189-472: Hugo Grotius ( / ˈ ɡ r oʊ ʃ i ə s / GROH -shee-əss ; 10 April 1583 – 28 August 1645), also known as Hugo de Groot ( Dutch: [ˈɦyɣoː də ˈɣroːt] ) or Huig de Groot ( Dutch: [ˈɦœyɣ də ˈɣroːt] ), was a Dutch humanist , diplomat, lawyer, theologian , jurist, statesman, poet and playwright. A teenage prodigy, he was born in Delft and studied at Leiden University . He
378-897: A Christian further popularized humanist ideas. In 1963, the British Humanist Association evolved out of the Ethical Union, and merged with many smaller ethical and rationalist groups. Elsewhere in Europe, humanist organizations also flourished. In the Netherlands, the Dutch Humanist Alliance gained a wide base of support after World War II; in Norway, the Norwegian Humanist Association gained popular support. In
567-470: A Circle . The actual value is approximately 1.7320508, making this a very accurate estimate. He introduced this result without offering any explanation of how he had obtained it. This aspect of the work of Archimedes caused John Wallis to remark that he was: "as it were of set purpose to have covered up the traces of his investigation as if he had grudged posterity the secret of his method of inquiry while he wished to extort from them assent to his results." It
756-405: A Greek myth in which the absurd hero Sisyphus is destined to push a heavy rock up a hill; the rock slips back and he must repeat the task. Sisyphus is negating Gods and preset meanings of life, but argues that life has value and significance, and that each individual is able to create their meanings of life. Camus thus highlights the importance of personal agency and self-determination that lie at
945-441: A ball into a container after each mile traveled. As legend has it, Archimedes arranged mirrors as a parabolic reflector to burn ships attacking Syracuse using focused sunlight. While there is no extant contemporary evidence of this feat and modern scholars believe it did not happen, Archimedes may have written a work on mirrors entitled Catoptrica , and Lucian and Galen , writing in the second century AD, mentioned that during
1134-528: A book." The work is twenty-seven pages long, is "polemical and acrimonious" and only two-thirds of it speaks directly about ecclesiastical politics (mainly of synods and offices). The work met with a violent reaction from the Counter-Remonstrants, and "It might be said that all Grotius' next works until his arrest in 1618 form a vain attempt to repair the damage done by this book." Grotius would later write De Satisfactione aiming "at proving that
1323-477: A circle , the surface area and volume of a sphere , the area of an ellipse , the area under a parabola , the volume of a segment of a paraboloid of revolution , the volume of a segment of a hyperboloid of revolution , and the area of a spiral . Archimedes' other mathematical achievements include deriving an approximation of pi ( π ) , defining and investigating the Archimedean spiral , and devising
1512-497: A circle. After four such steps, when the polygons had 96 sides each, he was able to determine that the value of π lay between 3 1 / 7 (approx. 3.1429) and 3 10 / 71 (approx. 3.1408), consistent with its actual value of approximately 3.1416. He also proved that the area of a circle was equal to π multiplied by the square of the radius of the circle ( π r 2 {\displaystyle \pi r^{2}} ). In On
1701-426: A concern for humans in relation to the world. Humanists tend to advocate for human rights, free speech, progressive policies, and democracy. Starting in the 20th century, some humanist movements are non-religious and aligned with secularism . Most frequently in contemporary usage, humanism refers to a non-theistic view centered on human agency, and a reliance only on science and reason rather than revelation from
1890-419: A copy out of friendship. This was a work "on the relationship between ecclesiastical and secular government" from the moderate counter-remonstrant viewpoint. In early 1616, Grotius also received the 36-page letter championing a remonstrant view Dissertatio epistolica de Iure magistratus in rebus ecclesiasticis from his friend Gerardus Vossius . The letter was "a general introduction on (in)tolerance, mainly on
2079-509: A divine source to understand the world. Non-theistic humanist worldview maintain religion is not a precondition of morality, and object to excessive religious entanglement with education and the state. Contemporary humanist organizations work under the umbrella of Humanists International . Well-known humanist associations include Humanists UK and the American Humanist Association . The word "humanism" derives from
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#17327733316532268-454: A few religious doctrines to also identify as a humanist. Copson adds that religious critics usually frame humanism as an enemy of religion but most humanists are proponents of religious tolerance or exhibit a curiosity about religion's effects in society and politics, commenting: "Only a few are regularly outraged by other people's false beliefs per se ". In the 19th century, along with the decline of religion and its accompanied teleology ,
2457-626: A letter to Lubbertus) declared Grotius' ideas diabolical. In 1621, with the help of his wife and his maidservant, Elsje van Houwening , Grotius managed to escape the castle in a book chest and fled to Paris . In the Netherlands today, he is mainly famous for this daring escape. Both the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam and the museum Het Prinsenhof in Delft claim to have the original book chest in their collection. Grotius then fled to Paris , where
2646-408: A line which rotates with constant angular velocity . Equivalently, in modern polar coordinates ( r , θ ), it can be described by the equation r = a + b θ {\displaystyle \,r=a+b\theta } with real numbers a and b . This is an early example of a mechanical curve (a curve traced by a moving point ) considered by a Greek mathematician. This
2835-552: A loaded Portuguese carrack merchant ship, Santa Catarina , off present-day Singapore in 1603. Heemskerk was employed with the United Amsterdam Company (part of the Dutch East India Company ), and though he did not have authorization from the company or the government to initiate the use of force, many shareholders were eager to accept the riches that he brought back to them. Not only was
3024-435: A mischaracterization. Archimedes was able to use indivisibles (a precursor to infinitesimals ) in a way that is similar to modern integral calculus . Through proof by contradiction ( reductio ad absurdum ), he could give answers to problems to an arbitrary degree of accuracy, while specifying the limits within which the answer lay. This technique is known as the method of exhaustion , and he employed it to approximate
3213-426: A noble change to the course of human affairs; whose thoughts, reasonings, suggestions, and appeals produced an environment in which came an evolution of humanity that still continues. Humanist Humanism is a philosophical stance that emphasizes the individual and social potential, and agency of human beings, whom it considers the starting point for serious moral and philosophical inquiry. The meaning of
3402-460: A number that was greater than the grains of sand needed to fill the universe. In doing so, he challenged the notion that the number of grains of sand was too large to be counted. He wrote: There are some, King Gelo , who think that the number of the sand is infinite in multitude; and I mean by the sand not only that which exists about Syracuse and the rest of Sicily but also that which is found in every region whether inhabited or uninhabited. To solve
3591-525: A particular view of the atonement of Christ known as the " Governmental theory of atonement ". He theorized that Jesus' sacrificial death occurred in order for the Father to forgive while still maintaining his just rule over the universe. This idea, further developed by theologians such as John Miley , became one of the prominent views of the atonement in Methodist Arminianism . Living in
3780-740: A person, and focuses on the war machines that he is said to have built in order to defend the city from the Romans. Polybius remarks how, during the Second Punic War , Syracuse switched allegiances from Rome to Carthage , resulting in a military campaign under the command of Marcus Claudius Marcellus and Appius Claudius Pulcher , who besieged the city from 213 to 212 BC. He notes that the Romans underestimated Syracuse's defenses, and mentions several machines Archimedes designed, including improved catapults , crane-like machines that could be swung around in an arc, and other stone-throwers . Although
3969-513: A range of combinations exists. Individualistic humanists often have a philosophical perspective of humanism; in politics, these are inclined to libertarianism and in ethics tend to follow a scientistic approach. Collectivists have a more-applied view of humanism, lean toward socialism, and have a humanitarian approach to ethics. The second group has connections with the thought of young Marx , especially his anthropological views rejecting his political practices. A factor that repels many humanists from
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#17327733316534158-620: A reference to the mathematical drawing that he was supposedly studying when disturbed by the Roman soldier. There is no reliable evidence that Archimedes uttered these words and they do not appear in Plutarch's account. A similar quotation is found in the work of Valerius Maximus (fl. 30 AD), who wrote in Memorable Doings and Sayings , " ... sed protecto manibus puluere 'noli' inquit, 'obsecro, istum disturbare' " ("... but protecting
4347-481: A renewed interest in literature and the arts occurred in 13th-century Italy. Italian scholars discovered Ancient Greek thought, particularly that of Aristotle, through Arabic translations from Africa and Spain. Other centers were Verona , Naples , and Avignon . Petrarch , who is often referred to as the father of humanism, is a significant figure. Petrarch was raised in Avignon; he was inclined toward education at
4536-435: A satisfying life with virtue and happiness by improving societies worldwide. Humanist Andrew Copson takes a consequentialist and utilitarian approach to morality; according to Copson, all humanist ethical traits aim at human welfare. Philosopher Stephen Law emphasizes some principles of humanist ethics; respect for personal moral autonomy, rejection of god-given moral commands, an aim for human well-being, and "emphasiz[ing]
