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59-746: The Humpty Doo Rice Project , also known as the Humpty Doo Rice Trail was a failed rice growing project in Humpty Doo , and surrounding areas, in the Northern Territory . The company that undertook this project was Territory Rice Limited and it was once billed as "Australia's rice bowl". It is on the lands of the Limilngan and Wulna peoples. Parts of the former site of the Humpty Doo Rice Trail are now

118-403: A branched inflorescence which arises from the last internode on the stem. There can be up to 350 spikelets in a panicle, each containing male and female flower parts ( anthers and ovule ). A fertilised ovule develops into the edible grain or caryopsis . Rice is a cereal belonging to the family Poaceae . As a tropical crop, it can be grown during the two distinct seasons (dry and wet) of

177-411: A role in various religions and traditions, such as in weddings . The rice plant can grow to over 1 m (3 ft) tall; if in deep water, it can reach a length of 5 m (16 ft). A single plant may have several leafy stems or tillers . The upright stem is jointed with nodes along its length; a long slender leaf arises from each node. The self-fertile flowers are produced in a panicle ,

236-514: A single domestication event for O. sativa . Both indica and japonica forms of Asian rice sprang from a single domestication event in China from the wild rice Oryza rufipogon . Despite this evidence, it appears that indica rice arose when japonica arrived in India about 4,500 years ago and hybridised with another rice, whether an undomesticated proto- indica or wild O. nivara . Rice

295-558: A survey. He arrived in Darwin on 15 May 1911 and spent 5 months touring the region. It was claimed that his optimistic presence: ‘ “revived the flagging hopes of the half-dozen people who are engaged in agriculture”. One the completion of his survey he recommended that two demonstration farms be established – one on the Daly River and one at Rum Jungle (Batchelor) with the hope that they would improve resources and attract labour to

354-440: A wide variety of pests including insects, nematodes, rodents such as rats, snails, and birds. Major rice insect pests include armyworms, rice bugs , black bugs , cutworms, field crickets, grasshoppers, leafhoppers, mealybugs, and planthoppers. High rates of nitrogen fertiliser application may worsen aphid outbreaks. Weather conditions can contribute to pest outbreaks: rice gall midge outbreaks are worsened by high rainfall in

413-571: A workers village, built a rice mills at Coolalinga and built an airfield. In exchange for their investment, the government built a power line from Darwin to the required sites and the Royal Australian Air Force's construction squadron built the Fogg Dam in 1956 and Harrison Dam in 1958. The government also provided additional capital, local administration and research into rice varieties and growing techniques. The dams and

472-436: Is rainfed like wheat or maize. Across Asia, unmilled rice or "paddy" (Indonesian and Malay padi ), was traditionally the product of smallholder agriculture, with manual harvesting . Larger farms make use of machines such as combine harvesters to reduce the input of labour. The grain is ready to harvest when the moisture content is 20–25%. Harvesting involves reaping , stacking the cut stalks, threshing to separate

531-678: Is 69% water, 29% carbohydrates , 2% protein , and contains negligible fat (table). In a reference serving of 100 grams (3.5 oz), cooked white rice provides 130 calories of food energy , and contains moderate levels of manganese (18% DV), with no other micronutrients in significant content (all less than 10% of the Daily Value ). In 2018, the World Health Organization strongly recommended fortifying rice with iron , and conditionally recommended fortifying it with vitamin A and with folic acid . Golden rice

590-627: Is a major food staple in Asia, Latin America, and some parts of Africa, feeding over half the world's population. However, a substantial part of the crop can be lost post-harvest through inefficient transportation, storage, and milling. A quarter of the crop in Nigeria is lost after harvest. Storage losses include damage by mould fungi if the rice is not dried sufficiently. In China, losses in modern metal silos were just 0.2%, compared to 7–13% when rice

