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106-471: The site was built on the west slope of the "Tecolote" hill; the slope is separated east-west by a ravine that forms two sectors at the foot of the hill and two more on the top, all of which contain archaeological vestiges. The site depicts Teotihuacán influence, and some believe that Topilitzin Quetzalcóatl resided here, before governing Tula . Also it is considered the oldest human occupation site in

212-588: A colossal head required the efforts of 1,500 people for three to four months. Some of the heads, and many other monuments, have been variously mutilated, buried and disinterred, reset in new locations and/or reburied. Some monuments, and at least two heads, were recycled or recarved, but it is not known whether this was simply due to the scarcity of stone or whether these actions had ritual or other connotations. Scholars believe that some mutilation had significance beyond mere destruction, but some scholars still do not rule out internal conflicts or, less likely, invasion as

318-647: A culture that was 2000 years older. Despite the mistaken identity, the name has stuck. It is not known what name the ancient Olmec used for themselves; some later Mesoamerican accounts seem to refer to the ancient Olmec as " Tamoanchan ". A contemporary term sometimes used for the Olmec culture is tenocelome , meaning "mouth of the jaguar ". The Olmec heartland is the area in the Gulf lowlands where it expanded after early development in Soconusco , Veracruz. This area

424-462: A curved baton (the chicoacolli ) and a feather rimmed shield with the ehecacozcatl (wind jewel) emblem on it. Five major sources discuss the mythical history and origin of Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl. While the stories provided by these sources may conflict somewhat, they provide insight into the different uses of the name Quetzalcoatl. The first source was produced by an unknown Spaniard which

530-528: A factor. The flat-faced, thick-lipped heads have caused some debate due to their resemblance to some African facial characteristics. Based on this comparison, some writers have said that the Olmecs were Africans who had emigrated to the New World. But the vast majority of archaeologists and other Mesoamerican scholars reject claims of pre-Columbian contacts with Africa. Explanations for the facial features of

636-740: A gold chain that would appear in the other side of the bridge and after pulling on the chain, the city, buried by the curse of the Gods would reappear. Tulancingo , was a forerunner of the Teotihuacan civilization. The name derives from the Nahuatl words "tule" and "tzintle" which mean "in or behind the reeds." This is confirmed by its Aztec glyph . The area is home to some of the oldest settlements in Mesoamerica, such as Huapalcalco and El Pedregal. These first settlements have been attributed to

742-450: A group of Franciscan friars in 1532 and translated from original text. They are known collectively as the Libro de oro y tesoro indico . In the friars' translation Topiltzin is the son of Totepeuh , who is the leader of Teocolhuacan . His brother-in-law kills his father but after building a temple for his father, Topiltzin gets his revenge. The migration to Tollan and later to Tlapallan

848-468: A particular culture (not to be confused with the pre-classical Olmec civilization), whom occupied and influenced the nearby areas. A unique difference between the Olmec-Xicalancas groups [and other Mesoamerican cities] were that each group (city-state) would have been governed by a tahualz, a King or ruler, independent of each other. In reality, they had two tahualz for each city-state. They had

954-515: A pyramidal monument complex with evident Teotihuacán influence and a plaza with a Stele ( Mayan influence), Totonac yokes and a round altar. The remarkable finding of Totonac yokes shows the influence of the Gulf of Mexico coastal cultures, as well as the discovery of a sculpture of the Teotihuacan God of fire. An important finding was achieved when excavating the deepest part of one of

1060-470: A series of photos of Olmec artwork and of the faces of modern Mexican Indians with very similar facial characteristics. The African origin hypothesis assumes that Olmec carving was intended to be a representation of the inhabitants, an assumption that is hard to justify given the full corpus of representation in Olmec carving. Ivan Van Sertima claimed that the seven braids on the Tres Zapotes head

1166-465: A warrior and then as a priest to the people of Tollan . He assumed lordship over the Toltecs and migrated his people to Tollan. Reigning in peace and prosperity he contributed much to the lifestyle of the Toltecs with basic ideas such as civilization. He was generally considered a god upon earth by his followers with similar powers to those of his namesake. According to legend, the most accepted fate of

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1272-674: A writing system that at least included 10 signs, pictograms of the Sun, the Moon, a tree, a field harvest, a person, etc. Religion would have been polytheistic. The most important was the Sun God called different in both villages. Other Olmec-Xicalanca Sites: Huapalcalco corresponds to the Mesoamerican Classical period (100 to 650 CE) and was part of the state of Teotihuacán, nevertheless, both their architecture and ceramics are not

1378-539: Is characterized by swampy lowlands punctuated by low hills, ridges, and volcanoes. The Sierra de los Tuxtlas rises sharply in the north, along the Gulf of Mexico's Bay of Campeche . Here, the Olmec constructed permanent city-temple complexes at San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán , La Venta , Tres Zapotes , and Laguna de los Cerros . In this region, the first Mesoamerican civilization emerged and reigned from c.  1400–400  BCE. Pre-Olmec cultures had flourished since about 2500 BCE, and it has been speculated that

