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61-439: The word "humerus" is derived from Late Latin humerus , from Latin umerus , meaning upper arm, shoulder, and is linguistically related to Gothic ams (shoulder) and Greek ōmos . The upper or proximal extremity of the humerus consists of the bone's large rounded head joined to the body by a constricted portion called the neck, and two eminences, the greater and lesser tubercles. The head ( caput humeri ),

122-534: A "decline and fall", as Edward Gibbon put it, of imperial society. Writers taking this line relied heavily on the scandalous behavior of the Julio-Claudian dynasty and the bad emperors reported by Tacitus and other writers and later by the secret history of Procopius , who hated his royal employers to such a degree that he could not contain himself about their real methods and way of life any longer. They, however, spoke elegant Latin. The Protestants changed

183-406: A decadency, that it became nothing better than a barbarous jargon. It is the style of these times that is given the name of Low Latin .... What indeed could be expected from this language, at a time when the barbarians had taken possession of Europe, but especially of Italy; when the empire of the east was governed by idiots; when there was a total corruption of morals; when the priests and monks were

244-420: A deep groove, the bicipital groove (intertubercular groove; bicipital sulcus), which lodges the long tendon of the biceps brachii muscle and transmits a branch of the anterior humeral circumflex artery to the shoulder-joint. It runs obliquely downward, and ends near the junction of the upper with the middle third of the bone. In the fresh state its upper part is covered with a thin layer of cartilage, lined by

305-554: A large empire, Latin tended to become simpler, to keep above all what it had of the ordinary." The origin of the term 'Late Latin' remains obscure. A notice in Harper's New Monthly Magazine of the publication of Andrews' Freund's Lexicon of the Latin Language in 1850 mentions that the dictionary divides Latin into ante-classic, quite classic, Ciceronian, Augustan, post-Augustan and post-classic or late Latin, which indicates

366-399: A prolongation of the synovial membrane of the shoulder-joint; its lower portion gives insertion to the tendon of the latissimus dorsi muscle . It is deep and narrow above, and becomes shallow and a little broader as it descends. Its lips are called, respectively, the crests of the greater and lesser tubercles ( bicipital ridges ), and form the upper parts of the anterior and medial borders of

427-579: A second unity of style, infima Latinitas , translated into English as "Low Latin" (which in the one-period case would be identical to media Latinitas ). Du Cange in the glossarial part of his Glossary identifies some words as being used by purioris Latinitatis scriptores , such as Cicero (of the Golden Age). He has already said in the Preface that he rejects the ages scheme used by some: Golden Age, Silver Age, Brass Age, Iron Age. A second category are

488-510: A single continuous style. Of the two-style interpretations the Late Latin period of Erich Auerbach and others is one of the shortest: "In the first half of the 6th century, which witnessed the beginning and end of Ostrogoth rule in Italy , Latin literature becomes medieval. Boethius was the last 'ancient' author and the role of Rome as the center of the ancient world, as communis patria ,

549-482: Is 900 CE. until 75 BC Old Latin 75 BC – 200 AD Classical Latin 200–700 Late Latin 700–1500 Medieval Latin 1300–1500 Renaissance Latin 1300– present Neo-Latin 1900– present Contemporary Latin Epicondyle An epicondyle ( / ɛ p ɪ ˈ k ɒ n d aɪ l / ) is a rounded eminence on a bone that lies upon a condyle ( epi- , "upon" + condyle , from

610-456: Is an important source of information about changes in the spoken language, while not being a simple replication of the state of the oral language at the time. Also, Late Latin is not identical to Christian patristic Latin, used in the theological writings of the early Christian fathers. While Christian writings used a subset of Late Latin, pagans , such as Ammianus Marcellinus or Macrobius , also wrote extensively in Late Latin, especially in

671-411: Is divided into two parts by a slight ridge. Projecting on either side are the lateral and medial epicondyles . The articular surface extends a little lower than the epicondyles, and is curved slightly forward; its medial extremity occupies a lower level than the lateral. The lateral portion of this surface consists of a smooth, rounded eminence, named the capitulum of the humerus ; it articulates with

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732-407: Is most corrupt. By corrupt, du Cange only meant that the language had resorted to nonclassical vocabulary and constructs from various sources, but his choice of words was unfortunate. It allowed the "corruption" to extend to other aspects of society, providing fuel for the fires of religious (Catholic vs. Protestant) and class (conservative vs. revolutionary) conflict. Low Latin passed from the heirs of