649-504: Is a variety produced through genetic engineering to synthesize beta-carotene , a precursor of vitamin A, in the endosperm of the rice grain. It is intended to be grown and eaten in parts of the world where Vitamin A deficiency is prevalent. Golden rice has been opposed by activists, such as in the Philippines . In 2016 more than 100 Nobel laureates encouraged the use of genetically modified organisms , such as golden rice, for

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708-581: Is based on four principles: biodiversity, host plant resistance, landscape ecology, and hierarchies in a landscape—from biological to social. Farmers' pesticide applications are often unnecessary. Pesticides may actually induce resurgence of populations of rice pests such as the brown planthopper , both by destroying beneficial insects and by enhancing the pest's reproduction. The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) demonstrated in 1993 that an 87.5% reduction in pesticide use can lead to an overall drop in pest numbers. Farmers in China, Indonesia and

767-508: Is from Asia. The average world yield for rice was 4.7 metric tons per hectare (2.1 short tons per acre), in 2022. Yuan Longping of China's National Hybrid Rice Research and Development Center set a world record for rice yield in 1999 at 17.1 metric tons per hectare (7.6 short tons per acre) on a demonstration plot. This employed specially developed hybrid rice and the System of Rice Intensification (SRI), an innovation in rice farming. Rice

826-812: Is sister to the bamboos, Bambusoideae , and the cereal subfamily Pooideae . The rice genus Oryza is one of eleven in the Oryzeae; it is sister to the Phyllorachideae . The edible rice species O. sativa and O. glaberrima are among some 300 species or subspecies in the genus. other grasses (inc. the C4 grasses , maize , sorghum ) Streptogyneae Ehrharteae Phyllorachideae Wild rices inc. Zizania other rice species and subspecies O. sativa (Asian rice) O. glaberrima (African rice) Bambusoideae (bamboos) Pooideae (grasses and cereals inc. wheat , barley ) Oryza sativa rice

885-694: Is stickier, and is used for sweet dishes, and in Italy for risotto ; and sticky short-grain rice is used in Japanese sushi as it keeps its shape when cooked. White rice when cooked contains 29% carbohydrate and 2% protein, with some manganese . Golden rice is a variety produced by genetic engineering to contain vitamin A . Production of rice is estimated to have caused over 1% of global greenhouse gas emissions in 2022. Predictions of how rice yields will be affected by climate change vary across geographies and socioeconomic contexts. In human culture, rice plays

944-438: Is subjected to a steaming process before it is milled. This makes the grain harder, and moves some of the grain's vitamins and minerals into the white part of the rice so these are retained after milling. Rice does not contain gluten , so is suitable for people on a gluten-free diet . Rice is a good source of protein and a staple food in many parts of the world, but it is not a complete protein as it does not contain all of

1003-406: Is to flood the field to a depth of 5 cm (2 in), then to let the water level drop to 15 cm (6 in) below surface level, as measured by looking into a perforated field water tube sunk into the soil, and then repeating the cycle. Deepwater rice varieties tolerate flooding to a depth of over 50 centimetres for at least a month. Upland rice is grown without flooding, in hilly or mountainous regions; it

1062-471: Is used as a model organism in biology. Dry rice grain is milled to remove the outer layers; depending on how much is removed, products range from brown rice to rice with germ and white rice. Some is parboiled to make it easy to cook. Rice contains no gluten ; it provides protein but not all the essential amino acids needed for good health. Rice of different types is eaten around the world. Long-grain rice tends to stay intact on cooking; medium-grain rice

1121-777: The Fogg Dam Conservation Reserve and the Harrison Dam Conservation Reserve . Planning for the Humpty Doo Rice Project began in 1953 when Harold Holt , the then Minister for Labour and National Service, met with Allen Chase, an American entrepreneur at a party in Los Angeles . Holt told Chase about the Northern Territory's potential for growing rice and the success that Chinese farmers had in

