, or through subsistence, without the use of silver. However, due to the lack of precious metals, merchants determined prices in silver but were paid in paper money at

7448-433: The dominant leader in the region, leaving Guo and Zhu isolated. Zhao sent Guo to the east and Zhu with a small detachment to the south, hoping to divide them and be able to destroy them. However, contrary to Zhao's expectations, Zhu successfully occupied several counties and bolstered his army to 20,000 soldiers. Guo moved with Zhao's ten thousand men to join him. In the beginning of 1355, Zhu, Guo, and Zhang Shicheng , who

7581-431: The dominant ruling class, surpassing the bureaucratic system. Officials had no political autonomy and were solely responsible for carrying out the emperor's orders and fulfilling his demands. In a sense, this arrangement mirrored that of the Yuan dynasty, with the ruling class of Mongols and Semu being replaced by families of distinguished military commanders who were connected through kinship ties with each other and with

7714-463: The economy and allowed old coins to continue circulating while leaving pricing decisions to the market. The production of coins in Ming China was not as significant as it had been in previous dynasties due to their limited use. In the early Ming period, coins were mainly circulated in the southern and southeastern regions of the country, where state coins from the Mongol era were still in use. It

7847-416: The elites still sought to use their social status to gain wealth. As a result, a gradual concentration of land ownership was inevitable. Upon ascending to the throne, the Hongwu Emperor appointed his wife as empress and his eldest son Zhu Biao as his heir. He surrounded himself with a group of military and civilian figures, but the civil officials never attained the same level of prestige and influence as

7980-481: The emperor met with his generals in the captured city of Kaifeng to confirm plans for the campaign. In mid-August, the Ming army resumed its march and reached Dadu (present-day Beijing ) in early September. They defeated the Mongol army outside the city and then occupied it, while the Yuan emperor Toghon Temür fled north to Shangdu . The city was renamed Beiping (Pacified North) by the Chinese. The campaign then continued with an attack on Shanxi . In January 1369,

8113-404: The emperor's sons. Routine administrative tasks were carried out by officials who had received a Confucian education. Taxation was primarily based on in-kind levies on agricultural and manufactured goods, as well as compulsory labor in state-owned factories and construction sites. The emperor's social ideal did not align with the use of money, so the government attempted to restrict its use. However,

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8246-448: The emperor, evaluated the recommended individuals and appointed them to their positions. Another important source of officials was the revived Imperial University , which oversaw a vast network of Confucian schools throughout the empire, established in prefectures , provinces , and counties. In February 1371, the emperor made the decision to renew official examinations and hold provincial and county examinations every three years, with

8379-695: The empire "Great Ming" ( Da Ming ; 大明 ; 'Great Radiance'). He also renamed the upcoming "second year of the Wu era" as the "first year of the Hongwu era" ( 洪武 ; 'vastly martial'). In the autumn of 1367, Zhu's troops launched an attack against Fang Guozhen. By December of that year, they had successfully taken control of the entire coast. In November 1367, Hu Mei 's army, along with the fleets of Tang He and Liao Yongzhong, began their journey south. By February 1368, they had easily conquered Fujian, and by April 1368, they had also taken control of Guangdong. In July 1368, with

8512-471: The empire was Nanjing (Southern Capital), which was known as Yingtian until 1368. In the 1360s and 1370s, the capital underwent extensive construction. A workforce of 200,000 individuals surrounded the city with walls that were almost 26 km long, making them the longest in the world at the time. Additionally, an imperial palace and government quarter were built. In 1368, the emperor resided in Kaifeng during

8645-456: The enemy could exploit the potential of the newly conquered territories. However, their offensive was repulsed in the spring of 1365. Before launching a final attack on the enemy's heartland, the Suzhou region, Zhu and his generals decided to first "cut off the wings" of Wu by occupying the territory north of the Yangtze and the Wu part of Zhejiang. Xu Da was appointed as the supreme commander of

8778-401: The establishment of the Ming state, there was a significant expansion of state ownership of land. This included land that had previously been owned by the state during the Yuan and Song empires, which was now returned to the government, as well as land that was confiscated from opponents of the new dynasty. In Jiangsu and Zhejiang , regions that had supported the Hongwu Emperor's enemies during

8911-400: The establishment of the new Ming dynasty only further reinforced the importance of maintaining order. To achieve this goal, the emperor believed in creating a simple agricultural economy, with other sectors serving as complementary. His motto was one of frugality and simplicity. He firmly believed that if every man worked in his field and women also contributed, there would be no shortage and

