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114-656: Some earlier research suggested a Swabian origin for the families, but more recent studies indicate at least a Slavic origin for the Poznan branch. The ethnic origin of the Hunt family remains debatable to this day. The Poznan estates were originally located near the Nitra River , while the Hunt estates were near the Ipeľ River. Later, the family acquired more properties and influence due to political and marital connections with

228-542: A Germanic-speaking people who are native to the ethnocultural and linguistic region of Swabia , which is now mostly divided between the modern states of Baden-Württemberg and Bavaria , in southwestern Germany . The name is ultimately derived from the medieval Duchy of Swabia , one of the German stem duchies , representing the territory of Alemannia , whose Germanic inhabitants were interchangeably called Alemanni or Suebi . This territory would include all of

342-500: A cathedral chapter and his new capital. His decision was influenced by the opening, in 1018 or 1019, of a new pilgrimage route that bypassed his old capital, Esztergom. The new route connected Western Europe and the Holy Land through Hungary. Stephen often met the pilgrims, contributing to the spread of his fame throughout Europe. Abbot Odilo of Cluny , for example, wrote in a letter to Stephen that "those who have returned from

456-676: A new bishopric at Csanád (Cenad, Romania), Ajtony's former capital, which was renamed after the commander of the royal army. According to the Annales Posonienses , the Venetian Gerard was consecrated as the first bishop of the new diocese in 1030. Stephen's brother-in-law, Emperor Henry, died on 13 July 1024. He was succeeded by a distant relative, Conrad II (r. 1024–1039), who adopted an offensive foreign policy. Conrad II expelled Doge Otto Orseolo—the husband of Stephen's sister—from Venice in 1026. He also persuaded

570-487: A Christian state was one of Stephen's principal concerns throughout his reign. Although the Hungarians' conversion had already begun in his father's reign, it was only Stephen who systematically forced his subjects to give up their pagan rituals. His legislative activity was closely connected with Christianity. For example, his First Book of Laws from the first years of his reign includes several provisions prescribing

684-622: A Christian state, because Stephen's cousin, Vazul —who had the strongest claim to succeed him—was suspected of an inclination towards paganism. According to the Annals of Altaich Stephen disregarded his cousin's claim and nominated his sister's son, the Venetian Peter Orseolo , as his heir. The same source adds that Vazul was captured and blinded, and his three sons, Levente , Andrew and Béla , were expelled from Hungary. Stephen's legends refer to an unsuccessful attempt upon

798-480: A child, descendant of rich parents, living among soft pillows, who has been caressed and brought up in all kinds of comforts; you have had a part neither in the troubles of the campaigns nor in the various attacks of the pagans in which almost my whole life has been worn away. The following family tree presents Stephen's ancestors and his relatives who are mentioned in the article. *A Khazar, Pecheneg or Volga Bulgarian lady. **Györffy writes that she may have been

912-540: A child. Emeric , who received the name of his maternal uncle, Emperor Henry II, was born around 1007. His Legend from the early 12th century describes him as a saintly prince who preserved his chastity even during his marriage. According to Györffy, Emeric's wife was a kinswoman of the Byzantine Emperor Basil II. His premature death led to the series of conflicts leading to Vazul's blinding and civil wars. Be obedient to me, my son. You are

1026-500: A cruel monarch, suggesting that he was a despot who mercilessly consolidated his authority over the rebellious Hungarian lords. Hungarian chronicles agree that Stephen's mother was Sarolt , daughter of Gyula , a Hungarian chieftain with jurisdiction either in Transylvania or in the wider region of the confluence of the rivers Tisza and Maros . Many historians—including Pál Engel and Gyula Kristó —propose that her father

1140-473: A decisive victory over his enemies. Koppány was killed on the battlefield. His body was quartered and its parts were displayed at the gates of the forts of Esztergom, Győr , Gyulafehérvár (Alba Iulia, Romania ) and Veszprém in order to threaten all of those who were conspiring against the young monarch. Stephen occupied Koppány's duchy and granted large estates to his own partisans. He also prescribed that Koppány's former subjects were to pay tithes to