1180-440: The essential amino acids in sufficient amounts for good health. World trade figures are much smaller than those for production, as less than 8% of rice produced is traded internationally. China, an exporter of rice in the early 2000s, had become the world's largest importer of rice by 2013. Developing countries are the main players in the world rice trade; by 2012, India was the largest exporter of rice, with Thailand and Vietnam

1239-589: The 1800s and 1926 and encouraged him to invest. The Commonwealth Government, through Holt, wanted to further develop the population of North Australia, following World War II ; it also knew that Asia would need rice to feed its growing population. Rice had already been grown successfully at the Ivanhoe Station in Kununurra, Western Australia , however as with other areas in Northern Australia

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1298-478: The 21st century as people in Asia and elsewhere ate less grain and more meat. An exception is Sub-Saharan Africa, where both per capita consumption of rice and population are increasing. Rice is a commonly-eaten food around the world. The varieties of rice are typically classified as short-, medium-, and long-grained. Oryza sativa indica varieties are usually long-grained; Oryza sativa japonica varieties are usually short- or medium-grained. Short-grain rice, with

1357-704: The Americas by the Spanish. In British North America by the time of the start of the American War of Independence , rice had become the fourth most valuable export commodity behind only tobacco, wheat, and fish. In 2021, world production of rice was 787 million tonnes , led by China and India with a combined 52% of the total. This placed rice fourth in the list of crops by production, after sugarcane , maize , and wheat . Other major producers were Bangladesh , Indonesia and Vietnam . 90% of world production

1416-559: The Humpty Doo Rice Project lead to significant population growth in the area due to the infrastructure put in place and the area it once leased is still farmed, in various capacities. Rice Rice is a cereal grain and in its domesticated form is the staple food of over half of the world's population , particularly in Asia and Africa . Rice is the seed of the grass species Oryza sativa (Asian rice)—or, much less commonly, Oryza glaberrima (African rice). Asian rice

1475-529: The NT" and called for an inquiry into what he called the "rice racket". Nelson also compared the failures of the project and the high expenditure by the government to the earlier failure of the Batchelor Demonstration Farm which had closed in 1919. Following this liquidation local creditors and farmers formed Adelaide River Limited and Rice Development Proprietary Limited and took control of

1534-466: The Philippines have traditionally managed weeds and pests by the polycultural practice of raising ducks and sometimes fish in their rice paddies. These produce valuable additional crops, eat small pest animals, manure the rice, and in the case of ducks also control weeds. Rice plants produce their own chemical defences to protect themselves from pest attacks. Some synthetic chemicals, such as

1593-412: The assets and debts of the company and hoped to bring their practical experience to the project. These local investors did produce higher rice yields but ceased operations in 1964 due to slow payment for crops, limited government support and not wishing to borrow more money. The Humpty Doo Rice Project struggled due to a variety of factors and magpie geese are often listed as one of the major issues that

1652-501: The associated irrigation systems they built were essential as the project faced constant issues with water as, in the tropical conditions of the Top End , there was often no rain in the dry season and too much during the wet season . One of the early investors, Art Linkletter, when reflecting on the project in 2000, said that he was told the area received 85 inches (215 cms) of rain each years but that: The question I didn't know to ask

1711-465: The benefits these could bring. In 2022, greenhouse gas emissions from rice cultivation were estimated at 5.7 billion tonnes CO2eq, representing 1.2% of total emissions. Within the agriculture sector, rice produces almost half the greenhouse gas emissions from croplands , some 30% of agricultural methane emissions , and 11% of agricultural nitrous oxide emissions. Methane is released from rice fields subject to long-term flooding, as this inhibits

1770-511: The crop would be lost under these conditions. In the Po Valley in Italy, the arborio and carnaroli risotto rice varieties have suffered poor harvests through drought in the 21st century. The Ente Nazionale Risi  [ it ] is developing drought-resistant varieties; its nuovo prometeo variety has deep roots that enable it to tolerate drought, but is not suitable for risotto. Rice yield can be reduced by weed growth, and

