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70-683: The spring used the locally-occurring geothermal heating and features a long documented history of almost three millennia, having served as the location for several palaces built during the reigns of past Chinese dynastic rulers, including King You of the Zhou dynasty , Qin Shi Huang of the Qin dynasty , and an expanded version by Wu Han of the Han dynasty . Under the Tang emperors Taizong and Xuanzong , with

140-462: A 20% failure rate. In total, electrical station construction and well drilling costs about 2–5 million € per MW of electrical capacity, while the levelised energy cost is 0.04–0.10 € per kW·h. Enhanced geothermal systems tend to be on the high side of these ranges, with capital costs above $ 4 million per MW and levelized costs above $ 0.054 per kW·h in 2007. Research suggests in-reservoir storage could increase

210-409: A building than if electricity alone had been used directly for heating. Switching the direction of heat flow, the same system can be used to circulate the cooled water through the house for cooling in the summer months. The heat is exhausted to the relatively cooler ground (or groundwater) rather than delivering it to the hot outside air as an air conditioner does. As a result, the heat is pumped across

280-420: A carrier fluid (usually a mixture of water and small amounts of antifreeze) through closed pipe loops buried in the ground. Single-home systems can be "vertical loop field" systems with bore holes 50–400 feet (15–120 m) deep or, if adequate land is available for extensive trenches, a "horizontal loop field" is installed approximately six feet subsurface. As the fluid circulates underground it absorbs heat from

350-531: A coal-fired power plant emits 1,001 kg of CO 2 equivalent per megawatt-hour when not coupled with carbon capture and storage (CCS). As many geothermal projects are situated in volcanically active areas that naturally emit greenhouse gases, it is hypothesized that geothermal plants may actually decrease the rate of de-gassing by reducing the pressure on underground reservoirs. Stations that experience high levels of acids and volatile chemicals are usually equipped with emission-control systems to reduce

420-475: A cold spring day, he bestowed upon her the honor of bathing with him at the Huaqing pools, The waters of the hot springs were smooth, and washed over her pale white skin. The palace maids helped her to leave the pool, because she was too delicate and lacked strength. This was when she began to receive the emperor's advances. This site was also the scene of the 1936 Xi'an Incident , when Chiang Kai-shek

490-620: A combination of these. This circulation sometimes exists naturally where the crust is thin: magma conduits bring heat close to the surface, and hot springs bring the heat to the surface. If a hot spring is not available, a well must be drilled into a hot aquifer . Away from tectonic plate boundaries the geothermal gradient is 25–30 °C per kilometre (km) of depth in most of the world, so wells would have to be several kilometres deep to permit electricity generation. The quantity and quality of recoverable resources improves with drilling depth and proximity to tectonic plate boundaries. In ground that

560-419: A generator, thereby producing electricity. The fluid is then cooled and returned to the heat source. Dry steam stations are the simplest and oldest design. There are few power stations of this type, because they require a resource that produces dry steam , but they are the most efficient, with the simplest facilities. At these sites, there may be liquid water present in the reservoir, but only steam, not water,

630-490: A larger temperature difference and this leads to higher efficiency and lower energy use. This technology makes ground source heating economically viable in any geographical location. In 2004, an estimated million ground-source heat pumps with a total capacity of 15 GW extracted 88 PJ of heat energy for space heating. Global ground-source heat pump capacity is growing by 10% annually. Hot springs have been used for bathing at least since Paleolithic times. The oldest known spa

700-412: A source of renewable energy for both power and heating, geothermal has the potential to meet 3 to 5% of global demand by 2050. With economic incentives , it is estimated that by 2100 it will be possible to meet 10% of global demand with geothermal power. In the 20th century, demand for electricity led to the consideration of geothermal power as a generating source. Prince Piero Ginori Conti tested

770-600: A source of renewable energy. In 1960, Pacific Gas and Electric began operation of the first successful geothermal electric power station in the United States at The Geysers in California. The original turbine lasted for more than 30 years and produced 11  MW net power. An organic fluid based binary cycle power station was first demonstrated in 1967 in the Soviet Union and later introduced to