1254-493: A later addition". Stephen died on 15 August 1038. He was buried in the basilica of Székesfehérvár. His reign was followed by a long period of civil wars, pagan uprisings and foreign invasions. The instability ended in 1077 when Ladislaus , a grandson of Vazul, ascended the throne. Stephen married Gisela , a daughter of Duke Henry the Wrangler of Bavaria, who was a nephew of Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor . Gisela's mother

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1368-498: A sword by the Hron River. Their lineage evidently differed little from those [Germans]..." Today, historians know that Hunt and Poznan were certainly not brothers and, most likely, were not of German origin. The name Poznan is not derived from the German "Patzmann," as was once mistakenly interpreted, but instead has Slavic roots, meaning "known." The name Hunt appears in documents as Cuntius, and according to Professor Ján Lukačka,

1482-404: Is cited as "40 percent intelligible" to speakers of Standard German . As an ethno-linguistic group, Swabians are closely related to other speakers of Alemannic German , i.e. Badeners , Alsatians , and German-speaking Swiss . Swabian German is traditionally spoken in the upper Neckar basin (upstream of Heilbronn ), along the upper Danube between Tuttlingen and Donauwörth , and on

1596-449: Is uncertain as it was not recorded in contemporaneous documents. Hungarian and Polish chronicles written centuries later give three different years: 967, 969 and 975. The unanimous testimony of his three late 11th-century or early 12th-century hagiographies and other Hungarian sources, which state that Stephen was "still an adolescent" in 997, substantiate the reliability of the latest year (975). Stephen's Lesser Legend adds that he

1710-537: The Polish-Hungarian Chronicle and later Polish sources state that Stephen's mother was Adelhaid, an otherwise unknown sister of Duke Mieszko I of Poland , but the reliability of this report is not accepted by modern historians. Stephen was born as Vajk , a name derived from the Turkic word baj , meaning "hero", "master", "prince" or "rich". Stephen's Greater Legend narrates that he

1824-685: The Alemannic German areal, but the modern concept of Swabia is more restricted, due to the collapse of the duchy of Swabia in the 13th century. Swabia as understood in modern ethnography roughly coincides with the Swabian Circle of the Holy Roman Empire as it stood during the Early Modern period . Swabian culture, as distinct from its Alemannic neighbours, evolved in the later medieval and early modern period. After

1938-585: The Danube Swabians , subdivided into such groups as the Banat Swabians , Satu Mare Swabians and others (although the name "Danube Swabians" was applied also to German settlers of non-Swabian background). Swabians settled also in eastern Croatia ( Slavonia and Syrmia ), and southern and western Hungary , including part of what is now Serbia and Romania (the Danube Swabians , Satu Mare Swabians , Banat Swabians and Swabian Turkey ) in

2052-777: The Dutch East India Company (DEIC), eventually settling in the Dutch Cape Colony , Dutch East Indies or Ceylon . Besides individual Swabians, the Duke Charles Eugene of Württemberg concluded an agreement with the DEIC in 1786 to furnish a regiment of 2000 men to the DEIC for the sum of 300 000 guilders. This became known as the Württemberg Cape Regiment ( German : Württembergisches Kapregiment ). Their presence among

2166-555: The Holy Virgin . His death was followed by civil wars which lasted for decades. He was canonized by Pope Gregory VII , together with his son Emeric and Bishop Gerard of Csanád , in 1083. Stephen is a popular saint in Hungary and neighboring territories. In Hungary, his feast day (celebrated on 20 August) is also a public holiday commemorating the foundation of the state, known as State Foundation Day . Stephen's birth date

2280-662: The House of Árpád . History of the Family Hungarian chroniclers attributed the origins of the family to Swabia in Germany. Simon of Kéza considered Hunt and Poznan to be brothers who, during their journey to the Holy Land , remained in Géza's Principality of Hungary. The chronicler John of Turc mentions them as follows: "In those days, Hunt and Poznan also came, who, according to German custom, girded Saint Stephen with