1829-425: The exception of Spanish Bomba, is usually sticky when cooked, and is suitable for puddings. Thai Jasmine rice is aromatic, and unusually for a long-grain rice has some stickiness, with a soft texture. Indian Basmati rice is very long-grained and aromatic. Italian Arborio rice , used for risotto , is of medium length, oval, and quite sticky. Japanese sushi rice is a sticky short-grain variety. Cooked white rice

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1888-541: The extraction of eucalyptus oil from the mallee scrub on the property. However, the farm struggled and this was in large part because of the harsh conditions for both staff and stock; many of their struggles coincided with industrial unrest in Darwin (for more information see: Darwin rebellion ). By the middle of 1913 the manager of the farm, who had started in February 1912, had resigned and his replacement Charles Woolley

1947-425: The field where they will grow, or seedlings can be grown in a seedbed and transplanted into the field. Direct seeding needs some 60 to 80 kg of grain per hectare, while transplanting needs less, around 40 kg per hectare, but requires far more labour. Most rice in Asia is transplanted by hand. Mechanical transplanting takes less time but requires a carefully-prepared field and seedlings raised on mats or in trays to fit

2006-511: The grain, and cleaning by winnowing or screening . The rice grain is dried as soon as possible to bring the moisture content down to a level that is safe from mould fungi. Traditional drying relies on the heat of the sun, with the grain spread out on mats or on pavements. The edible rice species are members of the BOP clade within the grass family, the Poaceae . The rice subfamily, Oryzoideae ,

2065-562: The great diversity and continuous evolution of pests. Resistance genes are being sought from wild species of rice, and genetic engineering techniques are being applied. Batchelor Demonstration Farm The land for the Batchelor Demonstration farm was first surveyed for European use as a part of the Hundred of Goyder (Northern Territory) and was first purchased by WO Clyde and likely used to grow tobacco until it

2124-575: The herbicide 2,4-D , cause the plant to increase the production of certain defensive chemicals and thereby increase the plant's resistance to some types of pests. Conversely, other chemicals, such as the insecticide imidacloprid , appear to induce changes in the gene expression of the rice that make the plant more susceptible to certain pests. Plant breeders have created rice cultivars incorporating resistance to various insect pests . Conventional plant breeding of resistant varieties has been limited by challenges such as rearing insect pests for testing, and

2183-410: The later years of the 20th century decreased rice yield by between 10% and 20% across 200 farms in seven Asian countries. This may have been caused by increased night-time respiration. IRRI has predicted that Asian rice yields will fall by some 20% per 1°C rise in global mean temperature. Further, rice is unable to yield grain if the flowers experience a temperature of 35 °C or more for over one hour, so

2242-417: The machine. Rice does not thrive if continuously submerged. Rice can be grown in different environments, depending upon water availability. The usual arrangement is for lowland fields to be surrounded by bunds and flooded to a depth of a few centimetres until around a week before harvest time; this requires a large amount of water. The "alternate wetting and drying" technique uses less water. One form of this

2301-428: The other largest exporters. As of 2016, the countries that consumed the most rice were China (29% of total), India, and Indonesia. By 2020, Bangladesh had taken third place from Indonesia. On an annual average from 2020-23, China consumed 154 million tonnes of rice, India consumed 109 million tonnes, and Bangladesh and Indonesia consumed about 36 million tonnes each. Across the world, rice consumption per capita fell in

2360-429: The project faced after it was reported that when sowing seeds "[w]ild geese, which swarm in the air, ate the lot" and that an army unit deployed there to assist had to shoot specially made "bomb guns" to scare off the birds. While the geese where an issue many have stated that they were not as much as a concern as they were made out to be and that blaming them was primarily a publicity stunt. Despite its commercial failure

2419-601: The project struggled financially from its earliest days and rice farming proved to be more difficult than expected. Facing financial pressures, and in an attempt to see whether the project was worthwhile, American businessman Robert McColloch took over management and invested nearly $ 2,000,000 over the next three years. Territory Rice Limited entered liquidation, with outstanding debts, in August 1960. Northern Territory politician Jock Nelson called it "the greatest blunder and bungle perpetrated in 51 years of Commonwealth control over