1484-429: Is composed of calli, house, and huapalli or huapalitl, board or small beam: Huapal cal co, "in the house of boards, "or the wooden building". The site features a Teotihuacan influenced three-sided pyramid, 12 meters base by 8 meters high, with an altar that possibly was used for sacrificial offerings. There are approximately 28 knolls: small pyramids buried, in which no archaeological work has been made. The hill slope

1590-460: Is composed of the two words ōlli [ˈoːlːi] , meaning " natural rubber ", and mēcatl [ˈmeːkat͡ɬ] , meaning "people". Early modern explorers and archaeologists, however, mistakenly applied the name "Olmec" to the rediscovered ruins and artifacts in the heartland decades before it was understood that these were not created by the people the Aztecs knew as the "Olmec" but rather

1696-443: Is depicted in the act of throwing a prehistoric version of the atlátl spear, a javelin-like weapon used with an arm extension, with a type of large spoon dart in the end, it was used mainly to hunt ducks that must have existed by the thousands in the lagoon located west of the site. These were hunter-gatherer men that did not have animals in captivity but knew how to hunt and use fire to cook. The Huapalcalco (or Coapalcallico) City

1802-409: Is divided by a ravine that divides the two sectors, this place is where Friar Bernardino de Sahagún passed and described it saying that it "has crystalline water cascades, at the foot stones, women were washing clothes while children swam and plunged into water". Over the ravine stones are the cave paintings, which are difficult to see, these are dispersed over the "Cerro La Mesa" behind the pyramid. It

1908-563: Is during this period that Huapalcalco was built, of which today remain only a three-sided pyramid and stairway, built in the Toltec style. The earliest cave paintings in the area are located at the Huiztle hill and Huapalcalco plateau; these cave paintings transmit testimony of primitive groups’ life experiences in representations of men, schematic outlines, and astronomical figures dating back to 9,000 BCE. A lizard and men are portrayed. A man

2014-519: Is from Huapalcalco up to Abra, Santiago and Acatlán. There was only one solution to remove the curse, the Gods said to the Shamans , the curse could only be removed on June 24 at midnight, at such exact time a bridge would appear between both Coapalcallico hills, over the Main Pyramid. And only at that instant, a man, woman, boy or girl with the purest and bravest soul could cross it and pull on

2120-600: Is identified as a ruler in the 10th century of the Toltecs — by Aztec tradition their predecessors who had political control of the Valley of Mexico and surrounding region several centuries before the Aztecs themselves settled there. In later generations, he was a culture hero and figure of legend often confused or conflated with the important Mesoamerican deity Quetzalcoatl . According to legend in El Salvador ,

2226-461: Is involved, but this time he is told to go by Tezcatlipoca. The reason for this is because the King would not allow what Tezcatlipoca wanted, human sacrifice. So he leaves, as in the previous version, with his Toltec in tow. This third translation, which is written by French cosmographer André de Thevet , was translated from a lost Spanish version in the sixteenth century. In this version, Quetzalcoatl

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2332-438: Is much smaller; hardstone carvings in jade of a face in a mask form. Jade is a particularly precious material, and it was used as a mark of rank by the ruling classes. By 1500 BCE early Olmec sculptors mastered the human form. This can be determined by wooden Olmec sculptures discovered in the swampy bogs of El Manati. Before radiocarbon dating could tell the exact age of Olmec pieces, archaeologists and art historians noticed

2438-444: Is naturalistic. Other art expresses fantastic anthropomorphic creatures, often highly stylized, using an iconography reflective of a religious meaning. Common motifs include downturned mouths and a cleft head, both of which are seen in representations of werejaguars . In addition to making human and human-like subjects, Olmec artisans were adept at animal portrayals. While Olmec figurines are found abundantly in sites throughout

2544-406: Is now generally accepted that these heads are portraits of rulers, perhaps dressed as ballplayers. Infused with individuality, no two heads are alike and the helmet-like headdresses are adorned with distinctive elements, suggesting personal or group symbols. Some have also speculated that Mesoamerican people believed that the soul, along with all of one's experiences and emotions, was contained inside

2650-488: Is probably the most comprehensive version, because of the slight variations that are not seen in the others. A Nahua native wrote the fourth translation, the Leyenda de los soles . It's very similar to the first translation, but it gives an in-depth account of Mixcoatl's adventures especially his meeting with Quetzalcoatl's mother. It also states that Quetzalcoatl is supernatural and godlike. This final major translation

2756-415: Is sad that graffiti has reached them, making them in some points confusing. Also white crosses are painted in the stone by current inhabitants of the place, namely to scare away witches and nahuales. On the slope, between rocky crags, the walls sink shaping the well-known caves of the place; villagers usually place altars to honor their dead. In front of the "Tecolote" Cave, the remains of a prehistoric man

2862-450: Is son to Camaxtli and Chimalman ; his mother still died after birth. This time, he has brothers who are bent on killing him, but he eludes them twice. After they kill their father, he kills them in a series of side stories. He becomes the ruler, migrates to Tollan, and is believed to be a sorcerer god ruling for 160 years. Later, he encounters Tezcatlipoca once again, who is jealous of the Toltecs' adoration for their god, and so drives out

