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54-596: In 1951, Major General Elbert Louis Ford , the Chief of Ordnance for the U.S. Army Ordnance Corps , wrote a letter to Major General Edward MacMorland, the Commanding General at Aberdeen Proving Ground, about the Army’s need for more advanced human factors research. It stated, "It appears timely to provide human engineering assessments in our development engineering designs and in our tests of these designs. Therefore, it

108-805: A land assault vehicle or simply a combat vehicle or an assault vehicle , is a land-based military vehicle intended to be used for combat operations. They differ from non-combat military vehicles such as trucks in that they are designed for use in active combat zones, to be used in mechanized warfare and mobile infantry roles. The classification of "combat vehicle" is a very broad category, and may include armored cars , armored personnel carriers , infantry fighting vehicles , infantry mobility vehicles , MRAPs , and tanks . Improvised fighting vehicles such as technicals can also count as combat vehicles. Most modern combat vehicles have vehicle armor , offensive or defensive weaponry , and sufficient space to carry passengers , equipment , or materiel ; if

162-413: A comparable halon unit. Germany uses this system as a replacement for its halon system. Some systems, such as Germany's previous extinguisher, have a second shot of suppressant to mitigate re-ignition or the effects of a second hit. Though not as instantaneous, portable crew-operable extinguishers are also used inside and outside the vehicle. Typically, portable extinguishers use a CO 2 agent instead of

216-510: A dedicated passenger bay, able to carry up to a dozen or more passengers. Hygiene upkeep is difficult when operating a combat vehicle. Tracked combat vehicles are suited for heavy combat and rough terrain. Wheeled combat vehicles offer improved logistical mobility and optimized speeds on smooth terrain. Silent watch is becoming an increasingly important combat vehicle application. It is a role that requires that all mission requirements be met while keeping acoustic and infrared signature levels to

270-502: A gun to the ease with which an operator could reach a vehicle’s brake pedal, researchers in this directorate evaluated the man–machine interface for gaps in safety and efficiency. Finally, the Human Engineering Applications Directorate worked directly with military installations to ensure that all projects took human factors engineering into account during the design process. In addition to aiding

324-561: A laser range finder for the forward observer that could not only measure distances but also locate targets using an azimuth scale. Two years later, HEL conducted HELBAT II, which saw a reduction in average target location errors from 490 meters to 21 meters with the laser range finder. Improvements to other aspects of the artillery were made in subsequent HELBATs. During the 1970s, HEL conducted five more HELBATs, and HELBAT VIII took place in 1981. HEL also conducted similar field tests on armor systems, infantry systems, and rotorcraft systems during

378-459: A minimum. For this reason, silent watch often requires the vehicle to operate without use of the main engine and sometimes even auxiliary engines. Many modern combat vehicles often have electronic equipment that cannot be supported solely with auxiliary batteries alone. Auxiliary fuel cells are a potential solution for covert operations. Force trackers are not as prevalent as in air forces, but are still essential components of combat vehicles. In

432-405: A soldier’s point of view. Researchers focused on factors such as vision, hearing, endurance, stress, strength, height, and weight, and recorded their findings in a large data bank that other Defense agencies could access. The Systems Performance and Concepts Directorate maintained research teams that performed tests on various weapons and equipment. Considering everything from noise levels produced by

486-511: A three year tour as assistant commandant of the Ordnance School at Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland. The instructional staff at that time numbered but four or five officers, and the student body consisted of about a dozen officers. The Post Commandant also held down the assignment as school commandant. Most instruction was carried on in the second floor (rear) of the present Post Headquarters building. In July 1937, Ford became assistant to

540-469: A total of 257 military and civilian employees and gained international recognition for its research in the field of human factors. During Weisz’s tenure as director, the laboratory underwent several organizational changes. When the Army reorganization took effect in 1962, HEL became a corporate laboratory within the newly established U.S. Army Materiel Command (AMC) and became responsible for coordinating all of

594-492: A weaponized vehicle in a combat environment are great. Use of titanium armor on combat vehicles is increasing. The use of titanium can lighten the vehicle's weight. Appliqué armor can be quickly applied to vehicles and has been utilized on a number of combat vehicles, such as the M8 armored gun system . Contemporary combat vehicles may incorporate a fire-suppression system to mitigate damage from fire. Systems can be employed in