4725-408: A solution that applied the hydrostatics principle known as Archimedes' principle , found in his treatise On Floating Bodies : a body immersed in a fluid experiences a buoyant force equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces. Using this principle, it would have been possible to compare the density of the crown to that of pure gold by balancing it on a scale with a pure gold reference sample of
4914-410: A system using exponentiation for expressing very large numbers . He was also one of the first to apply mathematics to physical phenomena , working on statics and hydrostatics . Archimedes' achievements in this area include a proof of the law of the lever , the widespread use of the concept of center of gravity , and the enunciation of the law of buoyancy known as Archimedes' principle . He
5103-404: A temple dedicated to the goddess Aphrodite among its facilities. The account also mentions that, in order to remove any potential water leaking through the hull, a device with a revolving screw-shaped blade inside a cylinder was designed by Archimedes. Archimedes' screw was turned by hand, and could also be used to transfer water from a low-lying body of water into irrigation canals. The screw
5292-544: A universal law, shaped the humanist moral narrative until the early 20th century. Because the concepts of free will and reason are not based on scientific naturalism, their influence on humanists remained in the early 20th century but was reduced by social progressiveness and egalitarianism. As part of social changes in the late 20th century, humanist ethics evolved to support secularism , civil rights, personal autonomy, religious toleration, multiculturalism , and cosmopolitanism . A naturalistic criticism of humanistic morality
5481-486: A very early age and studied alongside his well-educated father. Petrarch's enthusiasm for ancient texts led him to discover manuscripts such as Cicero's Pro Archia and Pomponius Mela 's De Chorographia that were influential in the development of the Renaissance. Petrarch wrote Latin poems such as Canzoniere and De viris illustribus , in which he described humanist ideas. His most-significant contribution
5670-488: A work which he had originally written as Dutch verse in prison, providing rudimentary yet systematic arguments for the truth of Christianity. The Dutch poem, Bewijs van den waren Godsdienst , was published in 1622, the Latin treatise in 1627, under the title De veritate religionis Christianae . In 1631, he tried to return to Holland, but the authorities remained hostile to him. He moved to Hamburg in 1632. But as early as 1634,
5859-438: A worldview or philosophical stance. According to Merriam Webster Dictionary , humanism is " ... a doctrine, attitude, or way of life centered on human interests or values; especially: a philosophy that usually rejects supernaturalism and stresses an individual's dignity and worth and capacity for self-realization through reason". Traces of humanism can be found in ancient Greek philosophy . Pre-Socratic philosophers were
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6048-410: Is 4 π r for the sphere, and 6 π r for the cylinder (including its two bases), where r is the radius of the sphere and cylinder. This work of 28 propositions is also addressed to Dositheus. The treatise defines what is now called the Archimedean spiral . It is the locus of points corresponding to the locations over time of a point moving away from a fixed point with a constant speed along
6237-494: Is a concept focusing on improving humanity's social conditions by increasing the autonomy and dignity of all humans. In 1999, Jeaneane D. Fowler said the definition of humanism should include a rejection of divinity, and an emphasis on human well-being and freedom. She also noted there is a lack of shared belief system or doctrine but, in general, humanists aim for happiness and self-fulfillment. In 2015, prominent humanist Andrew Copson defined humanism as follows: According to
6426-435: Is a major current of counseling. There are various approaches such as discussion and critical thinking , replying to existential anxiety , and focusing on social and political dimensions of problems. Humanist counseling focuses on respecting the client's worldview and placing it in the correct cultural context. The approach emphasizes an individual's inherent drive towards self-actualization and creativity. It also recognizes
6615-449: Is a private issue and the state should have no power over it. He also argues that secularism helps plurality and diversity, which are fundamental aspects of our modern world. While barbarism and violence can be found in most civilizations, Haworth notes religion usually fuels rhetoric and enables these actions. He also said the values of hard work, honesty, and charity are found in other civilizations. According to Haworth, humanism opposes
6804-403: Is a tool rather than a set of doctrines that was used to develop human culture. Humanist philosopher Brian Ellis advocates a social humanist theory of morality called "social contractual utilitarianism", which is based on Hume's naturalism and empathy, Aristotelian virtue theory, and Kant's idealism. According to Ellis, morality should aim for eudaimonia , an Aristotelian concept that combines
6993-572: Is also considered an "economic theologist". After fading over time, the influence of Grotius's ideas revived in the 20th century following the First World War . Born in Delft during the Dutch Revolt , Grotius was the first child of Jan Cornets de Groot and Alida van Overschie. His father was a man of learning, once having studied with the eminent Justus Lipsius at Leiden University , as well as of political distinction. His family
7182-646: Is also credited with designing innovative machines , such as his screw pump , compound pulleys , and defensive war machines to protect his native Syracuse from invasion. Archimedes died during the siege of Syracuse , when he was killed by a Roman soldier despite orders that he should not be harmed. Cicero describes visiting Archimedes' tomb, which was surmounted by a sphere and a cylinder that Archimedes requested be placed there to represent his most valued mathematical discovery. Unlike his inventions, Archimedes' mathematical writings were little known in antiquity. Alexandrian mathematicians read and quoted him, but
7371-463: Is an obstacle to morality rather than a prerequisite for it. According to humanists, acting only out of fear, adherence to dogma, and expectation of a reward is a selfish motivation rather than morality. Humanists point to the subjectivity of the supposedly objective divine commands by referring to the Euthyphro dilemma , originally posed by Socrates: "does God command something because it is good or
7560-536: Is considered obsolete. In the early 19th century, the term humanismus was used in Germany with several meanings and from there, it re-entered the English language with two distinct denotations; an academic term linked to the study of classic literature and a more-common use that signified a non-religious approach to life contrary to theism . It is probable Bavarian theologian Friedrich Immanuel Niethammer coined
7749-643: Is divided into three books: Grotius' concept of natural law had a strong impact on the philosophical and theological debates and political developments of the 17th and 18th centuries. Among those he influenced were Samuel Pufendorf and John Locke , and by way of these philosophers, his thinking became part of the cultural background of the Glorious Revolution in England and the American Revolution . In Grotius' understanding, nature
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7938-514: Is generally assumed that Grotius first propounded the principle of freedom of the seas , although all countries in the Indian Ocean and other Asian seas accepted the right of unobstructed navigation long before Grotius wrote his De Jure Praedae ( On the Law of Spoils ) in the year of 1604. Additionally, 16th-century Spanish theologian Francisco de Vitoria had postulated the idea of freedom of
8127-412: Is lessened. Humanists also consider human essence to be universal, irrespective of race and social status, diminishing the importance of collective identities and signifying the importance of individuals. Immanuel Kant provided the modern philosophical basis of the humanist narrative. His theory of critical philosophy formed the basis of the world of knowledge, defending rationalism and grounding it in
8316-488: Is no longer any respect for the law, divine or human; it is as if, in accordance with a general decree, frenzy had openly been let loose for the committing of all crimes. De jure belli ac pacis libri tres ( On the Law of War and Peace: Three books ) was first published in 1625, dedicated to Grotius' current patron, Louis XIII. The treatise advances a system of principles of natural law, which are held to be binding on all people and nations regardless of local custom. The work
8505-467: Is now rarely practiced. The American Humanist Association arose from religious humanism. The same term has been used by religious groups such as the Quakers to describe their humanistic theology . The term "Renaissance humanism" was given to a tradition of cultural and educational reform engaged in by civic and ecclesiastical chancellors, book collectors, educators, and writers that developed during
8694-504: Is possible that he used an iterative procedure to calculate these values. In Quadrature of the Parabola , Archimedes proved that the area enclosed by a parabola and a straight line is 4 / 3 times the area of a corresponding inscribed triangle as shown in the figure at right. He expressed the solution to the problem as an infinite geometric series with the common ratio 1 / 4 : If
8883-404: Is regarded as one of the leading scientists in classical antiquity . Regarded as the greatest mathematician of ancient history , and one of the greatest of all time, Archimedes anticipated modern calculus and analysis by applying the concept of the infinitely small and the method of exhaustion to derive and rigorously prove a range of geometrical theorems . These include the area of
9072-534: Is something good because God commands it?" If goodness is independent from God, humans can reach goodness without religion but relativism is elicited if God creates goodness. Another argument against this religious criticism is the human-made nature of morality, even through religious means. The interpretation of holy scriptures almost always includes human reasoning; different interpreters reach contradictory theories. Humanism has widely been seen as antithetical to religion. Philosopher of religion David Kline, traces