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2478-633: The region. The farm was initially known as the Rum Jungle Demonstration Farm as the area was not named Batchelor, in honour of the recently deceased Lee Batchelor , until April 1912. It was renamed during a visit from the Federal Parliamentary Party to the Northern Territory, in April - May 1912. The Commonwealth Government, acting on his recommendations, established both farms and, in the first year £24,000

2537-812: The rice produced in developing nations is lost after harvest through factors such as poor transport and storage. Rice yields can be reduced by pests including insects , rodents , and birds , as well as by weeds , and by diseases such as rice blast . Traditional rice polycultures such as rice-duck farming , and modern integrated pest management seek to control damage from pests in a sustainable way. Many varieties of rice have been bred to improve crop quality and productivity. Biotechnology has created Green Revolution rice able to produce high yields when supplied with nitrogen fertiliser and managed intensively. Other products are rice able to express human proteins for medicinal use; flood-tolerant or deepwater rice ; and drought-tolerant and salt-tolerant varieties. Rice

2596-1011: The soil from absorbing atmospheric oxygen, resulting in anaerobic fermentation of organic matter in the soil. Emissions can be limited by planting new varieties, not flooding continuously, and removing straw. It is possible to cut methane emissions in rice cultivation by improved water management, combining dry seeding and one drawdown, or executing a sequence of wetting and drying . This results in emission reductions of up to 90% compared to full flooding and even increased yields. Predictions of climate change's effects on rice cultivation vary. Global rice yield has been projected to decrease by around 3.2% with each 1°C increase in global average temperature while another study predicts global rice cultivation will increase initially, plateauing at about 3°C warming (2091–2100 relative to 1850–1900). The impacts of climate change on rice cultivation vary across geographic location and socioeconomic context. For example, rising temperatures and decreasing solar radiation during

2655-504: The sustained agricultural production of rice failed. After this meeting Chase visited Humpty Doo, and the 300,000 hectares of sub-coastal plains that had been set aside for the project and was very impressed by them; he said "[t]his is exactly like the Nile Valley, only it is twice as good!". He then formed a syndicate of investors that included actors and entertainers Art Linkletter , Robert Cummings and Charles Correll . Together

2714-484: The syndicate began with a $ 40,000 survey of the area in 1954 and, in November 1955, incorporated as Territory Rice Limited and received the required agricultural leases which spanned from Adelaide River to Arnhem Land . Early development focused on the leases near Humpty Doo, on what was once Humpty Doo Station, which had previously been used for cattle. In order to begin the project they constructed roads, established

2773-415: The trial; he was found guilty and his fine was paid by community members who agreed with him. In 1915 the farm produced a very large pumpkin which Northern Territory Administrator John Anderson Gilruth was photographed beside. It was later stolen and it became known as the £4,000 - £40,000 pumpkin in reference to the amount of money spent to produce it and as a way of discrediting Gilruth. The pumpkin

2832-701: The voyage to the rest of the Pacific. It reached Austroasiatic and Kra-Dai -speakers in Mainland Southeast Asia and southern China by 5000 years ago. Rice spread around the rest of the world through cultivation, migration and trade, eventually to the Americas as part of the Columbian exchange after 1492. The now less common Oryza glaberrima (African rice) was independently domesticated in Africa around 3,000 years ago, and introduced to

2891-785: The wet season, while thrips outbreaks are associated with drought. Rice blast , caused by the fungus Magnaporthe grisea , is the most serious disease of growing rice. It and bacterial leaf streak (caused by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae ) are perennially the two worst rice diseases worldwide; they are both among the ten most important diseases of all crop plants. Other major rice diseases include sheath blight (caused by Rhizoctonia solani ), false smut ( Ustilaginoidea virens ), and bacterial panicle blight ( Burkholderia glumae ). Viral diseases include rice bunchy stunt, rice dwarf, rice tungro , and rice yellow mottle. Crop protection scientists are developing sustainable techniques for managing rice pests. Sustainable pest management