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840-485: A total capacity of approximately 4.9 GWth. Some parts of the world, including substantial portions of the western USA, are underlain by relatively shallow geothermal resources. Similar conditions exist in Iceland, parts of Japan, and other geothermal hot spots around the world. In these areas, water or steam may be captured from natural hot springs and piped directly into radiators or heat exchangers . Alternatively,

910-629: Is a stone pool on China 's Mount Li built in the Qin dynasty in the 3rd century BC, at the same site where the Huaqing Chi palace was later built. Geothermal energy supplied channeled district heating for baths and houses in Pompeii around 0 AD. In the first century AD, Romans conquered Aquae Sulis in England and used the hot springs there to feed public baths and underfloor heating . The admission fees for these baths probably represents

980-521: Is considered to be sustainable because the heat extraction is small compared to the Earth's heat content, but extraction must still be monitored to avoid local depletion. Although geothermal sites are capable of providing heat for many decades, individual wells may cool down or run out of water. The three oldest sites, at Larderello, Wairakei , and the Geysers have all reduced production from their peaks. It

1050-534: Is currently used in 26 countries, while geothermal heating is in use in 70 countries. As of 2019, worldwide geothermal power capacity amounts to 15.4 gigawatts (GW), of which 23.9% (3.68 GW) are installed in the United States . International markets grew at an average annual rate of 5 percent over the three years to 2015, and global geothermal power capacity is expected to reach 14.5–17.6 GW by 2020. Based on current geologic knowledge and technology

1120-697: Is hot but dry, or where water pressure is inadequate, injected fluid can stimulate production. Developers bore two holes into a candidate site, and fracture the rock between them with explosives or high-pressure water . Then they pump water or liquefied carbon dioxide down one borehole, and it comes up the other borehole as a gas. This approach is called hot dry rock geothermal energy in Europe, or enhanced geothermal systems in North America. Much greater potential may be available from this approach than from conventional tapping of natural aquifers. Estimates of

1190-423: Is not clear whether these stations extracted energy faster than it was replenished from greater depths, or whether the aquifers supplying them are being depleted. If production is reduced, and water is reinjected, these wells could theoretically recover their full potential. Such mitigation strategies have already been implemented at some sites. The long-term sustainability of geothermal energy has been demonstrated at

1260-526: Is now possible in the petroleum industry, although it is an expensive process. The deepest research well in the world, the Kola Superdeep Borehole (KSDB-3), is 12.261 km (7.619 mi) deep. Wells drilled to depths greater than 4 km (2.5 mi) generally incur drilling costs in the tens of millions of dollars. The technological challenges are to drill wide bores at low cost and to break larger volumes of rock. Geothermal power

1330-492: Is often distributed to multiple buildings, sometimes whole communities. This technique, long practiced throughout the world in locations such as Reykjavík , Iceland ; Boise , Idaho ; and Klamath Falls , Oregon ; is known as district heating . In Europe alone 280 geothermal district heating plants were in operation in 2016 according to the European Geothermal Energy Council (EGEC) with

1400-679: Is passed by a secondary fluid with a much lower boiling point than water. This causes the secondary fluid to flash vaporize, which then drives the turbines. This is the most common type of geothermal electricity station being constructed today. Both Organic Rankine and Kalina cycles are used. The thermal efficiency of this type of station is typically about 10–13%. Binary cycle power plants have an average unit capacity of 6.3 MW, 30.4 MW at single-flash power plants, 37.4 MW at double-flash plants, and 45.4 MW at power plants working on superheated steam. The International Renewable Energy Agency has reported that 14,438 megawatts (MW) of geothermal power

1470-474: Is possible as a result of the work of the geothermal circulation systems. However, according to an estimation given by Leningrad Mining Institute in 1980s, possible cool-down will be negligible compared to natural climate fluctuations. While volcanic activity produces geothermal energy, it is also risky. As of 2022 the Puna Geothermal Venture has still not returned to full capacity after