9261-532: Is still in use today for pumping liquids and granulated solids such as coal and grain. Described by Vitruvius , Archimedes' device may have been an improvement on a screw pump that was used to irrigate the Hanging Gardens of Babylon . The world's first seagoing steamship with a screw propeller was the SS Archimedes , which was launched in 1839 and named in honor of Archimedes and his work on
9450-406: Is the denial of the existence of morality. For naturalistic skeptics, morality was not hardwired within humans during their evolution; humans are primarily selfish and self-centered. Defending humanist morality, humanist philosopher John R. Shook makes three observations that lead him to the acceptance of morality. According to Shook, homo sapiens has a concept of morality that must have been with
9639-839: The Abbasid Caliphate in the eighth and ninth centuries influenced Islamic philosophers. Many medieval Muslim thinkers pursued humanistic, rational, and scientific discourse in their search for knowledge, meaning, and values . A wide range of Islamic writings on love, poetry, history, and philosophical theology show medieval Islamic thought was open to humanistic ideas of individualism, occasional secularism, skepticism, liberalism, and free speech; schools were established at Baghdad, Basra and Isfahan. The intellectual movement later known as Renaissance humanism first appeared in Italy and has greatly influenced both contemporaneous and modern Western culture. Renaissance humanism emerged in Italy and
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#17327733316539828-614: The Arminians are far from being Socinians ". Led by Oldenbarnevelt, the States of Holland took an official position of religious toleration towards Remonstrants and Counter-Remonstrants. Grotius (who acted during the controversy first as Attorney General of Holland and later as a member of the Committee of Counsellors) was eventually asked to draft an edict to express the policy of toleration. This edict, Decretum pro pace ecclesiarum
10017-566: The Byzantine Greek architect Isidore of Miletus ( c. 530 AD ), while commentaries on the works of Archimedes written by Eutocius in the same century helped bring his work to a wider audience. Archimedes' work was translated into Arabic by Thābit ibn Qurra (836–901 AD), and into Latin via Arabic by Gerard of Cremona (c. 1114–1187). Direct Greek to Latin translations were later done by William of Moerbeke (c. 1215–1286) and Iacobus Cremonensis (c. 1400–1453). During
10206-516: The Fisc of Holland , Zeeland and Friesland in 1607, and then as Pensionary of Rotterdam (the equivalent of a mayoral office) in 1613. Also in 1613, following the capture of two Dutch ships by the British, he was sent on a mission to London, a mission tailored to a man who wrote Mare liberum [ The Free Seas ] in 1609. However, it was opposed by the English by reason of force and he didn't obtain
10395-590: The International Humanist and Ethical Union (IHEU), which is now known as Humanists International , and promotes the humanist agenda via the United Nations organizations UNESCO and UNICEF . Early 20th century naturalists, who viewed their humanism as a religion and participated in church-like congregations, used the term "religious humanism". Religious humanism appeared mostly in the US and
10584-498: The International Humanist and Ethical Union : Humanism is a democratic and ethical life stance, which affirms that human beings have the right and responsibility to give meaning and shape to their own lives. It stands for the building of a more humane society through an ethic based on human and other natural values in the spirit of reason and free inquiry through human capabilities. It is not theistic, and it does not accept supernatural views of reality. Dictionaries define humanism as
10773-524: The Latin word humanitas , which was first used in ancient Rome by Cicero and other thinkers to describe values related to liberal education . This etymology survives in the modern university concept of the humanities —the arts, philosophy, history, literature, and related disciplines. The word reappeared during the Italian Renaissance as umanista and entered the English language in
10962-595: The Renaissance and again in the 17th century , while the discovery in 1906 of previously lost works by Archimedes in the Archimedes Palimpsest has provided new insights into how he obtained mathematical results. Archimedes was born c. 287 BC in the seaport city of Syracuse , Sicily , at that time a self-governing colony in Magna Graecia . The date of birth is based on a statement by
11151-586: The Renaissance , the Editio princeps (First Edition) was published in Basel in 1544 by Johann Herwagen with the works of Archimedes in Greek and Latin. The following are ordered chronologically based on new terminological and historical criteria set by Knorr (1978) and Sato (1986). This is a short work consisting of three propositions. It is written in the form of a correspondence with Dositheus of Pelusium, who
11340-705: The School of Salamanca in Spain , who supported the idea that the sovereignty of a nation does not lie simply in a ruler through God's will, but originates in its people, who agree to confer such authority upon a ruler. It is also thought that Grotius was not the first to formulate the international society doctrine, but he was one of the first to define expressly the idea of one society of states, governed not by force or warfare but by actual laws and mutual agreement to enforce those laws. As Hedley Bull declared in 1990: "The idea of international society which Grotius propounded
11529-597: The Singapore Strait . Throughout his life Grotius wrote a variety of philological, theological and politico-theological works. In 1608, he married Maria van Reigersberch ; they had three daughters and four sons. The Dutch were at war with Spain ; although Portugal was closely allied with Spain, it was not yet at war with the Dutch . Near the start of the war, Grotius's cousin captain Jacob van Heemskerk captured
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#173277333165311718-479: The heliocentric theory of the solar system proposed by Aristarchus of Samos , as well as contemporary ideas about the size of the Earth and the distance between various celestial bodies . By using a system of numbers based on powers of the myriad , Archimedes concludes that the number of grains of sand required to fill the universe is 8 × 10 in modern notation. The introductory letter states that Archimedes' father
11907-643: The lever , he gave a mathematical proof of the principle involved in his work On the Equilibrium of Planes . Earlier descriptions of the principle of the lever are found in a work by Euclid and in the Mechanical Problems , belonging to the Peripatetic school of the followers of Aristotle , the authorship of which has been attributed by some to Archytas . There are several, often conflicting, reports regarding Archimedes' feats using
12096-439: The siege of Syracuse Archimedes had burned enemy ships. Nearly four hundred years later, Anthemius , despite skepticism, tried to reconstruct Archimedes' hypothetical reflector geometry. The purported device, sometimes called " Archimedes' heat ray ", has been the subject of an ongoing debate about its credibility since the Renaissance . René Descartes rejected it as false, while modern researchers have attempted to recreate
12285-421: The "father of international law." Grotius has also contributed significantly to the evolution of the notion of rights . Before him, rights were, above all, perceived as attached to objects; after him, they are seen as belonging to persons, as the expression of an ability to act, or as a means of realizing something. Peter Borschberg suggests that Grotius was significantly influenced by Francisco de Vitoria and
12474-570: The 14th and early 15th centuries. By the late 15th century, these academics began to be referred to as umanisti (humanists). While modern humanism's roots can be traced in part to the Renaissance, the term "Renaissance humanism" does not meaningfully relate to humanism in the modern sense. Other terms using "humanism" in their name include: These varieties of humanism are now largely of historical interest only. Some ethical movements continue (e.g. New York Society for Ethical Culture ) but in general humanism no longer needs any qualification "because
12663-598: The 16th century. The word "humanist" was used to describe a group of students of classical literature and those advocating for a classical education. In 1755, in Samuel Johnson 's influential A Dictionary of the English Language , the word humanist is defined as a philologer or grammarian, derived from the French word humaniste . In a later edition of the dictionary, the meaning "a term used in
12852-549: The Byzantine Greek scholar John Tzetzes that Archimedes lived for 75 years before his death in 212 BC. Plutarch wrote in his Parallel Lives that Archimedes was related to King Hiero II , the ruler of Syracuse, although Cicero suggests he was of humble origin. In the Sand-Reckoner , Archimedes gives his father's name as Phidias, an astronomer about whom nothing else is known. A biography of Archimedes
13041-806: The Captain-General of the republic, Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange could not allow with the treaty nearing its end. Maurice seized the opportunity to solidify the preeminence of the Gomarists , whom he had supported, and to eliminate the nuisance he perceived in Oldenbarnevelt (the latter had previously brokered the Twelve Years' Truce with Spain in 1609 against Maurice's wishes). During this time Grotius made another attempt to address ecclesiastical politics by completing De Imperio Summarum Potestatum circa Sacra , on "the relations between
13230-572: The Company called upon Grotius to draft a polemical defence of the seizure. The result of Grotius' efforts in 1604/05 was a long, theory-laden treatise that he provisionally entitled De Indis ( On the Indies ). Grotius sought to ground his defense of the seizure in terms of the natural principles of justice. In this, he had cast a net much wider than the case at hand; his interest was in the source and ground of war's lawfulness in general. The treatise
13419-703: The Dutch breaking up of various trade monopolies through its formidable naval power. England , competing fiercely with the Dutch for domination of world trade, opposed this idea and claimed in John Selden 's Mare clausum (The Closed Sea) , "That the Dominion of the British Sea, or That Which Incompasseth the Isle of Great Britain, is, and Ever Hath Been, a Part or Appendant of the Empire of that Island. " It