2950-539: The year provided that sufficient water is made available. It is normally an annual, but in the tropics it can survive as a perennial , producing a ratoon crop. Like all crops, rice depends for its growth on both biotic and abiotic environmental factors. The principal biotic factors are crop variety, pests , and plant diseases . Abiotic factors include the soil type, whether lowland or upland, amount of rain or irrigation water, temperature, day length , and intensity of sunlight. Rice grains can be planted directly into

3009-474: Was also officially photographed and made into a post-card and sent all over the world. In 1917 the failure of the farm was discussed, at length, in Senate and John Newlands said of it: Why is it called an "experimental farm?" The thing is a fraud, and was proved so years ago. Nothing but obstinacy keeps it going. Endeavours have been made to pass it on to some one else, but no one will have it. Horses put on

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3068-530: Was charged for the indecent assault of the wife and daughter of one of the Russian workers in 1913. Woolley was found not guilty of the charge but all Russian emigrants left the farm and one was charged with defamatory libel of Woolley. Additionally, the then editor, of the Northern Territory Times and Gazette was charge of contempt of court for criticising the behaviour of the judge during

3127-464: Was domesticated in China some 13,500 to 8,200 years ago; African rice was domesticated in Africa about 3,000 years ago. Rice has become commonplace in many cultures worldwide; in 2021, 787 million tons were produced, placing it fourth after sugarcane , maize , and wheat . Only some 8% of rice is traded internationally. China, India, and Indonesia are the largest consumers of rice. A substantial amount of

3186-469: Was first domesticated in China 9,000 years ago, by people of Neolithic cultures in the Upper and Lower Yangtze , associated with Hmong-Mien -speakers and pre-Austronesians , respectively. The functional allele for nonshattering , the critical indicator of domestication in grains, as well as five other single-nucleotide polymorphisms , is identical in both indica and japonica . This implies

3245-574: Was introduced early into Sino-Tibetan cultures in northern China by around 6000 to 5600 years ago, and to the Korean peninsula and Japan by around 5500 to 3200 years ago. It was also carried into Taiwan by the Dapenkeng culture by 5500 to 4000 years ago, before spreading southwards via the Austronesian migrations to Island Southeast Asia , Madagascar , and Guam , but did not survive

3304-599: Was selected by the government. The total size of the farm was 2,500 to 3,000 hectares. When the Commonwealth Government took control of the North Territory in 1911, they poured resources into the region and, as part of this, they were determined to make a full investigation of the economic potential of the land. To do this they appointed expert Walter Scott Campbell, the recently retired director of Agriculture for New South Wales, to complete

3363-524: Was spent on buildings, machinery and beginning to clear, cultivate and fence the land. Additionally, a railway siding was constructed at Batchelor to  transport the farm's produce to Darwin on the North Australia Railway . On the farm they explored various aspects of mixed farming enterprises were tried including breeding stock, including various species of fowl, various forms of agriculture (including rice, cotton and an orchard) and

3422-439: Was stored by rural households. The dry grain is milled to remove the outer layers, namely the husk and bran . These can be removed in a single step, in two steps, or as in commercial milling in a multi-step process of cleaning, dehusking, separation, polishing, grading, and weighing. Brown rice only has the inedible husk removed. Further milling removes bran and the germ to create successively whiter products. Parboiled rice

3481-424: Was ‘How does the rain come down?’ And I found out it comes down in a week. Which took care of the rice. It went to sea. Significant amounts of money were spent by both Territory Rice Limited and the government and, to save money, much of the infrastructure (including a 100 tonne bulk storage bin) were constructed using steel from Vestey's Meatworks and military equipment 'left over' after World War II. Despite this

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