9044-481: The eyes of the Yuan dynasty. Guo submitted to Peng, while his four colleagues submitted to Zhao. On 15 April 1352, Zhu Yuanzhang arrived in the city. Despite starting as a rank-and-file fighter, his exceptional leadership, decisiveness, warrior skills, and intelligence quickly gained him significant authority. Not only was Zhu known for his intelligence, but also for his unattractive appearance. He swiftly recruited 24 companions, who would eventually become generals in

9177-588: The financial and examination systems , proved to be resilient. The census, land registration and tax system, and the Weisuo military system all endured until the end of the dynasty. His descendants continued to rule over all of China until 1644, and the southern region for an additional seventeen years. Zhu Yuanzhang was born in 1328 in Zhongli ( 鍾離 ) village, located in Haozhou (present-day Fengyang , Anhui ). He

9310-420: The first Song emperor, Taizu (r. 960–976), had encouraged the growth of large landowners, the Hongwu Emperor aimed to eliminate them. As a result of his reforms, large landowners virtually disappeared. Peasants who farmed on state land were allowed to pass it down to their descendants, but were not permitted to sell it and move elsewhere. The Tang system of equal fields was theoretically reinstated, but there

9443-474: The following four-year war, he drove out the Mongol armies loyal to the Yuan dynasty and unified the country. However, his attempt to conquer Mongolia ended in failure. During the thirty-year reign of the Hongwu Emperor, Ming China experienced significant growth and recovered from the effects of prolonged wars. The emperor had a strong understanding of the structure of society and believed in implementing reforms to improve institutions. This approach differed from

9576-425: The former Han territory, with field armies concentrated in Nanchang and Wuchang, and garrisons scattered across Jiangxi and Huguang. The remaining soldiers, mostly former Han soldiers, were joined by some veterans in the field armies sent to fight against the state of Wu under the leadership of Generals Xu Da and Chang Yuchun. After Chen Youliang's defeat, Zhu took on the title of King of Wu ( Wu wang ) starting from

9709-544: The future capital, named Zhongdu ( 中都 ; 'Central Capital'), began with grand plans. The area had been largely abandoned since the famine of the 1340s, so landless families from the south were resettled in Fengyang. However, in 1375, the emperor ultimately abandoned the idea of relocating the capital and the construction was halted. Upon ascending to the throne, the Hongwu Emperor appointed his wife as empress and his eldest son, Zhu Biao, as his heir. He surrounded himself with

9842-517: The future, as well as any changes to his laws. The compilation of the new code, known as the Great Ming Code , began in 1364. This code, which was heavily influenced by Confucian principles, was largely based on the old Tang Code of 653. The initial wording was agreed upon in 1367, and the final version was adopted in 1397. It remained unchanged until the fall of the empire, although additional provisions were later added. The capital of

9975-404: The generals. In 1367, he named three of his closest collaborators as dukes ( gong )—generals Xu Da and Chang Yuchun , and official Li Shanchang . After the establishment of the Ming dynasty, he granted ranks and titles to a wider circle of loyal generals. This military elite was chosen based on their abilities, but their titles and ranks were still hereditary. As a result, the generals became

10108-454: The government did print money, it was in excessive amounts. For example, in 1390, the government's income was 20 million guan , but their expenses were officially reported as 95 million, and likely even higher in reality. The consequences were not long in coming. By 1394, the price of state banknotes had fallen to 40% of its face value. As a result, merchants turned to silver as the best option, as paper money suffered from depreciation, copper

10241-432: The government under later emperors, primarily served to secure finances and logistics for the army. Initially, the administration of the provinces was also under the control of the general, with the civil authorities also subject to them. However, in the 1370s, civilians began to be appointed to leadership positions in the provinces, weakening the military's influence. As a result, regional military commanders were left with

10374-569: The growth of markets along the restored roads and the spread of urban influences into rural areas. This led to the gentry, a class of Confucian-educated landowners who held official positions, being influenced by the emerging consumer culture. Over time, merchant families also began to integrate into the educated bureaucracy and adopt the customs of the gentry. This shift also brought about changes in social and political philosophies, administrative institutions, as well as in art and literature. Area: Weight: Capacity: Currency: A favorite passage of