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1540-509: Is produced to the surface. Dry steam power directly uses geothermal steam of 150 °C or greater to turn turbines. As the turbine rotates it powers a generator that produces electricity and adds to the power field. Then, the steam is emitted to a condenser, where it turns back into a liquid, which then cools the water. After the water is cooled it flows down a pipe that conducts the condensate back into deep wells, where it can be reheated and produced again. At The Geysers in California, after

1610-515: Is too diffuse (approximately 0.1 W/m on average) to be recoverable. The Earth's crust effectively acts as a thick insulating blanket which must be pierced by fluid conduits (of magma , water or other) to release the heat underneath. Electricity generation requires high-temperature resources that can only come from deep underground. The heat must be carried to the surface by fluid circulation, either through magma conduits , hot springs , hydrothermal circulation , oil wells , drilled water wells, or

1680-699: Is uniquely suited for geothermal power production. Japan has numerous hot springs that could provide fuel for geothermal power plants, but a massive investment in Japan's infrastructure would be necessary. The largest group of geothermal power plants in the world is located at The Geysers , a geothermal field in California , United States . As of 2021, five countries ( Kenya , Iceland , El Salvador , New Zealand , and Nicaragua) generate more than 15% of their electricity from geothermal sources. The following table lists these data for each country: Data are for

1750-453: The 2018 lower Puna eruption . Geothermal power requires no fuel; it is therefore immune to fuel cost fluctuations. However, capital costs tend to be high. Drilling accounts for over half the costs, and exploration of deep resources entails significant risks. A typical well doublet in Nevada can support 4.5 megawatts (MW) of electricity generation and costs about $ 10 million to drill, with

1820-756: The Geothermal Energy Association (GEA) publicly discloses, the GEA estimates that only 6.9% of total global potential has been tapped so far, while the IPCC reported geothermal power potential to be in the range of 35 GW to 2  TW . Countries generating more than 15 percent of their electricity from geothermal sources include El Salvador , Kenya , the Philippines , Iceland , New Zealand , and Costa Rica . Indonesia has an estimated potential of 29 GW of geothermal energy resources,

1890-597: The United Kingdom , and the United States of America . The thermal efficiency of geothermal electric stations is low, around 7–10%, because geothermal fluids are at a low temperature compared with steam from boilers. By the laws of thermodynamics this low temperature limits the efficiency of heat engines in extracting useful energy during the generation of electricity. Exhaust heat is wasted, unless it can be used directly and locally, for example in greenhouses, timber mills, and district heating. The efficiency of

1960-402: The heat pump in 1852, and Heinrich Zoelly had patented the idea of using it to draw heat from the ground in 1912. But it was not until the late 1940s that the geothermal heat pump was successfully implemented. The earliest one was probably Robert C. Webber's home-made 2.2 kW direct-exchange system, but sources disagree as to the exact timeline of his invention. J. Donald Kroeker designed

2030-633: The Larderello field in Italy since 1913, at the Wairakei field in New Zealand since 1958, and at the Geysers field in California since 1960. Geothermal power stations are similar to other steam turbine thermal power stations in that heat from a fuel source (in geothermal's case, the Earth's core) is used to heat water or another working fluid . The working fluid is then used to turn a turbine of

2100-473: The Paleolithic era. Approximately seventy countries made direct use of a total of 270 PJ of geothermal heating in 2004. As of 2007, 28 GW of geothermal heating capacity is installed around the world, satisfying 0.07% of global primary energy consumption. Thermal efficiency is high since no energy conversion is needed, but capacity factors tend to be low (around 20%) since the heat is mostly needed in

2170-854: The US and 27,000 in Sweden. Geothermal energy is a type of renewable energy that encourages conservation of natural resources. According to the US Environmental Protection Agency , geo-exchange systems save homeowners 30–70 percent in heating costs, and 20–50 percent in cooling costs, compared to conventional systems. Geo-exchange systems also save money because they require much less maintenance. In addition to being highly reliable they are built to last for decades. Some utilities, such as Kansas City Power and Light , offer special, lower winter rates for geothermal customers, offering even more savings. In geothermal heating projects