13608-478: The Earth" ( Greek : δῶς μοι πᾶ στῶ καὶ τὰν γᾶν κινάσω ). Olympiodorus later attributed the same boast to Archimedes' invention of the baroulkos , a kind of windlass , rather than the lever. A large part of Archimedes' work in engineering probably arose from fulfilling the needs of his home city of Syracuse . Athenaeus of Naucratis quotes a certain Moschion in a description on how King Hiero II commissioned
13797-519: The Earth, Sun, and Moon, as well as Aristarchus ' heliocentric model of the universe, in the Sand-Reckoner . Without the use of either trigonometry or a table of chords, Archimedes determines the Sun's apparent diameter by first describing the procedure and instrument used to make observations (a straight rod with pegs or grooves), applying correction factors to these measurements, and finally giving
13986-519: The Enlightenment, Baruch Spinoza redefined God as signifying the totality of nature; Spinoza was accused of atheism but remained silent on the matter. Naturalism was also advanced by prominent Encyclopédistes . Baron d'Holbach wrote the polemic System of Nature , claiming that religion was built on fear and had helped tyrants throughout history. Diderot and Helvetius combined their materialism with sharp, political critique. Also during
14175-430: The Enlightenment, the abstract conception of humanity started forming—a critical juncture for the construction of humanist philosophy. Previous appeals to "men" now shifted toward "man"; to illustrate this point, scholar Tony Davies points to political documents like The Social Contract (1762) of Rousseau , in which he says "Man is born free, but is everywhere in chains". Likewise, Thomas Paine 's Rights of Man uses
14364-476: The Humanist ethics the chief end of thought and action is to further this-earthly human interests on behalf of the greater glory of people. The watchword of Humanism is happiness for all humanity in this existence as contrasted with salvation for the individual soul in a future existence and the glorification of a supernatural Supreme Being ... It heartily welcomes all life-enhancing and healthy pleasures, from
14553-522: The Netherlands after the death of Prince Maurice in 1625 when toleration was granted to them. In 1630, they were allowed complete freedom to build and run churches and schools and to live anywhere in Holland. The Remonstrants guided by Johannes Wtenbogaert set up a presbyterial organization. They established a theological seminary at Amsterdam where Grotius came to teach alongside Episcopius , van Limborch , de Courcelles , and Leclerc . In 1634, Grotius
14742-581: The Romans ultimately captured the city, they suffered considerable losses due to Archimedes' inventiveness. Cicero (106–43 BC) mentions Archimedes in some of his works. While serving as a quaestor in Sicily, Cicero found what was presumed to be Archimedes' tomb near the Agrigentine gate in Syracuse, in a neglected condition and overgrown with bushes. Cicero had the tomb cleaned up and was able to see
14931-528: The Sphere and Cylinder , Archimedes postulates that any magnitude when added to itself enough times will exceed any given magnitude. Today this is known as the Archimedean property of real numbers. Archimedes gives the value of the square root of 3 as lying between 265 / 153 (approximately 1.7320261) and 1351 / 780 (approximately 1.7320512) in Measurement of
15120-670: The States of Holland in 1601. It was on this date that the States of Holland requested from Grotius an account of the United Provinces’ revolt against Spain; Grotius is indeed contemporary with the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Netherlands . The resulting work, entitled Annales et Historiae de rebus Belgicis, describing the period from 1559 to 1609, was written in the style of the Roman historian Tacitus and
15309-523: The Swedes - a European superpower - sent him to Paris as ambassador. He remained in this position for ten years, where he had the mission to negotiate for Sweden at the end of the Thirty Years' War . During this period, he had been interested in the unity of Christians and published many texts that would posthumously (1679) be published under the title of Opera Omnia Theologica . Grotius also developed
15498-532: The UK and the Netherlands draws on elements of humanistic psychology. Archimedes Archimedes of Syracuse ( / ˌ ɑːr k ɪ ˈ m iː d iː z / AR -kim- EE -deez ; c. 287 – c. 212 BC ) was an Ancient Greek mathematician , physicist , engineer , astronomer , and inventor from the ancient city of Syracuse in Sicily . Although few details of his life are known, he
15687-787: The US, humanism evolved with the aid of significant figures of the Unitarian Church . Humanist magazines began to appear, including The New Humanist , which published the Humanist Manifesto I in 1933. The American Ethical Union emerged from newly founded, small, ethicist societies. The American Humanist Association (AHA) was established in 1941 and became as popular as some of its European counterparts. The AHA spread to all states, and some prominent public figures such as Isaac Asimov , John Dewey , Erich Fromm , Paul Kurtz , Carl Sagan , and Gene Roddenberry became members. Humanist organizations from all continents formed
15876-656: The age of 15 years, he accompanied Johan van Oldenbarnevelt to a diplomatic mission in Paris. On this occasion, the King Henri IV of France would have presented Grotius to his court as "the miracle of Holland ". During his stay in France, he passed or bought a law degree from the University of Orleans. In Holland, Grotius earned an appointment as advocate to The Hague in 1599 and then as official historiographer for
16065-412: The areas of figures and the value of π . In Measurement of a Circle , he did this by drawing a larger regular hexagon outside a circle then a smaller regular hexagon inside the circle, and progressively doubling the number of sides of each regular polygon , calculating the length of a side of each polygon at each step. As the number of sides increases, it becomes a more accurate approximation of
16254-591: The aspects of personal belief that added to the hostility between humanism and religion. Humanism was linked with prominent thinkers who advocated against the existence of God using rationalistic arguments. Critique of theism continued through the humanistic revolutions in Europe, challenging religious worldviews, attitudes and superstitions on a rational basis—a tendency that continued to the 20th century. According to Stephen Law, humanist adherence to secularism placed humans at odds with religion, especially nationally dominant religions striving to retain privileges gained in
16443-533: The authorities granted him an annual royal pension. Grotius lived in France almost continuously from 1621 to 1644. His stay coincides with the period (1624-1642) during which the Cardinal Richelieu led France under the authority of Louis XIII . In France in 1625 Grotius published his most famous book, De jure belli ac pacis [ On the Law of War and Peace ] dedicated to Louis XIII of France . While in Paris, Grotius set about rendering into Latin prose
16632-537: The auxiliary troops in Utrecht. Grotius went on a mission to the States of Utrecht to stiffen their resistance against this move, but Maurice prevailed. The States General then authorized him to arrest Oldenbarnevelt, Grotius and Rombout Hogerbeets on 29 August 1618. They were tried by a court of delegated judges from the States General. Van Oldenbarnevelt was sentenced to death and was beheaded in 1619. Grotius
16821-408: The brevity of man's life". Socrates spoke of the need to "know thyself"; his thought changed the focus of then-contemporary philosophy from nature to humans and their well-being. He was a theist executed for atheism, who investigated the nature of morality by reasoning. Aristotle (384–322 BCE) taught rationalism and a system of ethics based on human nature that also parallels humanist thought. In
17010-416: The capture of Syracuse and Archimedes' role in it. Plutarch (45–119 AD) provides at least two accounts on how Archimedes died after Syracuse was taken. According to the most popular account, Archimedes was contemplating a mathematical diagram when the city was captured. A Roman soldier commanded him to come and meet Marcellus, but he declined, saying that he had to finish working on the problem. This enraged
17199-419: The capture of Syracuse in the Second Punic War , Marcellus is said to have taken back to Rome two mechanisms which were constructed by Archimedes and which showed the motion of the Sun, Moon and five planets. Cicero also mentions similar mechanisms designed by Thales of Miletus and Eudoxus of Cnidus . The dialogue says that Marcellus kept one of the devices as his only personal loot from Syracuse, and donated
17388-431: The carving and read some of the verses that had been added as an inscription. The tomb carried a sculpture illustrating Archimedes' favorite mathematical proof , that the volume and surface area of the sphere are two-thirds that of an enclosing cylinder including its bases. He also mentions that Marcellus brought to Rome two planetariums Archimedes built. The Roman historian Livy (59 BC–17 AD) retells Polybius's story of
17577-419: The centre of humanism. Personal humanist interpretations of the meaning of life vary from the pursuit of happiness without recklessness and excesses to participation in human history, and connection with loved ones, living animals, and plants. Some answers are close to those of religious discourse if the appeal to divinity is overlooked. According to humanist professor Peter Derks, elements that contribute to
17766-573: The civil authorities there to join Holland's majority view about church politics. In early 1617 Grotius debated the question of giving counter-remonstrants the chance to preach in the Kloosterkerk in The Hague which had been closed. During this time lawsuits were brought against the States of Holland by counter-remonstrant ministers and riots over the controversy broke out in Amsterdam. As
17955-521: The conflict between civil and religious authorities escalated, in order to maintain civil order Oldenbarnevelt eventually proposed that local authorities be given the power to raise troops (the Sharp Resolution of August 4, 1617). Such a measure undermined the unity of the Republic's military force, the very same reason Spain had managed to retake so much lost territory in the 1580s, something
18144-503: The construction of these mechanisms entitled On Sphere-Making . Modern research in this area has been focused on the Antikythera mechanism , another device built c. 100 BC probably designed with a similar purpose. Constructing mechanisms of this kind would have required a sophisticated knowledge of differential gearing . This was once thought to have been beyond the range of the technology available in ancient times, but