793-404: Is nearly hemispherical in form. It is directed upward, medialward, and a little backward, and articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula to form the glenohumeral joint (shoulder joint) . The circumference of its articular surface is slightly constricted and is termed the anatomical neck, in contradistinction to a constriction below the tubercles called the surgical neck which is frequently

854-410: Is received in extension of the forearm. The coronoid fossa is the medial hollow part on the anterior surface of the distal humerus. The coronoid fossa is smaller than the olecranon fossa and receives the coronoid process of the ulna during maximum flexion of the elbow. Above the front part of the capitulum is a slight depression, the radial fossa , which receives the anterior border of the head of

915-404: Is sometimes popularly referred to as 'the funny bone', possibly due to this sensation (a "funny" feeling), as well as the fact that the bone's name is a homophone of 'humorous'. It lies posterior to the medial epicondyle, and is easily damaged in elbow injuries. The deltoid originates on the lateral third of the clavicle , acromion and the crest of the spine of the scapula. It is inserted on

976-572: Is understanding what media , "middle", and infima , "low", mean in this context. The term media is securely connected to Medieval Latin by du Cange's own terminology expounded in the Praefatio , such as scriptores mediae aetatis , "writers of the middle age". Du Cange's Glossary takes words from authors ranging from the Christian period (Late Latin) to the Renaissance , dipping into

1037-481: The 3rd to 6th centuries AD , and continuing into the 7th century in the Iberian Peninsula . This somewhat ambiguously defined version of Latin was used between the eras of Classical Latin and Medieval Latin . Scholars do not agree exactly when Classical Latin should end or Medieval Latin should begin. Being a written language, Late Latin is not the same as Vulgar Latin , or more specifically,

1098-471: The Holy Roman Empire ) under Charlemagne . Toward the end of his reign his administration conducted some language reforms. The first recognition that Late Latin could not be understood by the masses and therefore was not a lingua franca was the decrees of 813 CE by synods at Mainz , Rheims Tours that from then on preaching was to be done in a language more understandable to the people, which

1159-491: The classical period if a word originated there. Either media et infima Latinitas refers to one age, which must be the middle age covering the entire post-classical range, or it refers to two consecutive periods, infima Latinitas and media Latinitas . Both interpretations have their adherents. In the former case, the infimae appears extraneous; it recognizes the corruptio of the corrupta Latinitas which du Cange said his Glossary covered. The two-period case postulates

1220-463: The deltoid tuberosity of the humerus and has several actions including abduction, extension, and circumduction of the shoulder. The supraspinatus also originates on the spine of the scapula. It inserts on the greater tubercle of the humerus, and assists in abduction of the shoulder. The pectoralis major , teres major , and latissimus dorsi insert at the intertubercular groove of the humerus. They work to adduct and medially, or internally, rotate

1281-407: The inferioris Latinitatis scriptores , such as Apuleius (Silver Age). The third and main category are the infimae Latinitatis scriptores , who must be post-classical; that is, Late Latin, unless they are also medieval. His failure to state which authors are low leaves the issue unresolved. He does, however, give some idea of the source of his infima , which is a classical word, "lowest", of which

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1342-406: The semilunar notch of the ulna; it is broader and deeper on the posterior than on the anterior aspect of the bone, and is inclined obliquely downward and forward toward the medial side. At the shoulder, the head of the humerus articulates with the glenoid fossa of the scapula . More distally, at the elbow, the capitulum of the humerus articulates with the head of the radius , and the trochlea of

1403-410: The teres minor muscle . The lateral surface of the greater tubercle is convex, rough, and continuous with the lateral surface of the body. The lesser tubercle ( tuberculum minus ; lesser tuberosity) is smaller, anterolaterally placed to the head of the humerus. The lesser tubercle provides insertion to subscapularis muscle. Both these tubercles are found in the proximal part of the shaft. The crest of

1464-534: The Italian renaissance to the new philologists of the northern and Germanic climes, where it became a different concept. In Britain, Gildas ' view that Britain fell to the Anglo-Saxons because it was morally slack was already well known to the scholarly world. The northern Protestants now worked a role reversal; if the language was "corrupt", it must be symptomatic of a corrupt society, which indubitably led to