Huaqing Pool - Misplaced Pages Continue

2240-559: The United States in 1981 , following the 1970s energy crisis and significant changes in regulatory policies. This technology allows the use of temperature resources as low as 81 °C. In 2006, a binary cycle station in Chena Hot Springs, Alaska , came on-line, producing electricity from a record low fluid temperature of 57 °C (135 °F). Geothermal electric stations have until recently been built exclusively where high-temperature geothermal resources are available near

2310-457: The building. Heat can be extracted from any source, no matter how cold, but a warmer source allows higher efficiency. A ground-source heat pump uses the shallow ground or ground water (typically starting at 10–12 °C or 50–54 °F) as a source of heat, thus taking advantage of its seasonally moderate temperatures. In contrast, an air source heat pump draws heat from the air (colder outside air) and thus requires more energy. GSHPs circulate

2380-585: The case of landslide-prone areas, worsening of rocky mechanical characteristics, soil and water pollution (i.e. due to antifreeze additives or polluting constructive and boring material). The design defined on the base of site-specific geological, hydrogeological and environmental knowledge prevent all these potential risks. Geothermal power Geothermal power is electrical power generated from geothermal energy . Technologies in use include dry steam power stations, flash steam power stations and binary cycle power stations. Geothermal electricity generation

2450-472: The city center, affecting numerous historic houses including the town hall. It is hypothesized that the drilling perforated an anhydrite layer bringing high-pressure groundwater to come into contact with the anhydrite, which then began to expand. Currently no end to the rising process is in sight. Data from the TerraSAR-X radar satellite before and after the changes confirmed the localised nature of

2520-579: The creation of 100 GW of electrical generating capacity by 2050 in the United States alone. The MIT report estimated that over 200 × 10  TJ (200 ZJ; 5.6 × 10  TWh) would be extractable, with the potential to increase this to over 2,000 ZJ with technology improvements – sufficient to provide all the world's present energy needs for several millennia . At present, geothermal wells are rarely more than 3 km (1.9 mi) deep. Upper estimates of geothermal resources assume wells as deep as 10 km (6.2 mi). Drilling near this depth

2590-405: The economic viability of enhanced geothermal systems in energy systems with a large share of variable renewable energy sources. Geothermal power is highly scalable: a small power station can supply a rural village, though initial capital costs can be high. The most developed geothermal field is the Geysers in California. In 2008, this field supported 15 stations, all owned by Calpine , with

2660-542: The electricity generating potential of geothermal energy vary from 35 to 2000 GW depending on the scale of investments. This does not include non-electric heat recovered by co-generation, geothermal heat pumps and other direct use. A 2006 report by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) that included the potential of enhanced geothermal systems estimated that investing US$ 1 billion in research and development over 15 years would allow

2730-744: The exhaust. Geothermal stations can also inject these gases back into the earth as a form of carbon capture and storage, such as in New Zealand and in the CarbFix project in Iceland. Other stations like the Kızıldere geothermal power plant , exhibit the capability to utilize geothermal fluids to process carbon dioxide gas into dry ice at two nearby plants resulting in very little environmental impact. In addition to dissolved gases, hot water from geothermal sources may hold in solution trace amounts of toxic chemicals, such as mercury , arsenic , boron , antimony , and salt. These chemicals come out of solution as

2800-400: The first 30 years of power production, the steam supply had depleted and generation was substantially reduced. To restore some of the former capacity, supplemental water injection was developed during the 1990s and 2000s, including utilization of effluent from nearby municipal sewage treatment facilities. Flash steam stations pull deep, high-pressure hot water into lower-pressure tanks and use