2968-410: Is that environmental changes may have been responsible for this shift in Olmec centers, with certain important rivers changing course. Following the decline of San Lorenzo, La Venta became the most prominent Olmec center, lasting from 900 BCE until its abandonment around 400 BCE. La Venta sustained the Olmec cultural traditions with spectacular displays of power and wealth. The Great Pyramid

3074-528: Is the Archaeological Site in an enclosed 4 hectares perimeter. Huapalcalco is a Nahuatl word, huapalli, "board or small beam "; calli, "house", y co, location proposition. Means "place of the wooden house ". The Huapalcalco Glyph represents a battlement building, with three doors, apparently made from wood, different from the common calli glyph, is the graphical idea of huapalcalli [vapalcalli], which means "tent or house of tables." Huapal calli,

3180-508: The 4th century BCE , leaving the region sparsely populated until the 19th century . Among other "firsts", the Olmec appeared to practice ritual bloodletting and played the Mesoamerican ballgame , hallmarks of nearly all subsequent Mesoamerican societies. The aspect of the Olmecs most familiar now is their artwork, particularly the colossal heads . The Olmec civilization was first defined through artifacts which collectors purchased on

3286-546: The Aztecs buried it, suggesting such masks were valued and collected as were Roman antiquities in Europe. The 'Olmec-style' refers to the combination of deep-set eyes, nostrils, and strong, slightly asymmetrical mouth. The "Olmec-style" also very distinctly combines facial features of both humans and jaguars. Olmec arts are strongly tied to the Olmec religion, which prominently featured jaguars. The Olmec people believed that in

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3392-482: The Formative Period , the stone monuments such as the colossal heads are the most recognizable feature of Olmec culture. These monuments can be divided into four classes: The most recognized aspect of the Olmec civilization are the enormous helmeted heads. As no known pre-Columbian text explains them, these impressive monuments have been the subject of much speculation. Once theorized to be ballplayers, it

3498-616: The Isthmian script , and while there are some who believe that the Isthmian may represent a transitional script between an earlier Olmec writing system and the Maya script, the matter remains unsettled. The Long Count calendar used by many subsequent Mesoamerican civilizations, as well as the concept of zero , may have been devised by the Olmecs. Because the six artifacts with the earliest Long Count calendar dates were all discovered outside

3604-719: The Juxtlahuaca and Oxtotitlán cave paintings feature Olmec designs and motifs. Olmec influence is also seen at several sites in the Southern Maya area . In Guatemala, sites showing probable Olmec influence include San Bartolo , Takalik Abaj and La Democracia . Many theories have been advanced to account for the occurrence of Olmec influence far outside the heartland, including long-range trade by Olmec merchants, Olmec colonization of other regions, Olmec artisans travelling to other cities, conscious imitation of Olmec artistic styles by developing towns – some even suggest

3710-647: The Nahua , who would found the cities of Tula and Tenochtitlan , the two most important capitals of the Postclassical era. In addition to the migrations from the north, southern peoples finally established themselves in the center of Mexico. Among these were the Olmec-Xicalanca , who came from the Yucatán Peninsula and founded Cacaxtla and Xochicalco . The term Olmec-Xicalancas refers to

3816-583: The Olmecs , Xicalancas and other tribes. The city was founded in 645 BCE by the Toltecs with the name Tolancingo as part of the empire centered in Tula . During this period, the city was home to schools and temples. A calendar stone was sculpted here and a temple called Mitlancalco was built to receive the bodies of priests and princes. After 1116 CE, the Toltec empire declined and the city was abandoned. According to

3922-891: The Tlatilco culture in the Valley of Mexico , where artifacts include hollow baby-face motif figurines and Olmec designs on ceramics. Chalcatzingo , in Valley of Morelos , central Mexico, which features Olmec-style monumental art and rock art with Olmec-style figures. Also, in 2007, archaeologists unearthed Zazacatla , an Olmec-influenced city in Morelos. Located about 40 kilometres (25 mi) south of Mexico City, Zazacatla covered about 2.5 square kilometres (1 sq mi) between 800 and 500 BCE. Teopantecuanitlan , in Guerrero , which features Olmec-style monumental art as well as city plans with distinctive Olmec features. Also,

4028-583: The pre-Columbian art market in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Olmec artworks are considered among ancient America's most striking. The name "Olmec" means "rubber people" in Nahuatl , the language of the Nahuas , and was the Aztec term for the people who lived in the Gulf Lowlands in the 15th and 16th centuries, some 2,000 years after the Olmec culture died out. The term "Rubber People" refers to

4134-502: The 2006 find from a site near San Lorenzo shows a set of 62 symbols, 28 of which are unique, carved on a serpentine block. A large number of prominent archaeologists have hailed this find as the "earliest pre-Columbian writing". Others are skeptical because of the stone's singularity, the fact that it had been removed from any archaeological context, and because it bears no apparent resemblance to any other Mesoamerican writing system. There are also well-documented later hieroglyphs known as

4240-673: The Aztec kingdom; tributes consisted of cotton blankets and seeds, such as corn and amaranth. Although Tulancingo was a tributary of the Mexicas, they maintained certain administrative independence, they choose their own authorities. This city was an important food stocking place for the Aztecs. The mid-classical period ended in Northern Mesoamerica with the decline of Teotihuacan ca 700 CE. This allowed regional centers of power to flourish and compete for control of trade routes and