2394-549: The Illuminated Chronicle , "knights of Swabian origin" who settled in Hungary either under Géza or in the first years of Stephen's reign. On the other hand, Lukačka and other Slovak historians say that Hont and Pázmány were "Slovak" noblemen who had joined Stephen during his rule in Nyitra. Koppány was besieging Veszprém when he was informed of the arrival of Stephen's army. In the ensuing battle, Stephen won

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2508-519: The Illuminated Chronicle , one of his tutors was a Count Deodatus from Italy , who later founded a monastery in Tata . According to Stephen's legends, Grand Prince Géza convoked an assembly of the Hungarian chieftains and warriors when Stephen "ascended to the first stage of adolescence", at the age of 14 or 15. Géza nominated Stephen as his successor and all those present took an oath of loyalty to

2622-629: The Swiss Confederacy to the south. Swabian culture retains many elements common to Alemannic tradition, notably the carnival traditions forming the Swabian-Alemannic Fastnacht . As the national cultural consensus surrounding German unification was built during the 18th and 19th century, Germany was politically dominated by the northern Kingdom of Prussia , and Weimar Classicism in the Duchy of Saxe-Weimar became

2736-515: The Virgin Mary . Modern historians—including Pál Engel, and Miklós Molnár—write that Stephen always asserted his sovereignty and never accepted papal or imperial suzerainty. For instance, none of his charters were dated according to the years of the reign of the contemporary emperors, which would have been the case if he had been their vassal. Furthermore, Stephen declared in the preamble to his First Book of Laws that he governed his realm "by

2850-587: The shrine of our Lord " testify to the king's passion "towards the honour of our divine religion". Stephen also established four hostels for pilgrims in Constantinople, Jerusalem , Ravenna and Rome . [Almost] all those from Italy and Gaul who wished to go to the Sepulchre of the Lord at Jerusalem abandoned the usual route, which was by sea, making their way through the country of King Stephen. He made

2964-471: The Árpád dynasty , which was Koppány at that time. Koppány, who held the title Duke of Somogy , had for many years administered the regions of Transdanubia south of Lake Balaton . Koppány proposed to Géza's widow, Sarolt, in accordance with the pagan custom of levirate marriage . He also announced his claim to the throne. Although it is not impossible that Koppány had already been baptized, in 972, most of his supporters were pagans, opponents of

3078-466: The 1020s, although Györffy and other scholars put it at least a decade earlier. The conflict arose when Ajtony, who "had taken his power from the Greeks", according to Saint Gerard's legend, levied tax on the salt transported to Stephen on the river. The king sent a large army led by Csanád against Ajtony, who was killed in battle. His lands were transformed into a Hungarian county and the king set up

3192-551: The 1020s. His silver dinars bearing the inscriptions STEPHANUS REX ("King Stephen") and REGIA CIVITAS ("royal city") were popular in contemporary Europe, as demonstrated by counterfeited copies unearthed in Sweden . Stephen convinced some pilgrims and merchants to settle in Hungary. Gerard , a Benedictine monk who arrived in Hungary from the Republic of Venice between 1020 and 1026, initially planned to continue his journey to

3306-528: The 11th–12th centuries, while the Poznan descendants owned large estates in the valley of the Nitra River. The Poznan family likely died out in the male line, and around the second half of the 12th century, the two families united through marriage. Lampert II of the Hunt-Poznan family married a sister of Hungarian King Ladislaus I. This close family connection to the royal dynasty and the rich dowry from

3420-525: The 13th century, the clan divided into 12 branches: The first notable members of the clan were the brothers Hont and Pázmány who assisted Géza's son, the future King Stephen I of Hungary against his relative, the pagan Koppány who claimed for Géza's inheritance. The deed of foundation of the Pannonhalma Archabbey (issued in 1001) referred to both brothers as the king's military leaders (duces) . The brothers were granted possessions on