2870-521: The first commercial geothermal heat pump to heat the Commonwealth Building (Portland, Oregon) and demonstrated it in 1946. Professor Carl Nielsen of Ohio State University built the first residential open loop version in his home in 1948. The technology became popular in Sweden as a result of the 1973 oil crisis , and has been growing slowly in worldwide acceptance since then. The 1979 development of polybutylene pipe greatly augmented

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2940-740: The first commercial use of geothermal power. A 1,000-year-old hot tub has been located in Iceland , where it was built by one of the island's original settlers. The world's oldest working geothermal district heating system in Chaudes-Aigues , France, has been operating since the 14th century. The earliest industrial exploitation began in 1827 with the use of geyser steam to extract boric acid from volcanic mud in Larderello , Italy. In 1892, America's first district heating system in Boise, Idaho ,

3010-469: The first geothermal power generator on 4 July 1904 in Larderello, Italy . It successfully lit four light bulbs. Later, in 1911, the world's first commercial geothermal power station was built there. Experimental generators were built in Beppu, Japan and the Geysers, California , in the 1920s, but Italy was the world's only industrial producer of geothermal electricity until 1958. In 1958, New Zealand became

3080-407: The form of hot fluids between 50 °C (122 °F) and 150 °C (302 °F). The suitable temperature varies for the different applications. For direct use of geothermal heat, the temperature range for the agricultural sector lies between 25 °C (77 °F) and 90 °C (194 °F), for space heating lies between 50 °C (122 °F) to 100 °C (212 °F). Heat pipes extend

3150-425: The global average capacity factor was 74.5% in 2008, according to the IPCC . The Earth's heat content is about 1 × 10  TJ (2.8 × 10  TWh) . This heat naturally flows to the surface by conduction at a rate of 44.2 TW and is replenished by radioactive decay at a rate of 30 TW. These power rates are more than double humanity's current energy consumption from primary sources, but most of this power

3220-435: The ground and, on its return, the warmed fluid passes through the heat pump which uses electricity to extract heat from the fluid. The re-chilled fluid is sent back into the ground thus continuing the cycle. The heat extracted and that generated by the heat pump appliance as a byproduct is used to heat the house. The addition of the ground heating loop in the energy equation means that significantly more heat can be transferred to

3290-413: The ground. Steam under pressure from deep geothermal resources is also used to generate electricity from geothermal power. The Iceland Deep Drilling Project struck a pocket of magma at 2,100m. A cemented steelcase was constructed in the hole with a perforation at the bottom close to the magma. The high temperatures and pressure of the magma steam were used to generate 36MW of electricity, making IDDP-1

3360-476: The heat may come from waste heat supplied by co-generation from a geothermal electrical plant or from deep wells into hot aquifers. Direct geothermal heating is far more efficient than geothermal electricity generation and has less demanding temperature requirements, so it is viable over a large geographical range. If the shallow ground is hot but dry, air or water may be circulated through earth tubes or downhole heat exchangers which act as heat exchangers with

3430-533: The heat pump's economic viability. Since 2000, a compelling body of research has been dedicated to numerically evidence the advantages and efficiency of using CO2, alternative to water, as heat transmission fluid for geothermal energy recovery from enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) where the permeability of the underground source is enhanced by hydrofracturing. As of 2004, there are over one million geothermal heat pumps installed worldwide providing 12 GW of thermal capacity. Each year, about 80,000 units are installed in

3500-407: The hot water is transformed into steam. The steam is then separated from the water and used to power a turbine/generator. Any leftover water and condensed steam may be injected back into the reservoir, making this a potentially sustainable resource. Binary cycle power stations are the most recent development, and can accept fluid temperatures as low as 57 °C. The moderately hot geothermal water

3570-495: The largest in the world; in 2017, its installed capacity was 1.8 GW. Geothermal power is considered to be a sustainable , renewable source of energy because the heat extraction is small compared with the Earth's heat content . The greenhouse gas emissions of geothermal electric stations average 45 grams of carbon dioxide per kilowatt-hour of electricity, or less than 5% of those of conventional coal-fired plants. As