4346-596: The Franciscan missionary Bernardino de Sahagún , the Aztecs had a legend that Quetzalcoatl would one day return, and Emperor Moctezuma II mistook Hernán Cortés for Quetzalcoatl. Other parties have also propagated the idea that the Native Americans believed the conquerors to be gods: most notably the historians of the Franciscan order such as Fray Geronimo Mendieta (Martínez 1980). Some Franciscans at this time held millennarian beliefs (Phelan 1956), and

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4452-616: The Guatemala highlands, such as El Chayal and San Martín Jilotepeque , or in Puebla , distances ranging from 200 to 400 km (120–250 miles) away, respectively. The state of Guerrero , and in particular its early Mezcala culture , seem to have played an important role in the early history of Olmec culture. Olmec-style artifacts tend to appear earlier in some parts of Guerrero than in the Veracruz-Tabasco area. In particular,

4558-509: The Huapalcalco cave paintings (more than 10 thousand years old) in danger from graffiti, bonfire soot, acts of vandalism and employee neglect. Arriving to the site was difficult. On a side of the federal highway to Tuxpan, that crosses the city of Tulancingo, there is a deviation to Huapalcalco, where a rusty signboard welcomes people to the archaeological zone and cave paintings. The National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH) logo

4664-532: The Olmec had their roots in early farming cultures of Tabasco , which began between 5100 BCE and 4600 BCE . These shared the same basic food crops and technologies of the later Olmec civilization. What is today called Olmec first appeared fully within San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán, where distinctive Olmec features occurred around 1400 BCE. The rise of civilization was assisted by the local ecology of well-watered alluvial soil, as well as by

4770-566: The Olmec heartland, continued to be occupied well past 400 BCE , but without the hallmarks of the Olmec culture. This post-Olmec culture, often labeled the Epi-Olmec , has features similar to those found at Izapa , some 550 kilometres (340 mi) to the southeast. The Olmec culture was first defined as an art style, and this continues to be the hallmark of the culture. Wrought in a large number of media – jade, clay, basalt, and greenstone among others – much Olmec art, such as The Wrestler ,

4876-435: The Olmec instituted human sacrifice is significantly more speculative. No Olmec or Olmec-influenced sacrificial artifacts have yet been discovered; no Olmec or Olmec-influenced artwork unambiguously shows sacrificial victims (as do the danzante figures of Monte Albán ) or scenes of human sacrifice (such as can be seen in the famous ballcourt mural from El Tajín ). At El Manatí, disarticulated skulls and femurs, as well as

4982-414: The Olmec remains unknown, various hypotheses have been put forward. For example, in 1968 Michael D. Coe speculated that the Olmec were Maya predecessors. In 1976, linguists Lyle Campbell and Terrence Kaufman published a paper in which they argued a core number of loanwords had apparently spread from a Mixe–Zoquean language into many other Mesoamerican languages . Campbell and Kaufman proposed that

5088-443: The Olmecs derived in part from the neighboring Mokaya or Mixe–Zoque cultures which developed during this time. The beginnings of Olmec civilization have traditionally been placed between 1400 BCE and 1200 BCE . Past finds of Olmec remains ritually deposited at the shrine El Manatí near the triple archaeological sites known collectively as San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán moved this back to at least 1600–1500 BCE . It seems that

5194-457: The Olmecs formulated the forerunners of many of the later Mesoamerican deities . Although the archaeological record does not include explicit representation of Olmec bloodletting , researchers have found other evidence that the Olmec ritually practiced it. For example, numerous natural and ceramic stingray spikes and maguey thorns have been found at Olmec sites, and certain artifacts have been identified as bloodletters. The argument that

5300-567: The Sierra de los Tuxtlas. The Tres Zapotes heads, for example, were sculpted from basalt found at the summit of Cerro el Vigía, at the western end of the Tuxtlas. The San Lorenzo and La Venta heads, on the other hand, were probably carved from the basalt of Cerro Cintepec, on the southeastern side, perhaps at the nearby Llano del Jicaro workshop, and dragged or floated to their final destination dozens of miles away. It has been estimated that moving

5406-666: The State of Teotihuacan; however, both its architecture and pottery is not equal to Teotihuacan, i.e. there is Teotihuacan influence, but are not Teotihuacan. It is not known what culture built these monuments; it can only be said that it is closely related to the Teotihuacan culture and had influence of the cultures of the Gulf Coast. During the Lithic period (10,000 - 3500 BCE) the first signs of human hunter-gatherers are noted in

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5512-483: The Toltecs. His reign is peaceful and productive, lasting 42 years. Within the last four years, the known archenemy of Quetzalcoatl, Tezcatlipoca (although it is not specified in this version), tells him he must leave in four years to Tlapallan to die. Thus, in four years, Quetzacoatl leaves, but takes his adoring Toltecs with him. Stopping at many different villages along the way, he leaves some of his people behind at each one until he arrives at Tlapallan where he dies