10507-409: The hands of the wealthy (or the state) would inevitably lead to the impoverishment of the people. As a result, the government saw it as their responsibility to prevent the growth of wealth disparities. Under the banner of "humanity" ( ren , one of the central concepts of Confucianism), Chung-wu's government transformed society. The redistribution of property and wealth, particularly land, resulted in

10640-504: The imperial family. The Ming administrative apparatus was initially modeled after the Yuan dynasty. The civil administration was led by the Central Secretariat ( Zhongshu Sheng ), which was headed by two Grand Councilors ( chengxiang ), who informally known as the prime ministers. The Central Secretariat oversaw six ministries: Personnel , Revenue , Rites , War , Justice , and (Public) Works . The Censorate controlled

10773-490: The imperial family. The administrative structure of the Ming dynasty was modeled after the Yuan model. The civil administration was led by the Central Secretariat , headed by two Grand Councilors who were informally known as Prime Ministers. This Secretariat was responsible for six ministries: Personnel , Revenue , Rites , War , Justice , and (Public) Works . The Censorate oversaw the administration, while

10906-550: The imperial title. In June, Li conquered Yingchang and Ajushiridara fled. However, his empress and son Maidilibala were captured along with more than 50,000 soldiers. The Mongolian ruler continued to flee until reaching Karakorum, where the remnants of Köke's army had also retreated. After successfully defeating the Mongols, the Ming government shifted its focus to the Xia state in Sichuan. Despite maintaining positive relations with

11039-410: The lack of a suitable currency, such as copper or silver, and the unreliability of paper money, which could not be exchanged for precious metals and was prone to inflation, made it difficult to implement this policy. In the long run, the rebuilding of China's agricultural base and the improvement of communication, along with the development of a military transport network, had an unintended consequence -

11172-541: The local Yuan commander, Chen Esen, who then surrendered to him. However, in September 1355, during an attempt to conquer Jiqing (present-day Nanjing), Chen Esen betrayed Guo Tianxu. In the ensuing battles, Guo Tianxu, Zhang Tianyu and Chen Esen himself were killed. In March 1356, Zhu once again marched on Jiqing. The new Mongol commander, Chen Zhaoxian ( 陳兆先 ), who was the nephew and successor of Chen Esen, surrendered with 36,000 men. In April 1356, Zhu successfully entered

11305-449: The lower grades (eighth and ninth), with an additional 5,000 teachers in government schools. However, the number of candidates obtained through exams was insufficient, resulting in positions being primarily filled through recommendations and acquaintances. During this time, the introduction of examinations held a symbolic significance as a declaration of allegiance to Confucianism. Despite the emperor's support for Confucianism, he harbored

11438-467: The loyalty of his generals. Until the victory at Lake Poyang in 1363, there were instances of betrayal and defection to the enemy. He was now in command of an army of 100,000 soldiers, which was divided into divisions or wings ( 翼 ; yi ). In Nanjing itself, there were eight divisions and one per prefecture. From 1355 to 1357, he launched attacks against Zhang Shicheng in the direction of Suzhou and successfully occupied southern Jiangxi ; after this,

11571-517: The main Red Turban leader, Han Lin'er , who claimed to be the successor of the Song dynasty . In early 1368, after successfully dominating southern and central China, he chose to rename his state. He decided on the name Da Ming , which translates to "Great Radiance", for his empire. Additionally, he designated Hongwu , meaning "Vastly Martial", as the name of the era and the motto of his reign. In

11704-415: The main army, led by Xu Da, captured Taiyuan , while Köke Temür retreated to Gansu . In the spring of 1369, Ming troops also began to occupy Shaanxi . The province was fully taken by September 1369, but border skirmishes with Köke Temür's troops persisted until 1370. In 1370, the Ming government launched a two-pronged attack on Mongolia. Generals Li Wenzhong and Feng Sheng led an attack from Beijing to

11837-418: The market and were discontinued in 1371. Even the more common one-won coins faced difficulties in circulation due to their limited quantity, as reported by officials. This was due to the depletion of copper mines in the southern provinces of Guangdong and Guangxi , which had provided 95% of China's copper production during the Song dynasty. Despite efforts to increase production by melting down old products,

11970-488: The months of June–August and October–November, leading to the city being known as Beijing (Northern Capital). In 1369, the Hongwu Emperor proposed a debate on the relocation of the capital. In August, his suggestion to move the capital to Fengyang (then known as Linhuai), the emperor's hometown in northern Anhui , on the south bank of the Huai River, approximately 100 km north of Nanjing, was approved. Construction of