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3640-755: The latter had the structure rebuilt in 723 as part of the Huaqing Palace ( 華清宮 ), and is famous as the supposed scene of Xuanzong's romance with his consort Yang Guifei . However, during the events associated with the An Lushan rebellion , considerable damage was done to the site. Nevertheless, the historical legacy of the Huaqing pools has received lasting commemoration, such as in the following mention of Emperor Xuanzong and Yang in Bai Juyi 's poem Song of Everlasting Regret : ” 春寒賜浴華清池，温泉水滑洗凝脂。 侍兒扶起嬌無力，始是新承恩澤時。 “ — 《長恨歌》 ( Chang hen ge ) On

3710-772: The publicly owned electricity sector in India announced a plan to develop the country's first geothermal power facility in the landlocked state of Chhattisgarh . Geothermal power in Canada has high potential due to its position on the Pacific Ring of Fire . The region of greatest potential is the Canadian Cordillera , stretching from British Columbia to the Yukon , where estimates of generating output have ranged from 1,550 MW to 5,000 MW. The geography of Japan

3780-420: The resulting flashed steam to drive turbines. They require fluid temperatures of at least 180 °C, usually more. This is the most common type of station in operation today. Flash steam plants use geothermal reservoirs of water with temperatures greater than 360 °F (182 °C). The hot water flows up through wells in the ground under its own pressure. As it flows upward, the pressure decreases and some of

3850-404: The second major industrial producer of geothermal electricity when its Wairakei station was commissioned. Wairakei was the first station to use flash steam technology. Over the past 60 years, net fluid production has been in excess of 2.5km . Subsidence at Wairakei-Tauhara has been an issue in a number of formal hearings related to environmental consents for expanded development of the system as

3920-571: The situation: A geochemical process called anhydrite swelling has been confirmed as the cause of these uplifts . This is a transformation of the mineral anhydrite (anhydrous calcium sulphate) into gypsum (hydrous calcium sulphate). A pre-condition for this transformation is that the anhydrite is in contact with water, which is then stored in its crystalline structure. There are other sources of potential risks, i.e.: cave enlargement or worsening of stability conditions, quality or quantity degradation of groundwater resources, Specific hazard worsening in

3990-626: The surface. The development of binary cycle power plants and improvements in drilling and extraction technology may enable enhanced geothermal systems over a much greater geographical range. Demonstration projects are operational in Landau-Pfalz , Germany, and Soultz-sous-Forêts , France, while an earlier effort in Basel , Switzerland was shut down after it triggered earthquakes. Other demonstration projects are under construction in Australia ,

4060-493: The system does not affect operational costs as it would for a coal or other fossil fuel plant, but it does factor into the viability of the station. In order to produce more energy than the pumps consume, electricity generation requires high-temperature geothermal fields and specialized heat cycles. Because geothermal power does not rely on variable sources of energy, unlike, for example, wind or solar, its capacity factor can be quite large – up to 96% has been demonstrated. However

4130-453: The target temperature of the application. However, even cold ground contains heat. Below 6 metres (20 ft), the undisturbed ground temperature is consistently at the mean annual air temperature, and this heat can be extracted with a ground source heat pump . There are a wide variety of applications for cheap geothermal heat including heating of houses, greenhouses, bathing and swimming or industrial uses. Most applications use geothermal in

4200-691: The temperature range down to 5 °C (41 °F) as they extract and "amplify" the heat. Geothermal heat exceeding 150 °C (302 °F) is typically used for geothermal power generation. In 2004 more than half of direct geothermal heat was used for space heating, and a third was used for spas. The remainder was used for a variety of industrial processes, desalination, domestic hot water, and agricultural applications. The cities of Reykjavík and Akureyri pipe hot water from geothermal plants under roads and pavements to melt snow. Geothermal desalination has been demonstrated. Geothermal systems tend to benefit from economies of scale , so space heating power