5618-652: The Tribute Codex (Códice de los Tributos), the Tulancingo area was a commercial center for the Otomi -Tepehua and Totonac people since about 1000 CE bringing traders from lands now in the states of Hidalgo, Puebla and Veracruz. Traditional trading still exists in the form of the Thursday " Tianguis " or market. The Chichimecas came to rule here under King Xolotl (Chichimec ruler) starting around 1120. The city

5724-466: The Tulancingo area was again reorganized politically under Itzcoatl and Nezahualcoyotl . Eventually, Tulancingo became part of the Texcoco empire and in 1416, was taken by the Aztec might empire. Since then, Tulancingo was divided into two sectors: Tlaixpa, located to the east, inhabited mostly by native Otomi; and Tlatoca in the west, inhabited by Nahua. The inhabitants of both sides paid tribute to

5830-412: The ancient practice, spanning from ancient Olmecs to Aztecs, of extracting latex from Castilla elastica , a rubber tree in the area. The juice of a local vine, Ipomoea alba , was then mixed with this latex to create rubber as early as 1600 BCE. The Nahuatl word for the Olmecs was Ōlmēcatl [oːlˈmeːkat͡ɬ] (singular) or Ōlmēcah [oːlˈmeːkaʔ] (plural). This word

5936-444: The buildings, it consisted of arrowheads meserve type, that correspond to a pre-ceramic culture 7,000 BCE., and whose chronology matches a hand axe found of prehistoric type in the remains of a burnt cave in cliffs of "el Tecolote" hill, where also were found cave paintings of geometric human character predominating the red color, demonstrating the presence of Paleolithic man (approximately 10,000 BCE) in Huapalcalco. A recent finding on

6042-431: The cause of the eventual extinction of the Olmec culture. Between 400 and 350 BCE , the population in the eastern half of the Olmec heartland dropped precipitously, and the area was sparsely inhabited until the 19th century. According to archaeologists, this depopulation was probably the result of "very serious environmental changes that rendered the region unsuited for large groups of farmers", in particular changes to

6148-653: The city of Cuzcatlán (the capital city of the Pipil/Cuzcatlecs) was founded by the exiled Toltec Ce Acatl Topiltzin. Topiltzin Cē Ācatl Quetzalcōatl was the Lord of the Toltecs and their major city Tōllan . One version of the story is that he was born in the 10th century, during the year and day-sign "1 Acatl," correlated to date May 13 of the year 895, allegedly in what is now the town of Tepoztlán . According to various sources, he had four different possible fathers,

6254-431: The colossal heads include the possibility that the heads were carved in this manner due to the shallow space allowed on the basalt boulders. Others note that in addition to the broad noses and thick lips, the eyes of the heads often show the epicanthic fold , and that all these characteristics can still be found in modern Mesoamerican Indians. For instance, in the 1940s, the artist/art historian Miguel Covarrubias published

6360-519: The complete skeletons of newborns or fetuses, have been discovered amidst the other offerings, leading to speculation concerning infant sacrifice. Scholars have not determined how the infants met their deaths. Some authors have associated infant sacrifice with Olmec ritual art showing limp werejaguar babies, most famously in La Venta's Altar 5 (on the right) or Las Limas figure . Any definitive answer requires further findings. The Olmec may have been

6466-424: The distant past a race of werejaguars was made between the union of a jaguar and a woman. One werejaguar quality that can be found is the sharp cleft in the forehead of many supernatural beings in Olmec art. This sharp cleft is associated with the natural indented head of jaguars. The Kunz axes (also known as "votive axes") are figures that represent werejaguars and were apparently used for rituals. In most cases,

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6572-649: The earlier sins of his people, and to appease the debt owed to the gods (created by lack of tribute of human blood) he also created the cult of the serpent. This cult insisted that the practitioners bleed themselves to satiate the needs of the netherworld. It also demanded that all priests remain celibate and did not allow intoxication of any kind (representing the two major sins to which the original 400 Mixcohua succumbed). These edicts and his personal purity of spirit caused Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl to be beloved by his vassals and revered for generations. The representation of

6678-500: The earliest known major Mesoamerican civilization, flourishing in the modern-day Mexican states of Veracruz and Tabasco from roughly 1200 to 400  BCE during Mesoamerica's formative period . They were initially centered at the site of their development in San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán , but moved to La Venta in the 10th century BCE following the decline of San Lorenzo. The Olmecs disappeared mysteriously in

6784-451: The east, wearing brilliant armor (like that which the deity Quetzalcoatl is often shown wearing), accompanied by four men (possibly believed to be the other four progenitors of the Mesoamerican people that survived the massacre before coming to earth as Topiltzin’s messengers). The Spanish arrival terrified the ruling class. They feared they would be exposed as frauds and, at the very least, lose their ruling status to Topiltzin. Conversely

6890-459: The empire when the first Spaniards arrived. The stories of Topiltzin further expedited the collapse of the Aztec nation by sheer coincidence; they described him as having an incredible likeness to the Spaniards. The Aztec may have truly believed that they were seeing the return of the famous priest when the white-skinned Hernán Cortés landed on their shores in 1519. He came from across the sea to