3534-473: The 14th century (Stojslav, Vlk, Držislav, etc.). The character of their hereditary property also indicates pre-Hungarian origin Naturally, those who belonged to the royal court or obtained property in Hungarian ethnic territories self-identified with the majority population in the area. Swabians Swabians ( German : Schwaben pronounced [ˈʃvaːbn̩] , singular Schwabe ) are

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3648-464: The 18th century, where they were invited as pioneers to repopulate some areas. They also settled in Russia , Bessarabia , and Kazakhstan . They were well-respected as farmers. Almost all of the several million Swabians were expelled from Hungary, Romania, and Yugoslavia during the period 1944–1950, as part of the ethnic cleansing against their German minorities . There still are Swabians living near

3762-752: The Ban of Dalmatia and Croatia. Between 1202 and 1212–1213, he was the Ban of Slavonia, and in 1224 and 1234, he was a judge of the realm. He founded the Premonstratensian Abbey of Ipolyság (now Šahy in Slovakia). Other family members, Andrew and Thomas, sons of Ivanka, gave their horse to King Béla IV during his retreat after the Battle of the Slaná River in 1241, enabling the king to escape the battlefield. Historian Ján Lukačka confirmed that among

3876-715: The Bavarians incited skirmishes along the common borders of Hungary and the Holy Roman Empire in 1029, causing a rapid deterioration in relations between the two countries. Emperor Conrad personally led his armies to Hungary in June 1030 and plundered the lands west of the River Rába . However, according to the Annals of Niederalteich , the emperor, suffering from consequences of the scorched earth tactics used by

3990-617: The Bavarians to proclaim his own son, Henry , as their duke in 1027, although Stephen's son Emeric had a strong claim to the Duchy of Bavaria through his mother. Emperor Conrad planned a marriage alliance with the Byzantine Empire and dispatched one of his advisors, Bishop Werner of Strasbourg , to Constantinople. In the autumn of 1027, the bishop seemingly travelled as a pilgrim, but Stephen, who had been informed of his actual purpose, refused to let him enter into his country. Conrad II's biographer Wipo of Burgundy narrated that

4104-608: The Christianity represented by Stephen and his predominantly German retinue . A charter of 1002 for the Pannonhalma Archabbey writes of a war between "the Germans and the Hungarians" when referring to the armed conflicts between Stephen and Koppány. Even so, Györffy says that Oszlar (" Alan "), Besenyő (" Pecheneg "), Kér and other place names, referring to ethnic groups or Hungarian tribes in Transdanubia around

4218-609: The Church in Hungary became independent of the prelates of the Holy Roman Empire. The earliest reference to an archbishop of Esztergom, named Domokos , has been preserved in the deed of foundation of the Pannonhalma Archabbey from 1002. According to historian Gábor Thoroczkay , Stephen also established the Diocese of Kalocsa in 1001. Stephen invited foreign priests to Hungary to evangelize his kingdom. Associates of

4332-677: The Danube—by the Poles in the 1010s. On the other hand, the Polish-Hungarian Chronicle states that the Polish duke occupied large territories north of the Danube and east of the Morava as far as Esztergom in the early 11th century. According to Steinhübel, the latter source proves that a significant part of the lands that now form Slovakia were under Polish rule between 1002 and 1030. In contrast with

4446-715: The Dutch at the Cape contributed to the Dutch term swaapstreek (literally: "Swabian shenanigans"), likely referencing the Seven Swabians tale. During the 18th century East Colonisation , many Swabians were attracted by the Austrian Empire's offer of settling in East European lands which had been left sparsely populated by the wars with Turkey . These ethnic German communities came to be known collectively as

4560-521: The Emperor was not able to enter a kingdom so fortified with rivers and forests , he returned, after he had sufficiently avenged his injury with lootings and burnings on the borders of the kingdom; and it was his wish at a more opportune time to complete the things he had begun. His son, King Henry , however, still a young boy entrusted to the care of Eigilbert, bishop of Freising , received a legation of King [Stephen] which asked for peace; and solely with