12103-481: The new year (4 February) of 1364, which was the same title used by Zhang Shicheng since October 1363. Despite this, he still acknowledged his subordinate status to emperor Han Lin'er and used the Song era of Longfeng as long as Han was alive. However, he ran his own administration, following the model of the Yuan dynasty. In 1365–67, Zhu conquered the Zhang's state of Wu. Zhang attempted to attack in late 1364, before

12236-560: The north, while Xu Da attacked from Xi'an against Köke Temür. In early May 1370, Köke Temür was defeated and fled to Karakorum . The Ming forces captured over 84,000 of his troops and continued to advance westward along the Yellow River. At the same time, Li's forces advanced to Shangdu, where the Yuan emperor Toghon Temür retreated further north to Yingchang and died in May 1370. His twenty-three-year-old son Ayushiridara then assumed

12369-712: The number of monks, prohibiting the buying and selling of free people, and banning the acceptance of women, children, and concubines as pledges. The slave trade was also prohibited. Additionally, the government organized resettlement from the populated south to the devastated northern provinces. Initially, this was done involuntarily, but later the government abandoned forced relocation. Hundreds of thousands of people were resettled, and in addition to land, they were provided with sowing equipment and draft animals. Military peasant villages were also established in borderlands and strategically important areas. These villagers were obligated to provide military service in times of war and supply

12502-402: The overall quality of life for the people would improve. The Hongwu Emperor's public statements were filled with sympathy for the peasants and hostility towards the wealthy landowners and scholars. He referred to himself as a villager from the right bank of the Huai River . Despite his position as emperor, he never forgot his difficult upbringing and maintained a strong belief in the ideal of

12635-450: The poor greatly increased during this time period. The government took responsibility for the maintenance of widows, orphans, the childless elderly, the sick, and those who were unable to support themselves. In each county, the government ordered the establishment of shelters for the needy. Additionally, the poor who were living independently were guaranteed 3 dou (approximately 32 liters) of rice, 30 jin (approximately 18 kg) of wood, and

12768-567: The population and their property, particularly land, were recorded in the Yellow Registers and Fish-Scale Map Registers. The Fish-Scale Map Registers documented land ownership, including size, quality, and owner, by village. The Yellow Registers, on the other hand, were based on household records, including household members (able-to-work men, women, and children) and their property, especially land. These registers were used to divide households into groups of one hundred and ten families in

12901-652: The post of governor of Jiangxi province. The ideology of the Red Turbans did not resonate with Zhu. Instead of trying to establish a new intellectual elite based on the Manichean-Buddhist beliefs of the White Lotus , he chose to collaborate with Confucian intellectuals. This shift in approach transformed him from a leader of a popular sectarian uprising to the leader of a political movement seeking traditional legitimacy. Nevertheless, he still relied on

13034-492: The presence of Taoist and Buddhist secret societies and sects, with the most prominent being the White Lotus society. In 1351, a rebellion known as the Red Turban Rebellion erupted and quickly spread throughout northern China. Despite the initial disorganization of the Mongol troops, they were able to launch a counteroffensive and advance along the Grand Canal . In October 1352, the Mongols captured Xuzhou , causing

13167-571: The previous Yuan dynasty, these elites were freed from labor obligations and services required by the lijia system, and instead only had to pay the land tax. The status of the educated elite was distinguished by their position in village assemblies and their inability to marry commoners. These measures helped to clearly define social groups and separate the bureaucratic class from the common people, beyond just wealth. The court also attempted to limit land ownership and discourage elites from accumulating large amounts of land. However, despite these efforts,

13300-593: The provinces of Jiangxi and Hubei . Zhang, based in Suzhou , controlled the lower reaches of the Yangtze, from the eastern borders of Zhu's dominions to the sea. While Zhu, Zhang, and Chen divided up the Yangtze River Basin, the rest of southern and central China was largely under the control of "one-province" regimes. Fang Guozhen controlled the eastern Chinese coast, Ming Yuzhen ruled in Sichuan , and

13433-492: The provinces. Regional military commanders were then responsible for managing the affairs of military peasants in the Weisuo system. Reforms of the Hongwu Emperor The Hongwu Emperor (r.1368–1398) attempted to create a self-sufficient society based on agriculture, with a stable system of relationships that would minimize commercial activity and trade in cities. The government's motto