1525-753: The Silver Age and then goes on to define other ages first by dynasty and then by century (see under Classical Latin ). In subsequent editions he subsumed all periods under three headings: the First Period ( Old Latin ), the Second Period (the Golden Age) and the Third Period, "the Imperial Age", subdivided into the Silver Age, the 2nd century, and the 3rd–6th centuries together, which was a recognition of Late Latin, as he sometimes refers to

1586-543: The author. Its origins are obscure, but the Latin expression media et infima Latinitas sprang into public notice in 1678 in the title of a Glossary (by today's standards a dictionary) by Charles du Fresne, sieur du Cange . The multivolume set had many editions and expansions by other authors subsequently. The title varies somewhat; most commonly used was Glossarium Mediae et Infimae Latinitatis . It has been translated by expressions of widely different meanings. The uncertainty

1647-423: The body of the bone. The body or shaft of the humerus is triangular to cylindrical in cut section and is compressed anteroposteriorly. It has 3 surfaces, namely: Its three borders are: The deltoid tuberosity is a roughened surface on the lateral surface of the shaft of the humerus and acts as the site of insertion of deltoideus muscle. The posterorsuperior part of the shaft has a crest, beginning just below

1708-459: The comparative degree is inferior , "lower". In the preface, he opposes the style of the scriptores aevi inferioris (Silver Age) to the elegantes sermones , "elegant speech", the high and low styles of Latinitas defined by the classical authors. Apparently, du Cange was basing his low style on sermo humilis , the simplified speech devised by Late Latin Christian writers to address the ordinary people. Humilis (humble, humility) means "low", "of

1769-407: The cup-shaped depression on the head of the radius, and is limited to the front and lower part of the bone. Above the front part of the trochlea is a small depression, the coronoid fossa , which receives the coronoid process of the ulna during flexion of the forearm. Above the back part of the trochlea is a deep triangular depression, the olecranon fossa , in which the summit of the olecranon

1830-514: The early part of the period. Late Latin formed when large numbers of non-Latin-speaking peoples on the borders of the empire were being subsumed and assimilated, and the rise of Christianity was introducing a heightened divisiveness in Roman society, creating a greater need for a standard language for communicating between different socioeconomic registers and widely separated regions of the sprawling empire. A new and more universal speech evolved from

1891-554: The end of the Silver Age as the death of Hadrian at 138 CE. His classification of styles left a century between that event and his final period, the 3rd–6th centuries CE, which was in other systems being considered Late Antiquity. Starting with Charles Thomas Crutwell's A History of Roman Literature from the Earliest Period to the Death of Marcus Aurelius , which first came out in 1877, English literary historians have included

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1952-463: The first structures to ossify, beginning with the first ossification center in the shaft of the bone. Ossification of the humerus occurs predictably in the embryo and fetus, and is therefore used as a fetal biometric measurement when determining gestational age of a fetus. At birth, the neonatal humerus is only ossified in the shaft. The epiphyses are cartilaginous at birth. The medial humeral head develops an ossification center around 4 months of age and

2013-515: The greater tuberosity around 10 months of age. These ossification centers begin to fuse at 3 years of age. The process of ossification is complete by 13 years of age, though the epiphyseal plate (growth plate) persists until skeletal maturity, usually around 17 years of age. Late Latin Late Latin is the scholarly name for the form of Literary Latin of late antiquity . English dictionary definitions of Late Latin date this period from

2074-409: The ground". The Christian writers were not interested in the elegant speech of the best or classical Latin, which belonged to their aristocratic pagan opponents. Instead, they preferred a humbler style lower in correctness, so that they might better deliver the gospel to the vulgus or "common people". Low Latin in this view is the Latin of the two periods in which it has the least degree of purity, or

2135-417: The head from the rest of the upper end is called the anatomical neck. It affords attachment to the articular capsule of the shoulder-joint, and is perforated by numerous vascular foramens . Fracture of the anatomical neck rarely occurs. The anatomical neck of the humerus is an indentation distal to the head of the humerus on which the articular capsule attaches. The surgical neck is a narrow area distal to

2196-431: The humerus articulates with the trochlear notch of the ulna . The axillary nerve is located at the proximal end, against the shoulder girdle. Dislocation of the humerus's glenohumeral joint has the potential to injure the axillary nerve or the axillary artery . Signs and symptoms of this dislocation include a loss of the normal shoulder contour and a palpable depression under the acromion. The radial nerve follows