4674-456: The Holy Land, but decided to stay in the country after his meeting with the king. Stephen also established a number of Benedictine monasteries—including the abbeys at Pécsvárad , Zalavár and Bakonybél —in this period. The Long Life of Saint Gerard mentions Stephen's conflict with Ajtony , a chieftain in the region of the river Maros . Many historians date their clash to the end of

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4788-580: The Holy Roman Empire brought her into a war with Poland lasting from around 1014 until 1018. The Poles occupied the Hungarian posts along the river Morava. Györffy and Kristó write that a Pecheneg incursion into Transylvania, the memory of which has been preserved in Stephen's legends, also took place in this period, because the Pechenegs were close allies of the Polish duke's brother-in-law, Grand Prince Sviatopolk I of Kiev (r. 1015–1019). Poland and

4902-564: The Holy Roman Empire concluded the Peace of Bautzen in January 1018. Later in the same year, 500 Hungarian horsemen accompanied Boleslav of Poland to Kyiv , suggesting that Hungary had been included in the peace treaty. The historian Ferenc Makk says that the Peace of Bautzen obliged Boleslav to hand over all the territories he had occupied in the Morava valley to Stephen. According to Leodvin,

5016-532: The Holy Roman Empire, where he, along with Szekler troops, supported Přemysl Ottokar I in battles against the German Emperor. In the first half of the 13th century, the united family split into three branches, from which several other noble families eventually emerged (including the Forgách, Baťány, and Pázmány families). Around 1201, Martin from the Hunt-Poznan family held the office of count and served as

5130-464: The Hungarian army, returned to Germany "without an army and without achieving anything, because the army was threatened by starvation and was captured by the Hungarians at Vienna ". Peace was restored after Conrad had ceded the lands between the rivers Lajta and Fischa to Hungary in the summer of 1031. At this same time, dissensions arose between the Pannonian nation and the Bavarians, through

5244-545: The Hunts and the Poznans ("Pázmánys", "Posnans") when the latter's male line died out in the mid-12th century. They claim that the ancestors both of the two families were already nobles at the time of Great Moravia and preserved their possessions after the incorporation of their territories into the arising Hungarian state. The theory suggests that they kept their Christian faith during the 10th century and its followers claim that

5358-606: The Kabars—who was either Samuel Aba or his father— married Stephen's unnamed younger sister on this occasion. The Aba clan was the most powerful among the native families who joined Stephen and supported him in his efforts to establish a Christian monarchy. The reports by Anonymus , Simon of Kéza and other Hungarian chroniclers of the Bár-Kalán, Csák and other 13th-century noble families descending from Hungarian chieftains suggest that other native families were also involved in

5472-429: The Pannonhalma Archabbey, according to the deed of the foundation of this monastery which has been preserved in a manuscript containing interpolations . The same document declares that "there were no other bishoprics and monasteries in Hungary" at that time. On the other hand, the nearly contemporary Bishop Thietmar of Merseburg stated that Stephen "established bishoprics in his kingdom" before being crowned king. If

5586-576: The Pannonians") or Hungarie rex ("king of Hungary")—in his charters. Although Stephen's power did not rely on his coronation, the ceremony granted him the internationally accepted legitimacy of a Christian monarch who ruled his realm " by the Grace of God ". All his legends testify that he established an archbishopric with its see in Esztergom shortly after his coronation. This act ensured that

5700-750: The Pázmánys ruled in the region of today's north western Slovakia in the 10th century. Both families acknowledged the sovereignty of Michael of the House of Árpád and thus they became nobles at his court in Nitra . After Michael's death, the new ruler, Vajk (Stephen I) and the local nobility, spearheaded by the Pázmány and Hunt houses, developed very close personal ties and while fighting the Koppány rebellion in 997, Stephen took shelter with Pázmány and Hunt ("Poznano" and "Cuntio"); they in turn added their troops to

5814-416: The Second World War, known as the Wirtschaftswunder , was praised by songwriter Ralf Bendix in his 1964 Schaffe, schaffe Häusle baue / Und net nach de Mädle schaue ("[let's] work and work, and build a house / and not look out for girls" in Swabian dialect). The first line of his song has since become a common summary of Swabian stereotypes known throughout Germany. In a widely noted publicity campaign on