13566-521: The provincial examinations taking place in March. However, by 1373, the civil service examinations were cancelled due to dissatisfaction with the quality of the graduates. The emperor believed that instead of capable administrators, impractical bookworms were succeeding in the examinations. The examinations were reinstated in 1384 and continued in three-year cycles until the end of the dynasty. There were not even 8,000 civil servants, half of whom were in

13699-551: The rebel Song emperor Han Lin'er appointed Guo's eldest son, Guo Tianxu, as his successor. Guo's brother-in-law, Zhang Tianyu, was chosen as the first deputy of the new commander, with Zhu as the second deputy. In order to cross the Yangtze River, the Hezhou rebels required a fleet, which they acquired in July 1355 when a group of rebels from Chao Lake arrived. They successfully crossed the river that same month. Zhu immediately defeated

13832-407: The rebel commanders Peng Da and Zhao Yunyong to flee south to Haozhou. In Haozhou, the Yuan dynasty's power fell in the spring of 1352. Guo Zixing , Sun Deyai, and three other leaders, with the support of the local elite, organized the army and took control in order to establish order in the city and its surrounding areas. The arrival of Peng and Zhao was seen as a clear connection to the rebels in

13965-468: The reinforcement of Yang Jing 's army from Huguang, Guangxi province was also occupied. At the same time as the southern campaign, Zhu sent a 250,000-strong army, led by Xu Da and Chang Yuchun, to conquer the North China Plain. By March 1368, both land and naval forces had successfully captured Shandong. In May, Henan was also occupied. A pause was taken for agricultural work, during which

14098-425: The rejection of the exchangeability of banknotes for silver understandable. The Hongwu Emperor believed that agriculture was the primary source of wealth and that there was a direct correlation between peasants and the state, which owned the land. He aimed to establish a patriarchal peasant monarchy, centered around the lives of the people living in peasant communes. The emperor firmly believed that if every man had

14231-497: The responsibility of managing the affairs of military peasants in the Weisuo system. In 1380, Grand Councilor Hu Weiyong was imprisoned and executed on suspicion of participating in a conspiracy against the emperor. As a result, his position (which was similar to that of a modern prime minister) and his entire office, the Central Secretariat, were abolished. The emperor also forbade its restoration permanently. The emperor then had direct control over six ministries. The censorship

14364-514: The secret police. After the reform, the emperor personally managed the central offices and served as the sole coordinator between departments. This resulted in a fragmentation of state authority and government, which prevented the possibility of a coup d'état but also weakened the government's long-term effectiveness. The 1380 great purge was succeeded by subsequent trials, targeting not only several ministers and deputy ministers, but also hundreds of less prominent individuals. These executions incited

14497-501: The section, 祖訓首章 , the Hongwu Emperor stated a policy that he would not conquer 15 neighbouring countries in order to maintain harmonious tributary relations with these countries and at the same time promote the development of trade between countries. 一，四方諸夷，皆限山隔海，僻在一隅；得其地不足以供給，得其民不足以使令。若其自不揣量、來擾我邊，則彼為不祥。彼既不為中國患，而我興兵輕伐，亦不祥也。吾恐後世子孫，倚中國富強，貪一時戰功，無故興兵，致傷人命，切記不可。但胡戎與西北邊境，互相密邇，累世戰爭，必選將練兵，時謹備之。 今將不征諸夷國名，開列於後： Accordingly, he created

14630-575: The social and economic structure of society were designed to serve this purpose. The chaos and foreign rule that led to the establishment of a new dynasty only reinforced his determination to maintain order. The emperor was meticulous in his efforts to establish a new society after the fall of the Yuan dynasty. He was a dynamic and innovative legislator, constantly issuing, revising, and modifying laws throughout his reign. However, these frequent changes sometimes sparked protests from officials. The emperor's legislation focused on four main themes. The first

14763-437: The south, they received an allotment of 16 mu (0.87 ha) for peasants and 50 mu (2.9 ha) for military peasants. Those who had abandoned their properties during the wars were not entitled to reclaim them, but were instead given replacement plots, on the condition that they personally worked on them. Those who occupied larger plots than they were able to cultivate were punished with flogging and had their land confiscated. While