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648-552: Is proposed that certain human engineering services be included in the activities at Aberdeen Proving Ground." In December 1951, the Ordnance Corps established the Human Engineering Group at Aberdeen Proving Ground following studies and surveys that recommended a more concrete, systematized effort of integrating human factors in weapons and equipment design. The group initially consisted of seven people and

702-787: The 18th Chief of Ordnance for the U.S. Army Ordnance Corps . Elbert Louis Ford was born in Milford, Connecticut , one of nine children. He briefly went in to farming, but was later admitted to United States Military Academy at West Point, New York and graduated 39th in a class of 139 Cadets on April 20, 1917, exactly two weeks after the American entry into World War I . Among his fellow graduates included Matthew Ridgway , J. Lawton Collins , Mark W. Clark , Ernest N. Harmon , William W. Eagles , Norman Cota and William Kelly Harrison Jr. All of these men would eventually become future general officers , as would Ford himself. Upon graduation, Ford

756-806: The Ballistic Research Laboratory , the Coating and Chemical Laboratory, the Nuclear Defense Laboratory, and the Army Materiel Systems Analysis Agency to create the Aberdeen Research and Development Center, which was officially established in 1969. In this new organizational structure, each of the five laboratories was managed by a civilian technical director who reported directly to a common commanding officer. However,

810-528: The Bronze and Iron ages. However, weaponry was not installed on the vehicle, relying on the soldier's carried weapon for armament, and armor was effectively limited to a shield and the thin structure of the chariot, if those were even available or sufficient. With the invention of the automobile , combat vehicles took varying forms, ranging from the lightly armored passenger cars of the World War I era to

864-520: The 1980s, HEL focused much of its resources on the Army's Manpower and Personnel Integration (MANPRINT) initiative. As the lead AMC agency for human factors engineering in MANPRINT, HEL developed new policies and tools to address issues related to systems safety, manpower, training, and health hazards in material development programs. HEL was consolidated with the other AMC corporate research laboratories to form ARL in 1992. Its operations were merged with

918-435: The Army’s human factors engineering initiatives. As a part of this reorganization, the laboratory’s name changed from the U.S. Army Ordnance Corps Human Engineering Laboratories to the U.S. Army Human Engineering Laboratories and later to the U.S. Army Human Engineering Laboratory (HEL). During the late 1950s and early 1960s, HEL provided several project offices at Redstone Arsenal with human factors engineering support during

972-867: The Army’s major military specialties as well as regular combat troops and soldiers who completed basic training to help evaluate how an equipment would fare in a battlefield environment. HEL’s research covered areas such as the following: acoustics research , communications-electronics , fire support control, forward area supply and transfer, human visual aspects, learning and memory, logistics systems, military operations on urbanized terrain, physiological and gender factors, robotics , selective attention , stress research, systems integration , target acquisition , test bed vehicle development, text and graphic displays, visual performance, and visual search . HEL initially had three directorates to govern its research and responsibilities. The Behavioral Research Directorate managed basic human factors research that studied systems from

1026-495: The Center lasted only until 1972, and HEL quickly returned to being a corporate laboratory under AMC. In 1975, AMC approved a pilot program that converted the human engineering groups at its Major Subordinate Commands into HEL detachments. HEL also gained field office representatives at major centers and schools in the U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command . When AMC established the U.S. Army Laboratory Command (LABCOM) in 1985, HEL

1080-523: The Coast Artillery. In October 1918, as a major, Ford was put in command of the 15th Antiaircraft Sector at Camp Upton, Virginia, and helped prepare some of the troops for service overseas. When the armistice of November 11, 1918 intervened, Ford commanded the coast defenses of San Juan, Puerto Rico, for five months, then spent three months in France assisting with the shipment of war material to

1134-602: The HEL Armor System Test (HELAST), the HEL infantry system test (HELIST), and the HEL helicopter armament test (HELHAT), respectively. The Human Engineering Laboratory was involved in the development or testing of the following technologies: Elbert L. Ford Major General Elbert Louis Ford (December 2, 1892 – February 25, 1990) was a career officer in the United States Army and served as

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1188-576: The Human Engineering Laboratory Battalion Artillery Test (HELBAT) program, a series of field experiments designed to study the capabilities of the Army’s field artillery battalions. Conducted during the Army’s operational readiness tests, the HELBAT not only enabled HEL to isolate and identify sources of human error during artillery fire but also provided researchers with an opportunity to improve how