18333-602: The contemporary era. During the Age of Enlightenment , humanistic ideas resurfaced, this time further from religion and classical literature. Science and intellectualism advanced, and humanists argued that rationality could replace deism as the means with which to understand the world. Humanistic values, such as tolerance and opposition to slavery, started to take shape. New philosophical, social, and political ideas appeared. Some thinkers rejected theism outright; and atheism, deism, and hostility to organized religion were formed. During
18522-521: The controversy by defending the civil authorities' power to appoint (independently of the wishes of religious authorities) whomever they wished to a university's faculty. He did this by writing Ordinum Pietas , "a pamphlet...directed against an opponent, the Calvinist Franeker professor Lubbertus; it was ordered by Grotius' masters the States of Holland, and thus written for the occasion – though Grotius may already have had plans for such
18711-407: The deconstruction of the religious narrative in favor of human-generated knowledge. This ultimately uncoupled the fate of humans from the divine will, prompting social and political shifts. The relation of state and citizens changed as civic humanistic principles emerged; people were no longer to be servile to religiously grounded monarchies but could pursue their own destinies. Kline also points at
18900-470: The density would be lower than that of gold. Archimedes found that this is what had happened, proving that silver had been mixed in. The story of the golden crown does not appear anywhere in Archimedes' known works. The practicality of the method described has been called into question due to the extreme accuracy that would be required to measure water displacement . Archimedes may have instead sought
19089-456: The design of a huge ship, the Syracusia , which could be used for luxury travel, carrying supplies, and as a display of naval power . The Syracusia is said to have been the largest ship built in classical antiquity and, according to Moschion's account, it was launched by Archimedes. The ship presumably was capable of carrying 600 people and included garden decorations, a gymnasium , and
19278-616: The dialect of ancient Syracuse. Many written works by Archimedes have not survived or are only extant in heavily edited fragments; at least seven of his treatises are known to have existed due to references made by other authors. Pappus of Alexandria mentions On Sphere-Making and another work on polyhedra , while Theon of Alexandria quotes a remark about refraction from the now-lost Catoptrica . Archimedes made his work known through correspondence with mathematicians in Alexandria . The writings of Archimedes were first collected by
19467-524: The discovery of the Antikythera mechanism in 1902 has confirmed that devices of this kind were known to the ancient Greeks. While he is often regarded as a designer of mechanical devices, Archimedes also made contributions to the field of mathematics . Plutarch wrote that Archimedes "placed his whole affection and ambition in those purer speculations where there can be no reference to the vulgar needs of life", though some scholars believe this may be
19656-620: The dominance of Aristotelian philosophy by revitalizing Sextus Empiricus ' skepticism. Religious studies were affected by the growth of Renaissance humanism when Pope Nicholas V initiated the translation of Hebrew and Greek biblical texts, and other texts in those languages, to contemporaneous Latin. Humanist values spread from Italy in the 15th century. Students and scholars went to Italy to study before returning to their homelands carrying humanistic messages. Printing houses dedicated to ancient texts were established in Venice, Basel, and Paris. By
19845-426: The dust with his hands, said 'I beg of you, do not disturb this ' "). The most widely known anecdote about Archimedes tells of how he invented a method for determining the volume of an object with an irregular shape. According to Vitruvius , a crown for a temple had been made for King Hiero II of Syracuse , who supplied the pure gold to be used. The crown was likely made in the shape of a votive wreath . Archimedes
20034-484: The earlier works of Francisco de Vitoria and Alberico Gentili , his writings laid the foundations for international law , based on natural law in its Protestant side. Two of his books have had a lasting impact in the field of international law: De jure belli ac pacis ( On the Law of War and Peace ) dedicated to Louis XIII of France and the Mare Liberum ( The Free Seas ) for which Grotius has been called
20223-609: The effect using only the means that would have been available to Archimedes, mostly with negative results. It has been suggested that a large array of highly polished bronze or copper shields acting as mirrors could have been employed to focus sunlight onto a ship, but the overall effect would have been blinding, dazzling , or distracting the crew of the ship rather than fire. Using modern materials and larger scale, sunlight-concentrating solar furnaces can reach very high temperatures, and are sometimes used for generating electricity . Archimedes discusses astronomical measurements of
20412-474: The empirical world. He also supported the idea of the moral autonomy of the individual, which is fundamental to his philosophy. According to Kant, morality is the product of the way humans live and not a set of fixed values. Instead of a universal ethic code, Kant suggested a universal procedure that shapes the ethics that differ among groups of people. Philosopher and humanist advocate Corliss Lamont , in his book The Philosophy of Humanism (1997), states: In
20601-441: The end of the 15th century, the center of humanism had shifted from Italy to northern Europe, with Erasmus of Rotterdam being the leading humanist scholar. The longest-lasting effect of Renaissance humanism was its education curriculum and methods. Humanists insisted on the importance of classical literature in providing intellectual discipline, moral standards, and a civilized taste for the elite—an educational approach that reached
20790-541: The feasibility of the claw, and in 2005 a television documentary entitled Superweapons of the Ancient World built a version of the claw and concluded that it was a workable device. Archimedes has also been credited with improving the power and accuracy of the catapult , and with inventing the odometer during the First Punic War . The odometer was described as a cart with a gear mechanism that dropped
20979-610: The first Western philosophers to attempt to explain the world in terms of human reason and natural law without relying on myth, tradition, or religion. Protagoras , who lived in Athens c. 440 BCE , put forward some fundamental humanist ideas, although only fragments of his work survive. He made one of the first agnostic statements; according to one fragment: "About the gods I am able to know neither that they exist nor that they do not exist nor of what kind they are in form: for many things prevent me for knowing this, its obscurity and
21168-551: The first comprehensive compilation was not made until c. 530 AD by Isidore of Miletus in Byzantine Constantinople , while Eutocius ' commentaries on Archimedes' works in the same century opened them to wider readership for the first time. The relatively few copies of Archimedes' written work that survived through the Middle Ages were an influential source of ideas for scientists during
21357-519: The first term in this series is the area of the triangle, then the second is the sum of the areas of two triangles whose bases are the two smaller secant lines , and whose third vertex is where the line that is parallel to the parabola's axis and that passes through the midpoint of the base intersects the parabola, and so on. This proof uses a variation of the series 1/4 + 1/16 + 1/64 + 1/256 + · · · which sums to 1 / 3 . In The Sand Reckoner , Archimedes set out to calculate
21546-477: The globe, it happened that the Moon followed the Sun by as many turns on that bronze contrivance as in the sky itself, from which also in the sky the Sun's globe became to have that same eclipse, and the Moon came then to that position which was its shadow on the Earth when the Sun was in line. This is a description of a small planetarium . Pappus of Alexandria reports on a now lost treatise by Archimedes dealing with
21735-832: The historian Jacques Auguste de Thou , the Orientalist and Arabic scholar Erpinius , and the French ambassador in the Dutch Republic, Benjamin Aubery du Maurier , who allowed him to use the French diplomatic mail in the first years of his exile. He was also friends with the Brabantian Jesuit Andreas Schottus . Grotius was the father of regent and diplomat Pieter de Groot . Grotius designed his theory to apply not only to states but also to rulers and subjects of law in general. Grotius's masterpiece De Jure Belli ac Pacis thus proved useful in
21924-443: The idea—which is sometimes attributed to Thomas Paine —of a " religion of humanity ". According to scholar Tony Davies, this was intended to be an atheist cult based on some humanistic tenets, and had some prominent members but soon declined. It was nonetheless influential during the 19th century, and its humanism and rejection of supernaturalism are echoed in the works of later authors such as Oscar Wilde , George Holyoake —who coined
22113-408: The importance of moral questions about one's interactions with people according to one's worldview. This is examined using a process of dialogue. Humanist counseling originated in post-World War II Netherlands. Humanistic counseling is based on the works of psychologists Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow . It introduced a positive, humanistic psychology in response to what Rogers and Maslow viewed as
22302-478: The invocation of supernatural phenomena fails to coherently explain the world. One form of irrational thinking is adducing . Humanists are skeptical of explanations of natural phenomena or diseases that rely on hidden agencies. Human autonomy is another hallmark of humanist philosophy. For people to be autonomous, their beliefs and actions must be the result of their own reasoning. For humanists, autonomy dignifies each individual; without autonomy, people's humanity
22491-415: The irrationality of nationalism and totalitarianism , whether these are part of fascism or Marxist–Leninist communism . According to professor Joseph O. Baker, in political theory, contemporary humanism is formed by two main tendencies; the first is individualistic and the second inclines to collectivism . The trajectory of each tendency can lead to libertarianism and socialism respectively, but