6996-420: The exploitation of natural resources. In this way the late Classic era commenced. As stated above, this was a time of political fragmentation during which no city had complete hegemony. Various population movements occurred during this period, caused by the incursion of groups from Aridoamerica and other northern regions, who pushed the older populations of Mesoamerica toward the south. Among these new groups were

7102-433: The features their respective names. The Aztecs believed that Topiltzin's search for his holy resting place eventually led him across the sea to the east, from whence he vowed to return one day and reclaim Cholula (Chimalpahin, Motolinia, Ixtlilxochitl, Codice Rios). Other sources insist that Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl would not return but that he would send representatives to warn or possibly pass judgment on those inhabiting

7208-432: The first civilization in Mesoamerica, the Olmecs are credited, or speculatively credited, with many "firsts", including the bloodletting and perhaps human sacrifice , writing and epigraphy , and the invention of popcorn , zero and the Mesoamerican calendar , and the Mesoamerican ballgame , as well as perhaps the compass . Some researchers, including artist and art historian Miguel Covarrubias , even postulate that

7314-646: The first civilization in the Western Hemisphere to develop a writing system. Symbols found in 2002 and 2006 date from 650 BCE and 900 BCE respectively, preceding the oldest Zapotec writing found so far, which dates from about 500 BCE. The 2002 find at the San Andrés site shows a bird, speech scrolls, and glyphs that are similar to the later Maya script . Known as the Cascajal Block , and dated between 1100 and 900 BCE,

7420-457: The head is half the total volume of the figure. All Kunz axes have flat noses and an open mouth. The name "Kunz" comes from George Frederick Kunz , an American mineralogist , who described a figure in 1890. Olmec-style artifacts, designs, figurines, monuments and iconography have been found in the archaeological records of sites hundreds of kilometres outside the Olmec heartland. These sites include: Tlatilco and Tlapacoya , major centers of

7526-478: The head. Seventeen colossal heads have been unearthed to date. The heads range in size from the Rancho La Cobata head, at 3.4 m (11 ft) high, to the pair at Tres Zapotes, at 1.47 m (4 ft 10 in). Scholars calculate that the largest heads weigh between 25 and 55 tonnes (28 and 61 short tons). The heads were carved from single blocks or boulders of volcanic basalt , found in

7632-418: The highest part of "El Tecolote" hill, located at the south-eastern corner, consisting of a pyramid foundation built with stone slabs and stucco finishing. A symmetrical monument, not yet explored, is located at the north-east corner, at the other side of the ravine, natives know the place as "iglesias viejas". Huapalcalco has a 39 hectares extension, where more than 55 families currently live; within this area

7738-425: The immediate Maya homeland, it is likely that this calendar predated the Maya and was possibly the invention of the Olmecs. Indeed, three of these six artifacts were found within the Olmec heartland. But an argument against an Olmec origin is the fact that the Olmec civilization had ended by the 4th century BCE, several centuries before the earliest known Long Count date artifact. The Long Count calendar required

7844-495: The land (Las Casas, Mendieta, Veytia). Aztec rulers used the myth of the great founder of Tollan to help legitimize their claims to seats of power. They claimed that, as the direct descendants of the Priest-King, they had the right and duty to hold his place until the day Topiltzin would return. The myths would prove to have a lasting effect on the Aztec empire. They rationalized the mass sacrifices that were already destabilizing

7950-406: The lesser god from Tollan. During this time Quetzalcoatl and a few of his people visit many of the villages mentioned as well as others. In many of these villages he remained the chief god for centuries. Two endings exist: in one, Tezcatlipoca follows him into the desert and the smoke that rises from his dead body creates Venus. In the other, he simply flees to Tlapallan once again. This translation

8056-501: The man-god was that during the year "1 Acatl" or 947, and at the age of 53 he migrated to the Gulf coast Tlapallan where he took a canoe and burned himself. He dispelled the traditions of the past and ended all human sacrifice during his reign. The translations claim that he loved his people so much he insisted that they only meet the ancient standards of the gods; he had the Toltec offer them snakes, birds and other animals, but not humans, as sacrifices. To prove his penance, to atone for

8162-429: The most popular of which is Mixcōatl ("Cloud Serpent"), the god of war, fire, and the hunt, and presumably also an earlier Toltec king—Mesoamerican leaders and high-priests sometimes took the names of the deity who was their patron. His mother is at times unnamed, but Chimalman is the most accepted. There exist few accounts of Ce Acatl's early childhood. However, all information agrees that he proved his worth first as

8268-469: The municipality of Tulancingo, have been used for the construction of houses by people living around the site. This happened due to the evident negligence on the part of the National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH) state delegation. The archaeological site appeared to be forgotten and neglected without regular maintenance. This contributed to signs of vandalism in the area, putting

8374-628: The natives taking the Spanish conquerors for gods was an idea that went well with this theology. Some scholars still hold the view that the fall of the Aztec empire can in part be attributed to Moctezuma's belief in Cortés as the returning Quetzalcoatl, but most modern scholars see the "Quetzalcoatl/Cortés myth" as one of many myths about the Spanish conquest which originated in the early post-conquest period. The tales end with Topiltzin traveling across Mesoamerica founding small communities and giving all