1242-1010: The Intelligence Machine Interface team developed the knowledge base for interfacing the soldier with various robotic devices, and the Tactical Logistics Systems team handled the application of AI to logistical systems. The Fire Support and Target Acquisition Division directed efforts to improve the quality and quantity of artillery fire support while also simplifying the tasks necessary to provide this artillery fire support. Researchers often utilized commercially available test bed technologies to evaluate solutions to soldier and machine interface problems. The Test Bed Development team created new systems to evaluate concepts intended to reduce crew size and training requirements as well as increase survivability and firing platform responsiveness. The Combined Arms Command and Control team investigated new methods to simplify

1296-493: The MANPRINT functions of the U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences to create ARL’s Human Research and Engineering Directorate. The Human Engineering Laboratory was responsible for providing the Army with human factors engineering support in the design of combat vehicles , aviation , artillery air defense , weapons, equipment, and more. Human factors engineering places more support in considering

1350-798: The Ordnance School in June 1927, and Course II in March 1928. He was then enrolled in Ordnance Specialists' School at Raritan Arsenal, and completed the course there in June 1928. In September, he was placed in charge of the Metal Components Section, Ammunition Department, at the Office of the Chief of Ordnance. In 1930, he enrolled at the Army Industrial College and graduated in June 1932. Major Ford completed

1404-892: The Reclamation and Maintenance Branch within the Field Services Division. In this office, he had responsibility for rebuilding and reconditioning materiel for use by combat forces overseas. In July 1946, Brigadier General Ford was sent to Europe as Chief of Ordnance to the American forces in the European Theater, and had charge of rebuilding and reconditioning operations, this time in West Germany. Two years later, in June 1948, he returned to Aberdeen Proving Ground as its commanding general, and in August 1949,

1458-794: The United States. By October 1919, he had returned to the States and to duty with the Proof Department at Aberdeen Proving Ground , where he reverted to his permanent grade of captain. On July 1, 1920, Ford was transferred from the Coast Artillery to Ordnance Corps . In September 1921, Major Ford was named Professor of Military Science and Tactics at Yale University , a post he filled for more than three years until transferred to Camp Lewis , Washington, as camp Ordnance and Chemical Warfare officer. After eighteen months there, Ford reported to Watertown Arsenal , where he completed Course I at

1512-399: The artillery evaluations were conducted. Furthermore, it allowed the Army to establish a systematic and repeatable procedure for collecting reliable data of artillery operations on the battalion scale. In 1969, HEL launched HELBAT I, which took place at Fort Hood with battalions of M109 self-propelled 155mm howitzers from the 1st Armored Division . Although the first HELBAT was limited to

1566-617: The design and development of military technologies, HEL researchers also conducted troubleshooting to identify human engineering problems whenever soldiers in the field reported issues with operating or maintaining a piece of equipment. By the late 1980s, HEL was reorganized and divided into six technical divisions: Aviation and Air Defense, Behavioral Research, Close Combat-Light and Heavy, Combat Service Support, Fire Support and Target Acquisition, and Field Support. The Aviation and Air Defense Division featured teams of engineers, computer scientists, and psychologists that worked together to enhance

1620-570: The development of various missile systems, such as the Hawk , Jupiter , Pershing , Saturn, and Patriot systems. However, the process of developing military specifications and standards with the U.S. Army Missile Command revealed severe deficiencies in HEL’s knowledge of human performance, largely due to insufficient equipment and funding. Examples of data voids included the effects of acoustical energy on operator health and performance as well as knowledge on

1674-706: The effects of stress. The Visual Performance team examined new methods to enhance how soldiers process visual stimuli, such as conducting research into eye movements. The Close Combat–Light and Heavy Division evaluated Army weapons, clothing, equipment, and combat vehicles to increase the individual’s survivability and efficacy on the battlefield. The Individual Soldier and Equipment team focused on individual weapons including small arms and light antitank weapons as well as clothing and ancillary equipment such as backpacks and sleeping bags. The Nuclear Biological Chemical Defense team oversaw protective equipment such as chemical protective overgarments, masks, and test kits. The Armor team