22680-534: The last centuries. Worth notes religious persons can be secularists. Law notes secularism is criticized for suppressing freedom of expression of religious persons but firmly denies such accusation; instead, he says, secularism protects this kind of freedom but opposes the privileged status of religious views. According to Andrew Copson, humanism is not incompatible with some aspects of religion. He observes that components like belief, practice, identity, and culture can coexist, allowing an individual who subscribes to only
22869-455: The later development of theories of both private and criminal law. The king of Sweden, Gustavus Adolphus , was said to have always carried a copy of De jure belli ac pacis in his saddle when leading his troops. In contrast, King James VI and I of Great Britain reacted very negatively to Grotius' presentation of the book during a diplomatic mission. Some philosophers, notably Protestants such as Pierre Bayle , Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and
23058-480: The legality of keeping the prize questionable under Dutch statute, but a faction of shareholders (mostly Mennonite ) in the Company also objected to the forceful seizure on moral grounds, and of course, the Portuguese demanded the return of their cargo. The scandal led to a public judicial hearing and a wider campaign to sway public (and international) opinion. It was in this wider context that representatives of
23247-416: The lever to lift very heavy objects. Plutarch describes how Archimedes designed block-and-tackle pulley systems, allowing sailors to use the principle of leverage to lift objects that would otherwise have been too heavy to move. According to Pappus of Alexandria , Archimedes' work on levers and his understanding of mechanical advantage caused him to remark: "Give me a place to stand on, and I will move
23436-428: The libertarian view is the neoliberal or capitalistic consequences they feel it entails. Humanism has been a part of both major 20th-century ideological currents—liberalism and Marxism. Early 19th-century socialism was connected to humanism. In the 20th century, a humanistic interpretation of Marxism focused on Marx's early writings, viewing Marxism not as " scientific socialism " but as a philosophical critique aimed at
23625-504: The lifestance is by definition naturalistic, scientific, and secular". However, according to Andrew Copson the view that there are still two types of humanism – religious and secular – "has begun to seriously muddy the conceptual water". Humanism is strongly linked to rationality. For humanists, humans are reasonable beings, and reasoning and the scientific method are means of finding truth. Humanists argue science and rationality have driven successful developments in various fields while
23814-527: The main representatives of the Scottish Enlightenment Francis Hutcheson , Adam Smith , David Hume , Thomas Reid held him in high esteem. The French Enlightenment, on the other hand, was much more critical. Voltaire called it boring and Rousseau developed an alternative conception of human nature. Pufendorf , another theoretician of the natural law concept, was also skeptical. Andrew Dickson White wrote: Into
24003-472: The matter in more detail...I may summarize my feelings thus: that the [civil] authorities should scrutinize God's Word so thoroughly as to be certain to impose nothing which is against it; if they act in this way, they shall in good conscience have control of the public churches and public worship – but without persecuting those who err from the right way." Because this stripped Church officials of any power some of their members (such as Johannes Althusius in
24192-473: The meaning of life are a morally worthy purpose in life, positive self-evaluation, an understanding of one's environment, being seen and understood by others, the ability to emotionally connect with others, and a desire to have a meaning in life. Humanist professor Anthony B. Pinn places the meaning of life in the quest of what he calls "complex subjectivity". Pinn, who is advocating for a non-theistic, humanistic religion inspired by African cultures, says seeking
24381-484: The ministry" was backed up by Grotius with "thirty-one pages of quotations, mainly dealing with the Five Remonstrant Articles ." In response to Grotius' Ordinum Pietas , Professor Lubbertus published Responsio Ad Pietatem Hugonis Grotii in 1614. Later that year, Grotius anonymously published Bona Fides Sibrandi Lubberti in response to Lubbertus. Jacobus Trigland joined Lubberdus in expressing
24570-425: The most acclaimed intellectuals in northern Europe, including Franciscus Junius , Joseph Justus Scaliger , and Rudolph Snellius . At age 16 (1599), he published his first book: a scholarly edition of the late antique author Martianus Capella 's work on the seven liberal arts , Martiani Minei Felicis Capellæ Carthaginiensis viri proconsularis Satyricon. It remained a reference for several centuries. In 1598, at
24759-444: The never-reaching meaning of life contributes to well-being, and that rituals and ceremonies, which are occasions for reflection, provide an opportunity to assess the meaning of life, improving well-being. The hallmark of contemporary humanism in politics is the demand for secularism. Philosopher Alan Haworth said secularism delivers fair treatment to all citizens of a nation-state since all are treated without discrimination; religion
24948-584: The other to the Temple of Virtue in Rome. Marcellus's mechanism was demonstrated, according to Cicero, by Gaius Sulpicius Gallus to Lucius Furius Philus , who described it thus: Hanc sphaeram Gallus cum moveret, fiebat ut soli luna totidem conversionibus in aere illo quot diebus in ipso caelo succederet, ex quo et in caelo sphaera solis fieret eadem illa defectio, et incideret luna tum in eam metam quae esset umbra terrae, cum sol e regione. When Gallus moved
25137-518: The over-pessimistic view of psychoanalysis in the early 1960s. Other sources include the philosophies of existentialism and phenomenology . Some modern counseling organizations have humanist origins, like the British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy , which was founded by Harold Blackham , which he developed alongside the British Humanist Association 's Humanist Counselling Service. Modern-day humanist pastoral care in
25326-553: The overcoming of " alienation ". In the US, liberalism is associated mostly with humanistic principles, which is distinct from the European use of the same word, which has economical connotations. In the post-1945 era, Jean-Paul Sartre and other French existentialists advocated for humanism, linking it to socialism while trying to stay neutral during the Cold War . Humanist counseling is humanism-inspired applied psychology, which
25515-525: The people's focus to the controversy and Arminius' followers. Grotius played a decisive part in this politico-religious conflict between the Remonstrants, supporters of religious tolerance, and the orthodox Calvinists or Counter-Remonstrants. The controversy expanded when the Remonstrant theologian Conrad Vorstius was appointed to replace Jacobus Arminius as the theology chair at Leiden. Vorstius
25704-533: The plurality of species. Darwin's theory also suggested humans are simply a natural species, contradicting the traditional theological view of humans as more than animals. Philosophers Ludwig Feuerbach , Friedrich Nietzsche , and Karl Marx attacked religion on several grounds, and theologians David Strauss and Julius Wellhausen questioned the Bible. In parallel, utilitarianism was developed in Britain through
25893-449: The policy concerning appointments at this institution, which was governed in their name by a board of Curators – and, in the final instance, the States were responsible for dealing with any cases of heterodoxy among the professors." The domestic dissension resulting over Arminius' professorship was overshadowed by the continuing war with Spain, and the professor died in 1609 on the eve of the Twelve Years' Truce . The new peace would move
26082-476: The post-Hellenic world. It is a repeated view among scholars that the humanistic features of ancient Greek thought are the roots of humanism 2,000 years later. Other predecessor movements that sometimes use the same or equivalent vocabulary to modern Western humanism can be found in Chinese philosophy and religions such as Taoism and Confucianism . Arabic translations of Ancient Greek literature during
26271-420: The principles derived to calculate the areas and centers of gravity of various geometric figures including triangles , parallelograms and parabolas . In this work of 24 propositions addressed to Dositheus, Archimedes proves by two methods that the area enclosed by a parabola and a straight line is 4/3 the area of a triangle with equal base and height. He achieves this in one of his proofs by calculating
26460-496: The problem, Archimedes devised a system of counting based on the myriad . The word itself derives from the Greek μυριάς , murias , for the number 10,000. He proposed a number system using powers of a myriad of myriads (100 million, i.e., 10,000 x 10,000) and concluded that the number of grains of sand required to fill the universe would be 8 vigintillion , or 8 × 10 . The works of Archimedes were written in Doric Greek ,
26649-416: The question of the meaning of life became more prominent. Unlike religions, humanism does not have a definite view on the meaning of life. Humanists commonly say people create rather than discover meaning. While philosophers such as Nietzsche and Sartre wrote on the meaning of life in a godless world, the work of Albert Camus has echoed and shaped humanism. In Camus' The Myth of Sisyphus , he quotes
26838-548: The religious and secular authorities...Grotius had even cherished hopes that publication of this book would turn the tide and bring back peace to church and state". The conflict between Maurice and the States of Holland, led by Oldenbarnevelt and Grotius, about the Sharp Resolution and Holland's refusal to allow a National Synod, came to a head in July 1619 when a majority in the States General authorized Maurice to disband
27027-457: The result in the form of upper and lower bounds to account for observational error. Ptolemy , quoting Hipparchus, also references Archimedes' solstice observations in the Almagest . This would make Archimedes the first known Greek to have recorded multiple solstice dates and times in successive years. Cicero's De re publica portrays a fictional conversation taking place in 129 BC. After