14896-661: The southwestern border for the next ten years, until the pro-Mongol Yunnan was conquered in 1381-1382. In 1372, the emperor launched a massive attack on Mongolia, with Xu Da leading a 150,000-strong army from Shanxi through the Gobi to Karakorum. In the west, Feng Sheng was assigned to conquer the western part of the Gansu Corridor with 50,000 cavalrymen, while Li Wenzhong was tasked with attacking eastern Mongolia and Manchuria with another 50,000 soldiers. Although Feng Sheng's forces were able to successfully complete their mission,

15029-848: The state administration. The day-to-day administrative tasks and paperwork were left to lower-ranking employees and helpers, who were typically recruited from the local population. In fact, there were four times as many of these employees as there were officials. As a result of the emperor's efforts to save money, the salaries of officials and the incomes of members of the imperial family were reduced to approximately one-fifth of what they were under previous dynasties. Additionally, officials were often paid in debased paper money or forced to accept non-essential items such as paintings, calligraphy , and pepper instead of necessary items like rice, cloth, cash, and precious metals. Furthermore, officials and officers, as well as their families and relatives, were prohibited from engaging in trade or lending money. This created

15162-512: The style of written texts, as well as restricting the naming of individuals and prohibiting the use of symbols that reminded him of a monastic episode in his own life. The acceptable quality of food, clothing, housing, and transportation was determined for each social class. For example, commoners were limited to three rooms in their homes and were not permitted to travel by wagon or horse. Only county authorities were allowed to use donkeys. Soldiers were punished for engaging in music and games. As

15295-567: The support of his officers who shared his devotion to the teachings of the White Lotus. In 1354, he began working with Li Shanchang , a landowner from Dingyuan County, the first county conquered by Zhu. Li Shanchang was responsible for running the civil administration, and as Zhu conquered more cities, he recruited more scholars to join his cause. After repeated requests from Zhu in 1360, a group of prominent scholars, led by Song Lian and Liu Ji , joined his service. These scholars, known as

15428-455: The territories he conquered. However, Zhu feared the advance of the Yuan troops in the southern direction, all the way to Nanjing. As a result, he proposed cooperation with Chaghan Temur. After Chaghan Temur's army was unable to make progress in Shandong and he was murdered in the summer of 1362, the threat from the Yuan side disappeared. As a result, Zhu rejected the Yuan government's offer of

15561-406: The trio of Yuan loyalists ( Chen Youding , He Zhen , and Basalawarmi ) controlled Fujian , Guangdong , and Yunnan . These provincial regimes were unable to threaten the "big three", but were strong in defense. The war between Zhu's Jiangnan and Chen Youliang's Han state from 1360 to 1363 had a devastating impact on the balance of power in the Yangtze River Basin. This conflict not only gave Zhu

15694-651: The wars, all private land was seized and former landowners were forced to relocate to the north. After becoming emperor, the Hongwu Emperor resettled 14,300 wealthy families from Zhejiang and the Nanjing hinterland from their estates to Nanjing. The vast properties of Buddhist monasteries, which had owned three-fifths of the land in Shandong province during the Yuan dynasty, were also confiscated. Additionally, 3,000 Buddhist and Taoist monasteries were abolished, 214,000 Buddhist and 300,000 Taoist monks and nuns were returned to secular life, and monasteries were reduced to one with

15827-511: Was "encouraging agriculture and restraining commerce" ( 重农怐商 ; zhongnong yishang ). In this newly organized society, agriculture was the main source of wealth and the backbone of the economy, and the authorities provided support in every possible way. Two-thirds of the land was owned by the state, and it was divided among small peasants who directly cultivated the land. In contrast, large landowners were systematically restricted and persecuted. Industry and crafts were under state management, and trade

15960-412: Was a broad desire to restore order and morality in society. The second was the regulation of the bureaucracy, including disciplining followers and managing the government. The third was the removal of corrupt and unreliable officials. Finally, the emperor also sought to resist the natural decline that comes with time. As the patriarch of the family, he aimed to prevent the decay of society and the dynasty in

16093-404: Was a selfish act and a sign of corruption. He even went as far as to order his sons to plant vegetable gardens instead of flower gardens in their palaces, and banned the keeping of pet animals like tigers, encouraging the use of useful animals like cows instead. He also prohibited the cultivation of rice varieties used for making rice wine. In contrast to the attitude towards the wealthy, care for