2257-409: The humerus closely. At the midshaft of the humerus, the radial nerve travels from the posterior to the anterior aspect of the bone in the spiral groove . A fracture of the humerus in this region can result in radial nerve injury. The ulnar nerve lies at the distal end of the humerus near the elbow. When struck, it can cause a distinct tingling sensation, and sometimes a significant amount of pain. It

2318-411: The humerus. The infraspinatus and teres minor insert on the greater tubercle, and work to laterally, or externally, rotate the humerus. In contrast, the subscapularis muscle inserts onto the lesser tubercle and works to medially, or internally, rotate the humerus. The biceps brachii , brachialis , and brachioradialis (which attaches distally) act to flex the elbow. (The biceps do not attach to

2379-519: The humerus.) The triceps brachii and anconeus extend the elbow, and attach to the posterior side of the humerus. The four muscles of supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor and subscapularis form a musculo-ligamentous girdle called the rotator cuff . This cuff stabilizes the very mobile but inherently unstable glenohumeral joint . The other muscles are used as counterbalances for the actions of lifting/pulling and pressing/pushing. Primitive fossils of amphibians had little, if any, shaft connecting

2440-409: The lateral lip of the bicipital groove and is the site for insertion of pectoralis major . The greater tubercle is just lateral to the anatomical neck. Its upper surface is rounded and marked by three flat impressions: the highest of these gives insertion to the supraspinatus muscle ; the middle to the infraspinatus muscle ; the lowest one, and the body of the bone for about 2.5 cm. below it, to

2501-438: The lateral part of the distal humerus. The head of the radius articulates with the capitulum. The trochlea is spool-shaped medial portion of the distal humerus and articulates with the ulna. The epicondyles are continuous above with the supracondylar ridges. The medial supracondylar crest forms the sharp medial border of the distal humerus continuing superiorly from the medial epicondyle. The lateral supracondylar crest forms

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2562-426: The lesser tubercle forms the medial lip of the bicipital groove and is the site for insertion of teres major and latissimus dorsi muscles. The lesser tuberosity, is more prominent than the greater: it is situated in front, and is directed medialward and forward. Above and in front it presents an impression for the insertion of the tendon of the subscapularis muscle . The tubercles are separated from each other by

2623-419: The main elements: Classical Latin, Christian Latin, which featured sermo humilis (ordinary speech) in which the people were to be addressed, and all the various dialects of Vulgar Latin . The linguist Antoine Meillet wrote: "Without the exterior appearance of the language being much modified, Latin became in the course of the imperial epoch a new language... Serving as some sort of lingua franca to

2684-499: The mainstream philologists of Latin literature. A few writers on the periphery still mention it, influenced by the dictionaries and classic writings of former times. As Teuffel's scheme of the Golden Age and the Silver Age is the generally accepted one, the canonical list of authors should begin just after the end of the Silver Age, regardless of what 3rd century event is cited as the beginning; otherwise there are gaps. Teuffel gave

2745-447: The only men of letters, and were at the same time the most ignorant and futile mortals in the world. Under these times of darkness, we must, therefore, rank that Latin, which is called lingua ecclesiastica , and which we cannot read without disgust. As 'Low Latin' tends to be muddled with Vulgar Latin , Late Latin, and Medieval Latin , and has unfortunate extensions of meaning into the sphere of socio-economics, it has gone out of use by

2806-411: The radius, when the forearm is flexed. These fossæ are separated from one another by a thin, transparent lamina of bone, which is sometimes perforated by a supratrochlear foramen ; they are lined in the fresh state by the synovial membrane of the elbow-joint , and their margins afford attachment to the anterior and posterior ligaments of this articulation. The capitulum is a rounded eminence forming

2867-409: The rule of Gothic kings prevailed. Subsequently, the term Imperial Latin was dropped by historians of Latin literature, although it may be seen in marginal works. The Silver Age was extended a century, and the four centuries following made use of Late Latin. Low Latin is a vague and often pejorative term that might refer to any post-classical Latin from Late Latin through Renaissance Latin, depending on

2928-478: The scenario to fit their ideology that the church needed to be purified of corruption. For example, Baron Bielfeld , a Prussian officer and comparative Latinist, characterised the low in Low Latin, which he saw as medieval Latin, as follows: The fourth age of the Latin tongue is that of the remainder of the middle age, and the 1st centuries of modern times, during which the language fell by degrees into so great

2989-422: The seat of fracture. Fracture of the anatomical neck rarely occurs. The diameter of the humeral head is generally larger in men than in women. The anatomical neck ( collum anatomicum ) is obliquely directed, forming an obtuse angle with the body. It is best marked in the lower half of its circumference; in the upper half it is represented by a narrow groove separating the head from the tubercles. The line separating