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1728-564: The engine and crew compartments and portable systems may be mounted inside and outside the vehicle as well. Automatic fire suppression systems activate instantaneously upon the detection of fire and have been shown to significantly improve crew survivability. Halon fire suppression systems quickly inundate an affected fire breach with a flood of halon to extinguish leaking fuel. Halon remains necessary for crew compartment fire suppression due to space and weight constraints, and toxicity concerns. Nitrogen systems take up about twice as much space as

1782-435: The first two both apply, the vehicle may be considered an armored fighting vehicle . For much of history, most soldiers not fighting on foot (e.g. cavalry ) used military animals such as horses or elephants , as land vehicles for the most part did not exist. One of the earliest forms of "combat vehicles" was the chariot . In ancient warfare , chariots were used as "battle taxis" and mobile archery platforms during

1836-453: The halon agents used in the past. CO 2 can become lethal to vehicle occupants if it accumulates into a deadly concentration. The U.S. Army has adopted a replacement formula consisting of 50% water , 50% potassium acetate . Alternatives such as powder formulas also exist. Combat vehicles require at least one crew member, though typically at least two (one driver and one gunner). Some vehicles, such as armored personnel carriers, also contain

1890-579: The mid-1990s, U.S. weapon developers envisioned a sophisticated communication network where positions of enemy and friendly forces could be relayed to command vehicles and other friendly vehicles. Friendly vehicles could transmit enemy positions to friendly combat vehicles in combat range for efficient annihilation of the enemy. Logistics support could also monitor front-line combat vehicle fuel and ammunition statuses and move in to resupply depleted vehicles. Weapons mounted on combat vehicles are primarily designed for engaging infantry or other combat vehicles at

1944-458: The nation's space effort through its research, engineering, and scientific developments. Ford retired from the Army on October 30, 1953, and died in Washington, D.C., on February 25, 1990, at age 97. [REDACTED]  This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the United States Army . Combat vehicle A ground combat vehicle , also known as

1998-509: The needs and convenience of the operator early in the design phase of weapons and equipment in order to reduce training time, labor, and human error. Researchers at HEL and its field offices conducted human performance tests at Aberdeen Proving Ground or other military installations and later work with material developers and contractors in the material acquisition process to apply their findings in material design. For these human performance tests, researchers brought in non-commissioned officers from

2052-481: The operator interface of aviation and air defense material. The division’s three main teams—the Aviation team, Air Defense team, and Systems Simulation team—applied human factors engineering to the Army’s combined arms counter-air approach to air defense. The Behavioral Research Division researched the psychological and psychophysiological capabilities and limitations of Soldiers. Topics of particular interest included

2106-807: The planning of supporting artillery fires and enhance their responsiveness by improving the command and control interface. The Studies and Concepts team devised new fire support systems concepts, which enabled the team to define fire support system errors and develop a novel Global Positioning System artillery fuze concept. The Field Support Division consisted of 16 field detachments and offices across AMC. Researchers assigned to these detachments and field offices provided human factors advice to material developers and prepared Manpower and Personnel Integration assessments of Army material systems. The division also hosted three developmental shop facilities at Aberdeen which provided direct engineering and prototype fabrication support to researchers. As part of its mission, HEL managed

2160-473: The required crew size with improvements in robotics . Enhancements to automation can help achieve operational effectiveness with a smaller, more economical, combat vehicle force. The automation of combat vehicles has proved to be difficult due to the time latency between the operator controlling the vehicle and the signal being received. Unlike air forces, ground forces must navigate the terrain and plan around obstacles. The rapid tactical implications of operating

2214-514: The soldier–machine interface, performance in stressful environments, and human information processing. Within the division, four major teams carried out the research. The Auditory Performance team studied the mechanisms by which noises affect soldiers. The Remote Operations and Information Processing team conducted research that improved the effectiveness of systems that rely on indirect or altered presentations of visual information. The Stress and Performance team generated performance data that quantified

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2268-541: The study of surprise predicted fire, it revealed that the biggest source of error, about 50 percent of the total system error, was the forward observer’s inability to locate themselves and their targets accurately. The test found that soldiers often made errors when estimating range at long distances and had difficulty reading the M2 artillery compass. Following HELBAT I, HEL worked with the Frankford Arsenal to develop

2322-475: The symbolic representation of information on displays. In response, HEL identified the areas that required in-depth research and initiated experiments to specifically fill those data voids. These improvements eventually enabled the laboratory to develop the first simulation of the operating consoles for the Patriot system as well as apply human factors engineering to its design. In 1968, the Army consolidated HEL,