4270-483: The underground is penetrated by trenches or drillholes. As with all underground work, projects may cause problems if the geology of the area is poorly understood. In the spring of 2007 an exploratory geothermal drilling operation was conducted to provide geothermal heat to the town hall of Staufen im Breisgau . After initially sinking a few millimeters, a process called subsidence , the city center has started to rise gradually causing considerable damage to buildings in

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4340-516: The water cools, and can cause environmental damage if released. The modern practice of injecting geothermal fluids back into the Earth to stimulate production has the side benefit of reducing this environmental risk. Station construction can adversely affect land stability. Subsidence has occurred in the Wairakei field in New Zealand. Enhanced geothermal systems can trigger earthquakes due to water injection. The project in Basel , Switzerland

4410-460: The winter. Geothermal energy originates from the heat retained within the Earth since the original formation of the planet, from radioactive decay of minerals, and from solar energy absorbed at the surface. Most high temperature geothermal heat is harvested in regions close to tectonic plate boundaries where volcanic activity rises close to the surface of the Earth. In these areas, ground and groundwater can be found with temperatures higher than

4480-546: The world's first magma-enhanced geothermal system. In areas where the shallow ground is too cold to provide comfort directly, it is still warmer than the winter air. The thermal inertia of the shallow ground retains solar energy accumulated in the summertime, and seasonal variations in ground temperature disappear completely below 10m of depth. That heat can be extracted with a geothermal heat pump more efficiently than it can be generated by conventional furnaces. Geothermal heat pumps are economically viable essentially anywhere in

4550-406: The world. In theory, geothermal energy (usually cooling) can also be extracted from existing infrastructure, such as municipal water pipes. In regions without any high temperature geothermal resources, a ground-source heat pump (GSHP) can provide space heating and space cooling. Like a refrigerator or air conditioner, these systems use a heat pump to force the transfer of heat from the ground to

4620-544: The year 2021. Data are sourced from the EIA . Only includes countries with more than 0.01 TWh of generation. Links for each location go to the relevant geothermal power page, when available. Existing geothermal electric stations, that fall within the 50th percentile of all total life cycle emissions studies reviewed by the IPCC , produce on average 45 kg of CO 2 equivalent emissions per megawatt-hour of generated electricity (kg CO 2 eq/ MW·h ). For comparison,

4690-667: Was kidnapped by former warlord Zhang Xueliang and forced to participate in a United Front with the Chinese Communist Party to oppose Japanese encroachment on China. Huaqing Pool is currently an important tourist spot, classified as a AAAAA scenic area by the China National Tourism Administration . Geothermal heating Geothermal heating is the direct use of geothermal energy for some heating applications. Humans have taken advantage of geothermal heat this way since

4760-556: Was online worldwide at the end of 2020, generating 94,949 GWh of electricity. In theory, the world's geothermal resources are sufficient to supply humans with energy. However, only a tiny fraction of the world's geothermal resources can at present be explored on a profitable basis. Al Gore said in The Climate Project Asia Pacific Summit that Indonesia could become a super power country in electricity production from geothermal energy. In 2013

4830-597: Was powered directly by geothermal energy, and was soon copied in Klamath Falls, Oregon in 1900. A deep geothermal well was used to heat greenhouses in Boise in 1926, and geysers were used to heat greenhouses in Iceland and Tuscany at about the same time. Charlie Lieb developed the first downhole heat exchanger in 1930 to heat his house. Steam and hot water from the geysers began to be used to heat homes in Iceland in 1943. By this time, Lord Kelvin had already invented

4900-729: Was suspended because more than 10,000 seismic events measuring up to 3.4 on the Richter Scale occurred over the first 6 days of water injection. The risk of geothermal drilling leading to uplift has been experienced in Staufen im Breisgau . Geothermal has minimal land and freshwater requirements. Geothermal stations use 404 square meters per  GW·h versus 3,632 and 1,335 square meters for coal facilities and wind farms respectively. They use 20 litres of freshwater per MW·h versus over 1000 litres per MW·h for nuclear, coal, or oil. Local climate cooling

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