3050-436: The sharp lateral border of the distal humerus continuing superiorly from the lateral epicondyle. The medial portion of the articular surface is named the trochlea , and presents a deep depression between two well-marked borders; it is convex from before backward, concave from side to side, and occupies the anterior, lower, and posterior parts of the extremity. The grooved portion of the articular surface fits accurately within

3111-563: The spare century in Silver Latin. Accordingly, the latter ends with the death of the last of the five good emperors in 180 CE. Other authors use other events, such as the end of the Nervan–Antonine dynasty in 192 CE or later events. A good round date of 200  CE gives a canonical list of nearly no overlap. The transition between Late Latin and Medieval Latin is by no means as easy to assess. Taking that media et infima Latinitas

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3172-399: The spiral groove is continuous distally with the lateral border of the shaft. The nutrient foramen of the humerus is located in the anteromedial surface of the humerus. The nutrient arteries enter the humerus through this foramen. The distal or lower extremity of the humerus is flattened from before backward, and curved slightly forward; it ends below in a broad, articular surface, which

3233-461: The spoken Latin of the post Imperial period. The latter served as ancestor of the Romance languages . Although Late Latin reflects an upsurge of the use of Vulgar Latin vocabulary and constructs, it remains largely classical in its overall features, depending on the author who uses it. Some Late Latin writings are more literary and classical, but others are more inclined to the vernacular . As such it

3294-438: The surgical neck of the humerus and extends till the superior tip of the deltoid tuberosity. This is where the lateral head of triceps brachii is attached. The radial sulcus, also known as the spiral groove is found on the posterior surface of the shaft and is a shallow oblique groove through which the radial nerve passes along with deep vessels. This is located posteroinferior to the deltoid tuberosity. The inferior boundary of

3355-466: The term already was in professional use by English classicists in the early 19th century. Instances of English vernacular use of the term may also be found from the 18th century. The term Late Antiquity meaning post-classical and pre-medieval had currency in English well before then. Wilhelm Siegmund Teuffel 's first edition (1870) of History of Roman Literature defined an early period, the Golden Age,

3416-414: The tubercles that is a common site of fracture. It makes contact with the axillary nerve and the posterior humeral circumflex artery . The greater tubercle ( tuberculum majus ; greater tuberosity) is a large, posteriorly placed projection that is placed laterally. The greater tubercle is where supraspinatus , infraspinatus and teres minor muscles are attached. The crest of the greater tubercle forms

3477-408: The upper and lower extremities, making their limbs very short. In most living tetrapods , however, the humerus has a similar form to that of humans. In many reptiles and some mammals (where it is the primitive state), the lower extremity includes a large opening called the entepicondylar foramen to allow the passage of nerves and blood vessels. During embryonic development, the humerus is one of

3538-504: The writings of those times as "late". Imperial Latin went on into English literature; Fowler's History of Roman Literature mentions it in 1903. The beginning and end of Imperial Latin is not well defined. Politically, the excluded Augustan Period is the paradigm of imperiality, but the style cannot be grouped with either the Silver Age or with Late Latin. In 6th-century Italy, the Western Roman Empire no longer existed and

3599-459: Was at an end." In essence, the lingua franca of classical vestiges was doomed when Italy was overrun by the Goths, but its momentum carried it one lifetime further, ending with the death of Boethius in 524 CE. Not everyone agrees that the lingua franca came to an end with the fall of Rome, but argue that it continued and became the language of the reinstituted Carolingian Empire (predecessor of

3660-435: Was one style, Mantello in a recent handbook asserts of "the Latin used in the middle ages" that it is "here interpreted broadly to include late antiquity and therefore to extend from c. AD 200 to 1500." Although recognizing "late antiquity" he does not recognize Late Latin. It did not exist and Medieval Latin began directly from 200 CE. In this view all differences from Classical Latin are bundled as though they evolved through

3721-421: Was stated by Tours Canon 17 as rustica Romana lingua , identified as Romance , the descendant of Vulgar Latin . Late Latin as defined by Meillet was at an end; however, Pucci's Harrington's Mediaeval Latin sets the end of Late Latin when Romance began to be written, "Latin retired to the cloister" and " Romanitas lived on only in the fiction of the Holy Roman Empire ." The final date given by those authors

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