2376-550: The two year Command and General Staff course at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas, in June 1934. During his second summer at Leavenworth, the School was closed, and all students were given temporary assignments with the newly created Civilian Conservation Corps . Ford worked with 250 young men in several national forests in Oregon, opening up trails so that firefighters could more readily gain access to forest fires. In July 1934, Ford began

2430-500: The war would be over within a short period of time. The Army adopted the 280mm atomic cannon in 1952. Other items introduced under Ford's aegis were the 75mm radar controlled Skysweeper anti aircraft gun , the Nike anti aircraft guided missile , and a new series of battle tanks . At the newly created Redstone Arsenal , a spectacular array of new rockets and guided missiles were under development. The Ordnance Department also contributed to

2484-475: The widely fielded Willys MB of World War II , along with a wide variety of other combat vehicles such as half-tracks and multiple classifications of tanks . Development of combat vehicles continued into the Cold War as military tactics and technology evolved, diversifying the role of vehicles in war and making them an essential aspect of modern warfare . The automation of human tasks endeavors to reduce

2538-521: The works manager at Springfield Armory , rising to the post of works manager in December 1940. Here he was concerned with development of new weapons, concentrating on the M1 Garand Rifle . The staff at Springfield was very small in the late 1930s, numbering fewer than 200 employees, but this had risen to 11,000 by the time Ford left Springfield for his next assignment. While at Springfield, Ford

2592-590: Was assigned to the Coast Artillery branch and spent his first year as an officer watching Boston Harbor for possible German submarines. By August 1917, he was a temporary captain. After a very brief tour as regimental instructor with the 65th Engineers at Camp Upton , New York, he attended the Heavy Artillery and Anti-Aircraft Schools at Fort Monroe , Virginia, for several months. In June 1918, he returned to Massachusetts for several months' duty with

2646-599: Was designated Chief of Staff at Headquarters, North African Theater of Operations , under General Everett Hughes , later to be his predecessor as Chief of Ordnance. While in North Africa, he was promoted to brigadier general, and in May 1944, he returned to Washington as chief of the Stock Control Branch, Field Services Division Office, Office of the Chief of Ordnance. The following month, he became Chief of

2700-422: Was led by its first director, Dr. Ben Ami Blau, who slowly increased the work force to around 40 military and civilian personnel. In 1953, the group’s name was officially changed to the U.S. Army Ordnance Corps Human Engineering Laboratories. In February 1957, Dr. John D. Weisz succeeded Blau as director and served in this position for over 35 years until his retirement in 1992. By that point, the organization amassed

2754-921: Was one of the laboratories that became incorporated under the new Major Subordinate Command. Other elements that were realigned under LABCOM included the Ballistic Research Laboratory , the Harry Diamond Laboratories , the Materials Technology Laboratory, the Electronics Technology and Devices Laboratory , the Vulnerability Assessment Laboratory , the Atmospheric Sciences Laboratory , and the Army Research Office. During

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2808-677: Was promoted to major general as the 18th Chief of Ordnance for the U.S. Army. During his four-year tour, Ford labored to organize and direct wartime production for the Korean War under peacetime restrictions. A number of plant facilities had to be put back into production capability to manufacture ammunition and other materiel for Korea. Production facilities were also set up in Japan to rebuild weapons and vehicles for use in Korea. Planning and production were complicated by official assumptions that

2862-648: Was responsible for human factors engineering considerations in tracked and wheeled combat vehicles, such as tanks, trucks, and jeeps. The Modeling Applications and Analysis team and the Systems Integration team developed ergonomic models and analysis technologies, respectively, that helped inform new designs. The Combat Service Support Division consisted of teams that conducted research related to artificial intelligence and robotics. The Robotic Sciences and Military Applications team explored robotic applications to improve survivability in adverse environments,

2916-666: Was twice promoted. In June 1942, six months after the American entry into World War II , Colonel Ford was assigned to the Ordnance Section, Headquarters Services of Supply, in the European Theater of Operations , with primary concern for maintenance matters. In September of that same year, he became Chief Ordnance Officer at Allied Force Headquarters. Still operating in this capacity, he transferred his operations to North Africa in November 1942. In February 1943, he

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