8480-421: The next day. Somewhat unusual to this version is the epilogue of how Tollan does not find a leader for some years after. Tollan is later conquered and all the Toltecs are sacrificed. As mentioned before, this version is brief, most probably due to the Spaniards' inability to fully translate the text, or alternatively the lack of interest in relaying the story in its entirety. The second translations were written by

8586-430: The oppressed Aztec people, taxed and forced to wage war for sacrifices, hoped that these arrivals would bring a new era of peace and enlightenment (Carrasco 2000:145-152). Ultimately the Aztecs' rulers still lost their status and the Aztec people were not freed from oppression. As the Spanish conquered Mesoamerica they destroyed countless works concerning and pre-dating the Aztecs, and the story of Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl

8692-521: The priestly ruler became so important that subsequent rulers would claim direct descent from Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl in order to legitimize their monarchies. Once he left Tollan, the name was used by other elite figures to keep a line of succession and was also used by the Mexica to more easily rule over the Toltecs. According to the Florentine Codex , which was written under the direction of

8798-510: The prospect of Olmec military domination or that the Olmec iconography was actually developed outside the heartland. The generally accepted, but by no means unanimous, interpretation is that the Olmec-style artifacts, in all sizes, became associated with elite status and were adopted by non-Olmec Formative Period chieftains in an effort to bolster their status. In addition to their influence with contemporaneous Mesoamerican cultures , as

8904-489: The region and used for recreational and religious purposes. A dozen rubber balls dating to 1600 BCE or earlier have been found in El Manatí , a bog 10 km (6 mi) east of San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan. These balls predate the earliest ballcourt yet discovered at Paso de la Amada , c. 1400 BCE, although there is no certainty that they were used in the ballgame. While the actual ethno-linguistic affiliation of

9010-624: The relevant objects from the Amuco-Abelino site in Guerrero reveal dates as early as 1530 BCE . The city of Teopantecuanitlan in Guerrero is also relevant in this regard. The first Olmec center, San Lorenzo, was all but abandoned around 900 BCE at about the same time that La Venta rose to prominence. Widespread destruction of many San Lorenzo monuments also occurred around the 950s BCE, which may indicate an internal uprising or, less likely, an invasion. The latest thinking, however,

9116-461: The relocation of settlements due to volcanism, instead of extinction. Volcanic eruptions during the Early, Late and Terminal Formative periods would have blanketed the lands and forced the Olmec to move their settlements. Whatever the cause, within a few hundred years of the abandonment of the last Olmec cities, successor cultures became firmly established. The Tres Zapotes site, on the western edge of

9222-481: The riverine environment that the Olmec depended upon for agriculture, hunting and gathering, and transportation. These changes may have been triggered by tectonic upheavals or subsidence, or the siltation of rivers due to agricultural practices. One theory for the considerable population drop during the Terminal Formative period is suggested by Santley and colleagues (Santley et al. 1997), who propose

9328-565: The same as to those used in Teotihuacán culture, that is to say, they have Teotihuacán influence but are not of Teotihuacan origin. It is not known who constructed these monuments, it can only be said that it has a large Teotihuacan cultural influence and it had influence on other Gulf Coast cultures. The northwestern sector, perhaps the most important, was explored in 1954 by archaeologist Florencia Jacobs Müller and Cesar Lizardi Ramos. After nine expeditions, concluding in 1959, they discovered

9434-426: The state of Hidalgo. It is believed that it must have been a very important civil, religious and housing center. It is known that it was the second Toltec Empire , before Tula. The city was of olmeca-xicalanca origin, or the first settler tribes of the great central plateau of the mountain range. The meaning of such wooden building is not known, it was probably built when the ancient native people settled; perhaps it

9540-507: The symbolic and sophisticated luxury artifacts that define Olmec culture. Many of these luxury artifacts were made from materials such as jade , obsidian , and magnetite , which came from distant locations and suggest that early Olmec elites had access to an extensive trading network in Mesoamerica. The source of the most valued jade was the Motagua River valley in eastern Guatemala , and Olmec obsidian has been traced to sources in

9646-567: The tale is the same - Quetzalcoatl is a mage-god ruling Tollan with his knowledge and wisdom passed onto the Toltecs. In this version, Tollan resembles a utopia with beautiful buildings and flora where the people were content with every aspect of life. Tezcatlipoca come along and forces Quetzalcoatl out. Quetzalcoatl then transforms Tollan into a normal city. Along his travels, Quetzalcoatl and some of his followers are involved in many stories before they reach Tlapallan. Olmecs The Olmecs ( / ˈ ɒ l m ɛ k s , ˈ oʊ l -/ ) were

9752-519: The transportation network provided by the Coatzacoalcos river basin. This environment may be compared to that of other ancient centers of civilization such as the Nile , Indus , Yellow River and Mesopotamia . This highly productive environment encouraged a densely concentrated population, which in turn triggered the rise of an elite class. The elite class created the demand for the production of

9858-445: The unique "Olmec-style" in a variety of artifacts. Curators and scholars refer to "Olmec-style" face masks but, to date, no example has been recovered in an archaeologically controlled Olmec context. They have been recovered from sites of other cultures, including one deliberately deposited in the ceremonial altepetl (precinct) of Tenochtitlan in what is now Mexico City . The mask would presumably have been about 2000 years old when