27216-457: The return of the boats. In these years a great theological controversy broke out between the chair of theology at Leiden Jacobus Arminius and his followers (who are called Arminians or Remonstrants ) and the strongly Calvinist theologian, Franciscus Gomarus , whose supporters are termed Gomarists or Counter-Remonstrants. Leiden University "was under the authority of the States of Holland – they were responsible, among other things, for
27405-552: The role of reason in making moral judgements". Humanism's godless approach to morality has driven criticism from religious commentators. The necessity for a divine being delivering sets of doctrines for morals to exist is a common argument; according to Dostoevsky 's character Ivan Karamázov in The Brothers Karamazov , "if God does not exist, then everything is permitted". This argument suggests chaos will ensue if religious belief disappears. For humanists, theism
27594-466: The roots of this animosity since the Renaissance, when humanistic views deconstructed the previous religiously defined order. Kline describes several ways this antithesis has evolved. Kline notes the emergence of a confident human-made knowledge, which was a new way of epistemology , repelled the church from its authoritative position. Kline uses the paradigm of non-humanists Copernicus , Kepler , and Galileo to illustrate how scientific discoveries added to
27783-453: The same weight, then immersing the apparatus in water. The difference in density between the two samples would cause the scale to tip accordingly. Galileo Galilei , who invented a hydrostatic balance in 1586 inspired by Archimedes' work, considered it "probable that this method is the same that Archimedes followed, since, besides being very accurate, it is based on demonstrations found by Archimedes himself." While Archimedes did not invent
27972-432: The schools of Scotland " was added. In the 1780s, Thomas Howes was one of Joseph Priestley 's many opponents during the celebrated Unitarian disputes. Because of the different doctrinal meanings of Unitarian and Unitarianism , Howes used "the more precise appellations of humanists and humanism " when referring to those like Priestley "who maintain the mere humanity of Christ ". This theological origin of humanism
28161-684: The scientific method was followed in the late 19th century in Britain by the start of many rationalist and ethical associations, such as the National Secular Society , the Ethical Union , and the Rationalist Press Association . In the 20th century, humanism was further promoted by the work of philosophers such as A. J. Ayer , Antony Flew , and Bertrand Russell , whose advocacy of atheism in Why I Am Not
28350-416: The screw. Archimedes is said to have designed a claw as a weapon to defend the city of Syracuse. Also known as " the ship shaker ", the claw consisted of a crane-like arm from which a large metal grappling hook was suspended. When the claw was dropped onto an attacking ship the arm would swing upwards, lifting the ship out of the water and possibly sinking it. There have been modern experiments to test
28539-527: The seas in a more rudimentary fashion under the principles of jus gentium . Grotius's notion of the freedom of the seas would persist until the mid-20th century, and it continues to be applied even to this day for much of the high seas , though the application of the concept and the scope of its reach is changing . Aided by his continued association with Van Oldenbarnevelt , Grotius made considerable advances in his political career, being retained as Oldenbarnevelt's resident advisor in 1605, Advocate General of
28728-426: The singular form of the word, revealing a universal conception of "man". In parallel, Baconian empiricism—though not humanism per se —led to Thomas Hobbes 's materialism. Scholar J. Brent Crosson argues that, while there is a widely-held belief that the birth of humanism was solely a European affair, intellectual thought from Africa and Asia significantly contributed as well. He also notes that during enlightenment,
28917-559: The soldier, who killed Archimedes with his sword. Another story has Archimedes carrying mathematical instruments before being killed because a soldier thought they were valuable items. Marcellus was reportedly angered by Archimedes' death, as he considered him a valuable scientific asset (he called Archimedes "a geometrical Briareus ") and had ordered that he should not be harmed. The last words attributed to Archimedes are " Do not disturb my circles " ( Latin , " Noli turbare circulos meos "; Katharevousa Greek , "μὴ μου τοὺς κύκλους τάραττε"),
29106-446: The species since the beginning of human history, developing by recognizing and thinking upon behaviors. He adds morality is universal among human cultures and all cultures strive to improve their moral level. Shook concludes that while morality was initially generated by our genes, culture shaped human morals and continues to do so. He calls "moral naturalism" the view that morality is a natural phenomenon, can be scientifically studied, and
29295-461: The subject of predestination and the sacrament...[and] an extensive, detailed and generally unfavourable review of Walaeus' Ampt , stuffed with references to ancient and modern authorities." When Grotius wrote asking for some notes "he received a treasure-house of ecclesiastical history. ...offering ammunition to Grotius, who gratefully accepted it". Around this time (April 1616) Grotius went to Amsterdam as part of his official duties, trying to persuade
29484-534: The term humanismus to describe the new classical curriculum he planned to offer in German secondary schools. Soon, other scholars such as Georg Voigt and Jacob Burckhardt adopted the term. In the 20th century, the word was further refined, acquiring its contemporary meaning of a naturalistic approach to life, and a focus on the well-being and freedom of humans. There is no single, widely accepted definition of humanism, and scholars have given different meanings to
29673-474: The term "humanism" has changed according to successive intellectual movements that have identified with it. During the Italian Renaissance , ancient works inspired Catholic Italian scholars, giving rise to the Renaissance humanism movement. During the Age of Enlightenment , humanistic values were reinforced by advances in science and technology, giving confidence to humans in their exploration of
29862-475: The term. For philosopher Sidney Hook , writing in 1974, humanists are opposed to the imposition of one culture in some civilizations, do not belong to a church or established religion, do not support dictatorships, and do not justify the use of violence for social reforms. Hook also said humanists support the elimination of hunger and improvements to health, housing, and education. In the same edited collection , Humanist philosopher H. J. Blackham argued humanism
30051-426: The third century BCE, Epicurus developed an influential, human-centered philosophy that focused on achieving eudaimonia . Epicureans continued Democritus ' atomist theory—a materialistic theory that suggests the fundamental unit of the universe is an indivisible atom. Human happiness, living well, friendship, and the avoidance of excesses were the key ingredients of Epicurean philosophy that flourished in and beyond
30240-399: The times of the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Netherlands and the Thirty Years' War between Catholic and Protestant European nations (Catholic France being in the otherwise Protestant camp), it is not surprising that Grotius was deeply concerned with matters of conflicts between nations and religions. His most lasting work, begun in prison and published during his exile in Paris,
30429-476: The universal man did not encompass all humans but was shaped by gender and race. According to Crosson, the shift from man to human started during enlightenment and is still ongoing. Crosson also argues that enlightenment, especially in Britain, produced not only a notion of universal man, but also gave birth to pseudoscientific ideas, such as those about differences between races, that shaped European history. French philosopher Auguste Comte (1798–1857) introduced
30618-418: The value of a geometric series that sums to infinity with the ratio 1/4. In this two-volume treatise addressed to Dositheus, Archimedes obtains the result of which he was most proud, namely the relationship between a sphere and a circumscribed cylinder of the same height and diameter . The volume is 4 / 3 π r for the sphere, and 2 π r for the cylinder. The surface area
30807-466: The very midst of all this welter of evil, at a point in time to all appearance hopeless, at a point in space apparently defenseless, in a nation of which every man, woman, and child was under sentence of death from its sovereign, was born a man who wrought as no other has ever done for the redemption of civilization from the main cause of all that misery; who thought out for Europe the precepts of right reason in international law; who made them heard; who gave
30996-489: The view that tolerance in matters of doctrine was inadmissible, and in his 1615 works Den Recht-gematigden Christen: Ofte vande waere Moderatie and Advys Over een Concept van moderatie Trigland denounced Grotius' stance. In late 1615, when Middelburg professor Antonius Walaeus published Het Ampt der Kerckendienaren (a response to Johannes Wtenbogaert 's 1610 Tractaet van 't Ampt ende authoriteit eener hoogher Christelijcke overheid in kerckelijkcke zaken ) he sent Grotius
31185-615: The vigorous enjoyments of youth to the contemplative delights of mellowed age, from the simple gratifications of food and drink, sunshine and sports, to the more complex appreciation of art and literature, friendship and social communion. The humanist attitude toward morality has changed since its beginning. Starting in the 18th century, humanists were oriented toward an objective and universalist stance on ethics. Both Utilitarian philosophy —which aims to increase human happiness and decrease suffering—and Kantian ethics , which states one should act in accordance with maxims one could will to become
31374-493: The winter of 1644–1645, he went to Sweden in difficult conditions, which he decided to leave in the summer of 1645. While departing from his last visit to Sweden, Grotius was shipwrecked on the voyage. He washed up on the shore of Rostock , ill and weather-beaten, and on August 28, 1645, he died; his body at last returned to the country of his youth, being laid to rest in the Nieuwe Kerk in Delft. Grotius' personal motto
31563-537: The word secularism — George Eliot , Émile Zola , and E. S. Beesly . Paine's The Age of Reason , along with the 19th-century Biblical criticism of the German Hegelians David Strauss and Ludwig Feuerbach , also contributed to new forms of humanism. Advances in science and philosophy provided scholars with further alternatives to religious belief. Charles Darwin 's theory of natural selection offered naturalists an explanation for