16226-447: Was even rarer than copper. For example, in 1391, the state treasury only contained 24,740 liang (923 kg) of silver, which was a mere quarter of the Chinese wholesaler's wealth two centuries later. Given these circumstances, the Hongwu Emperor's government had no other option but to turn to paper money in 1375. These state bills, known as Da Ming Baochao , were intended to serve as the primary means of exchange, with copper coins playing

16359-472: Was feared that displays of wealth and extravagant spending would harm social cohesion and undermine the state's social and economic foundations. The privileged were expected to practice self-restraint, which was justified by Confucian morality. Materialistic interests and selfishness were frowned upon, and the Hongwu Emperor set an example by living a simple lifestyle and avoiding luxurious food and furnishings. He believed that seeking comfort, luxury, and property

16492-558: Was left with only a few hundred soldiers, but as Chaghan Temur focused on conquering Shandong , Han's group was able to survive in Anfeng, a prefectural city in the west of Anhui. After the retreat from Kaifeng, the Song government's power weakened rapidly. Apart from Zhu Yuanzhang's effectively independent Jiangnan, no Song province survived 1362. In 1361, Han Lin'er appointed Zhu as the Duke of Wu ( Wu Guogong ) and recognized his rule in all

16625-486: Was located further east, made the decision to leave the war-torn territories and cross the Yangtze River to the prosperous southern regions that had not yet been affected by the war. However, a dispute arose between Guo and Zhu over the city of Hezhou, situated on the banks of the Yangtze River. Zhu even formed an alliance with Sun Deyai, Guo's old enemy. Before the conflict could escalate, Guo died. Following this,

16758-409: Was no standardized allocation of land that took into account local conditions and family size. As a result of these reforms, small independent farmers became the dominant figure in the Chinese countryside. The laws required every able-bodied peasant to work in the fields and empowered village elders to punish those who were idle. The consumption of the wealthy and privileged was also restricted, as it

16891-406: Was not unfounded, as the risk of a conspiracy by the generals was always present. The emperor himself had come to power through the betrayal of the heirs of Guo Zixing and had also faced conspiracies from his subordinates. In the early 1380s, he began to replace deserving generals with his own sons, granting them titles of princes ( wang ) and military command in various regions. Once they reached

17024-578: Was not until the second quarter of the 15th century that coins began to be used in the northwest. In an attempt to combat the inflation that occurred during the late Yuan dynasty, the Hongwu Emperor attempted to reintroduce the use of copper coins, following the practice of the previous Song dynasty . In 1368, when the Ming dynasty was established, coins were once again produced, known as the Hongwu Tongbao , in denominations of 1, 2, 3, 5, and 10 wen . However, larger value coins were not accepted by

17157-404: Was of little value, and gold was scarce. In response, the government attempted to withdraw copper coins by ordering their mandatory exchange for state banknotes in 1394. They also banned the use of silver in trade in 1397. To further discourage the circulation of silver and copper coins, the government allowed some taxes to be paid with them. The ban on private foreign trade was also motivated by

17290-420: Was revised, and in 1381, the same was done for holders of aristocratic titles, including members of the imperial family. They were required to return the acquired land to the state and were compensated with rice and silk. Most of the state lands were then redistributed to peasants for permanent use. In the northern regions, peasants were given 15 mu (0.87 ha) per field and two (1,160 m²) per garden, while in

17423-466: Was strictly supervised. The emperor showed concern for the common people and aimed to ensure a peaceful life for them, while also limiting the extravagances of the wealthy. The emperor sought to exert control over all aspects of the country's life. The newly established Ming state administration was small and cost-effective. The government was led by the emperor's old comrades, who now served as generals in his army. Over time, they were gradually replaced by

17556-431: Was temporarily suspended and the Chief Military Commission, which oversaw the armed forces, was divided into five Chief Military Commissions. Each commission was responsible for a portion of the troops in the capital and a fifth of the regions. Additionally, some of the regiments in the capital's garrison were under the direct control of the emperor. One of these regiments, known as the " Embroidered Uniform Guard ", acted as

17689-401: Was the youngest of four sons in a poor peasant family. He was given the name Zhu Chongba ( 朱重八 ) at birth, but later used the name Zhu Xingzong ( 朱興宗 ) in adulthood. After joining the rebels, he went by the name Zhu Yuanzhang. His father, Zhu Wusi , lived in Nanjing but fled to the countryside to avoid tax collectors. His paternal grandfather was a gold miner, and his maternal grandfather was

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