9964-417: The unknown mother, who dies after giving birth to Ce Acatl. Once Ce Acatl emerges from manhood, he spends seven years upon the mountains offering penance (for his sins) to the gods and performs ritual bloodletting asking the gods to make him a great warrior—ritual bloodletting by rulers was long a feature of Mesoamerican religions. Once this time passes, he begins to wage war and becomes the leader of Tollan and

10070-447: The use of zero as a place-holder within its vigesimal (base-20) positional numeral system. A shell glyph – [REDACTED] – was used as a zero symbol for these Long Count dates, the second oldest of which, on Stela C at Tres Zapotes , has a date of 32 BCE. This is one of the earliest uses of the zero concept in history. The Olmec are strong candidates for originating the Mesoamerican ballgame so prevalent among later cultures of

10176-529: The valley. It's not until the gradual transition into the archaic period (8000 – 2000 BCE) that we start to see the first human settlements developing in Mesoamerica along with the development of agriculture. The Pre-classical, or Formative Stage , sees the emergence of the first civilization, the Olmecs lasting between (2000 BCE - 250 CE). During the Classical period (250-900 CE) Tulancingo becomes an important trade center, with roads and residential areas. It

10282-619: Was a building destined as a Telpochcalli, for military training, justice administration, or learning dances or music. Men passed through the Bering Straits 40 thousand years, 30 thousand years ago, men reached the Mexican plains and about 13 thousand years ago, men reached Huapalcalco in Hidalgo, where vestiges have been located that date back to that period. Huapalcalco is a mesoamerican classical period (100 to 650 CE), formed part of

10388-408: Was almost lost. Only relatively recently have accurate translations of much of the information about Topiltzin been made available. Unfortunately, even the comparatively complete accounts are but a portion of the story. Much of the information varies from region to region and has changed through the course of time (as myths are apt to do). Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl is usually seen with a plumed headpiece,

10494-485: Was an Ethiopian hair style, but he offered no evidence it was a contemporary style. The Egyptologist Frank J. Yurco has said that the Olmec braids do not resemble contemporary Egyptian or Nubian braids. Richard Diehl wrote "There can be no doubt that the heads depict the American Indian physical type still seen on the streets of Soteapan, Acayucan, and other towns in the region." Another type of artifact

10600-584: Was barely visible. As of a visit in January, 2014, the road to the site is marked visibly with blue INAH signs and there are staff onsite to assist visitors. Ce Acatl Topiltzin Cē Ācatl Topiltzin Quetzalcōātl [seː ˈaːkat͡ɬ toˈpilt͡sin ket͡salˈkoːʷaːt͡ɬ] ( Our Prince One-Reed Precious Serpent ) (c. 895–947) is a mythologised figure appearing in 16th-century accounts of Nahua historical traditions, where he

10706-529: Was done by a Franciscan friar who compiled from native informants an extensive set of texts—collectively known as the Florentine Codex —involving the Mesoamerican pantheon. The lengthy Spanish-language version, Historia general de las cosas de Nueva España by Fray Bernardino de Sahagún , gives a unique look at Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl and his subjects' lifestyle. The core structure of

10812-533: Was found, according to carbon 14 tests made, this man lived here 10 thousand years ago. The remains are kept in the National Museum of Anthropology and History of Mexico City, in the Prehistoric Room. Vandals destroyed the Huapalcalco archaeological zone, considered one of Tulancingo cultural patrimonies. Stones originating from the pre-Hispanic ruins of the Huapalcalco archaeological zone, in

10918-473: Was later named the Historia de los Mexicanos por sus pinturas . This version was copied from a pre-Hispanic text around 1531 and could possibly be the oldest recreation of the codices . It is also considered to be the briefest translation. In this version, the deeds of Quetzalcoatl's (here named Ce Acatl) father, the war god Mixcoatl (here named Camaxtli ), are highlighted. It explains how Mixcoatl meets

11024-402: Was punished by the Gods, the punishment was imposed because their people were not able to defend it against invaders and were conquered by other civilizations, they constructed buildings over their structures. The Gods were angry by such a situation, hence they completely buried the city, a city that was very expansive, covering an area about 10 km, which would include the area of what today

11130-543: Was refounded by these people and the remaining Toltecs. The population increased with the arrival of the Tlaxcaltecas . In 1324, a king named Quinantzin, reorganized the area politically, making Tulancingo the head of a province. Tulancingo marched against Texcoco , but was defeated. In the early 15th century, this same Texcoco, under Huitzilihuit, conquered Tulancingo, putting it within the Aztec Empire . In 1431,

11236-453: Was the largest Mesoamerican structure of its time. Even today, after 2500 years of erosion, it rises 34 m (112 ft) above the naturally flat landscape. Buried deep within La Venta lay opulent, labor-intensive "offerings" – 1000 tons of smooth serpentine blocks, large mosaic pavements, and at least 48 separate votive offerings of polished jade celts , pottery, figurines, and hematite mirrors . Scholars have yet to determine

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