31752-436: The works of Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill . Utilitarianism, a moral philosophy, centers its attention on human happiness, aiming to eliminate human and animal pain via natural means. In Europe and the US, as philosophical critiques of theistic beliefs grew, large parts of society distanced themselves from religion. Ethical societies were formed, leading to the contemporary humanist movement. The rise of rationalism and
31941-521: The world. By the early 20th century, organizations dedicated to humanism flourished in Europe and the United States, and have since expanded worldwide. In the early 21st century, the term generally denotes a focus on human well-being and advocates for human freedom , autonomy , and progress . It views humanity as responsible for the promotion and development of individuals, espouses the equal and inherent dignity of all human beings, and emphasizes
32130-408: Was Ruit hora ("Time is running away"); his last words were purportedly, "By understanding many things, I have accomplished nothing" ( Door veel te begrijpen, heb ik niets bereikt ). Significant friends and acquaintances of his included the theologian Franciscus Junius , the poet Daniel Heinsius , the philologist Gerhard Johann Vossius , the historian Johannes Meursius , the engineer Simon Stevin ,
32319-709: Was a list of books outlining the four major disciplines—rhetoric, moral philosophy, poetry, and grammar—that became the basis of humanistic studies ( studia humanitatis ). Petrarch's list relied heavily on ancient writers, especially Cicero. The revival of classicist authors continued after Petrarch's death. Florence chancellor and humanist Coluccio Salutati made his city a prominent center of Renaissance humanism; his circle included other notable humanists—including Leonardo Bruni , who rediscovered, translated, and popularized ancient texts. Humanists heavily influenced education. Vittorino da Feltre and Guarino Veronese created schools based on humanistic principles; their curriculum
32508-599: Was a monumental effort to restrain such conflicts on the basis of a broad moral consensus. Grotius wrote: Fully convinced...that there is a common law among nations, which is valid alike for war and in war, I have had many and weighty reasons for undertaking to write upon the subject. Throughout the Christian world, I observed a lack of restraint in relation to war, such as even barbarous races should be ashamed of; I observed that men rush to arms for slight causes or no cause at all and that when arms have once been taken up, there
32697-411: Was a student of Conon of Samos . In Proposition II, Archimedes gives an approximation of the value of pi ( π ), showing that it is greater than 223 / 71 (3.1408...) and less than 22 / 7 (3.1428...). In this treatise, also known as Psammites , Archimedes finds a number that is greater than the grains of sand needed to fill the universe. This book mentions
32886-494: Was an astronomer named Phidias. The Sand Reckoner is the only surviving work in which Archimedes discusses his views on astronomy. There are two books to On the Equilibrium of Planes : the first contains seven postulates and fifteen propositions , while the second book contains ten propositions. In the first book, Archimedes proves the law of the lever , which states that: Magnitudes are in equilibrium at distances reciprocally proportional to their weights. Archimedes uses
33075-417: Was asked to determine whether some silver had been substituted by the goldsmith without damaging the crown, so he could not melt it down into a regularly shaped body in order to calculate its density . In this account, Archimedes noticed while taking a bath that the level of the water in the tub rose as he got in, and realized that this effect could be used to determine the golden crown's volume . Archimedes
33264-445: Was completed in late 1613 or early 1614. The edict put into practice a view that Grotius had been developing in his writings on church and state (see Erastianism ): that only the basic tenets necessary for undergirding civil order (e.g., the existence of God and His providence ) ought to be enforced while differences on obscure theological doctrines should be left to private conscience. The edict "imposing moderation and toleration on
33453-431: Was considered Delft patrician as his ancestors played an important role in local government since the 13th century. Jan de Groot was also the translator of Archimedes and a friend of Ludolph van Ceulen . He groomed his son from an early age in a traditional humanist and Aristotelian education. A prodigious learner, Grotius entered Leiden University when he was just eleven years old. There he studied with some of
33642-417: Was first finished in 1612. The States, however, did not publish it, possibly because of the way the work resonated with the politico-religious tensions within the Dutch Republic (see below). His first occasion to write systematically on issues of international justice came in 1604 when he became involved in the legal proceedings following the seizure by Dutch merchants of a Portuguese carrack and its cargo in
33831-583: Was given concrete expression in the Peace of Westphalia , and Grotius may be considered the intellectual father of this first general peace settlement of modern times." Additionally, his contributions to Arminian theology helped provide the seeds for later Arminian-based movements, such as Methodism and Pentecostalism ; Grotius is acknowledged as a significant figure in the Arminian–Calvinist debate . Because of his theological underpinning of free trade, he
34020-496: Was given the opportunity to serve as Sweden 's ambassador to France . Axel Oxenstierna , regent of the successor of the recently deceased Swedish king, Gustavus Adolphus , was keen to have Grotius in his employ. Grotius accepted the offer and took up diplomatic residence in Paris, which remained his home until he was released from his post in 1645. In 1644, the queen Christine of Sweden , who had become an adult, began to perform her duties and brought him back to Stockholm. During
34209-608: Was imprisoned in Loevestein Castle for his involvement in the controversies over religious policy of the Dutch Republic , but escaped hidden in a chest of books that was regularly brought to him and was transported to Gorinchem . Grotius wrote most of his major works in exile in France . Grotius was a major figure in the fields of philosophy, political theory and law during the 16th and 17th centuries. Along with
34398-456: Was never published in full during Grotius' lifetime, perhaps because the court ruling in favor of the Company preempted the need to garner public support. In The Free Sea ( Mare Liberum , published 1609), Grotius formulated the new principle that the sea was international territory and all nations were free to use it for seafaring trade . Grotius, by claiming 'free seas' ( freedom of the seas ), provided suitable ideological justification for
34587-565: Was not an entity in itself but God's creation . Therefore, his concept of natural law had a theological foundation. The Old Testament contained moral precepts (e.g. the Decalogue ), which Christ confirmed and therefore were still valid. They were useful in interpreting the content of natural law. Both Biblical revelation and natural law originated in God and could, therefore, not contradict each other. Many exiled Remonstrants began to return to
34776-657: Was not removed. The Counter-Remonstrants were also supported in their opposition by King James I of England "who thundered loudly against the Leyden nomination and gaudily depicted Vorstius as a horrid heretic. He ordered his books to be publicly burnt in London, Cambridge, and Oxford, and he exerted continual pressure through his ambassador in the Hague, Ralph Winwood, to get the appointment canceled." James began to shift his confidence from Oldenbarnevelt towards Maurice. Grotius joined
34965-530: Was sentenced to life imprisonment and transferred to Loevestein Castle. From his imprisonment in Loevestein, Grotius made a written justification of his position "as to my views on the power of the Christian [civil] authorities in ecclesiastical matters, I refer to my...booklet De Pietate Ordinum Hollandiae and especially to an unpublished book De Imperio summarum potestatum circa sacra , where I have treated
35154-471: Was so excited by this discovery that he took to the streets naked, having forgotten to dress, crying " Eureka !" ( Greek : "εὕρηκα , heúrēka !, lit. ' I have found [it]! ' ). For practical purposes water is incompressible, so the submerged crown would displace an amount of water equal to its own volume. By dividing the mass of the crown by the volume of water displaced, its density could be obtained; if cheaper and less dense metals had been added,
35343-509: Was soon seen by Counter-Remonstrants as moving beyond the teachings of Arminius into Socinianism and he was accused of teaching irreligion. Leading the call for Vorstius' removal was theology professor Sibrandus Lubbertus . On the other side, Johannes Wtenbogaert (a Remonstrant leader) and Johan van Oldenbarnevelt , Grand Pensionary of Holland, had strongly promoted the appointment of Vorstius and began to defend their actions. Gomarus resigned his professorship at Leyden, in protest that Vorstius
35532-450: Was widely adopted and by the 16th century, humanistic paideia was the dominant outlook of pre-university education. Parallel with advances in education, Renaissance humanists made progress in fields such as philosophy, mathematics, and religion. In philosophy, Angelo Poliziano , Nicholas of Cusa , and Marsilio Ficino further contributed to the understanding of ancient classical philosophers and Giovanni Pico della Mirandola undermined
35721-790: Was written by his friend Heracleides, but this work has been lost, leaving the details of his life obscure. It is unknown, for instance, whether he ever married or had children, or if he ever visited Alexandria , Egypt, during his youth. From his surviving written works, it is clear that he maintained collegial relations with scholars based there, including his friend Conon of Samos and the head librarian Eratosthenes of Cyrene . The standard versions of Archimedes' life were written long after his death by Greek and Roman historians. The earliest reference to Archimedes occurs in The Histories by Polybius ( c. 200–118 BC), written about 70 years after his death. It sheds little light on Archimedes as
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