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5928-475: The Slovak historian, Györffy writes that this late chronicle "in which one absurdity follows another" contradicts all facts known from 11th-century sources. The Illuminated Chronicle narrates that Stephen "led his army against Kean, Duke of the Bulgarians and Slavs whose lands are by their natural position most strongly fortified" following the occupation of Gyula's country. According to a number of historians, including Zoltán Lenkey and Gábor Thoroczkay, Kean

6042-399: The Swabians as stingy, overly serious or prudish petty bourgeois simpletons, as reflected in " The Seven Swabians " ( Die sieben Schwaben ), one of the Kinder- und Hausmärchen published by the Brothers Grimm . On the positive side, the same stereotype may be expressed in portraying the Swabians as frugal, clever, entrepreneurial and hard-working. The economic recovery of Germany after

6156-428: The Younger, whose realm "was most wide and rich", according to the Illuminated Chronicle . Stephen invaded Transylvania and seized Gyula and his family around 1002 or in 1003. The contemporary Annals of Hildesheim adds that Stephen converted his uncle's "country to the Christian faith by force" after its conquest. Accordingly, historians date the establishment of the Diocese of Transylvania to this period. If

6270-407: The army of Grand Prince Stephen gathered, and Hunt and Poznan "girded him with a sword" and were appointed as Stephen's personal guards. Between 1001 and 1002, they also participated in Stephen's campaign against the Somogy Duke Koppány. In the 10th century, the Poznans became secular patrons of the Benedictine monastery under Zobor. The descendants of Hunt held extensive lands in the Hont region in

6384-413: The assistance of foreign knights including Vecelin , Hont and Pázmány , and native lords. He was crowned on 25 December 1000 or 1 January 1001 with a crown sent by Pope Sylvester II . In a series of wars against semi-independent tribes and chieftains—including the Black Hungarians and his uncle, Gyula the Younger —he unified the Carpathian Basin . He protected the independence of his kingdom by forcing

6498-426: The burg mentioned above, but in others as well. About a hundred years later, the chronicler Gallus Anonymus also made mention of armed conflicts between Stephen and Boleslav, stating that the latter "defeated the Hungarians in battle and made himself master of all their lands as far as the Danube ". Györffy says that the chronicler's report refers to the occupation of the valley of the river Morava —a tributary of

6612-425: The castles of Gímes (Jelenec) and Turóc (Zniev). His sons were John , archbishop of Kalocsa from 1278 to 1301, and Thomas III , an influential baron. Both were strong partisans of King Andrew III of Hungary . Another sons were Andrew II and Ivánka III , who were killed by Matthew III Csák . Some modern authors suggest that the clan Hont-Poznany was formed by intermarriages of two separate families,

6726-554: The city of Satu Mare in Romania , who are known as Satu Mare Swabians . Because of overpopulation and increasingly smaller land-holdings, many Swabians sought land in the Western Hemisphere, especially in the 19th century. Swabian settlements can be found in Brazil , Canada , and the United States . Among the Germans who emigrated to the United States in the 19th century, Swabians in some areas maintained their regional identity and formed organizations for mutual support. Significant numbers of Swabians moved to Berlin following

6840-614: The city's reinstatement as German capital in 2000. By the 2010s, their number was estimated as close to 300,000. As the Swabians in Berlin tended to be wealthier than the local Berliner , this resulted in a gentrification conflict, covered under the term Schwabenhass (literally "hatred of Swabians") by the German press in 2012–2013. Stephen I of Hungary Stephen I , also known as King Saint Stephen ( Hungarian : Szent István király [ˌsɛnt ˈiʃtvaːn kiraːj] ; Latin : Sanctus Stephanus ; Slovak : Štefan I. or Štefan Veľký ; c. 975 – 15 August 1038),

6954-424: The coronation of the German kings. Accordingly, Stephen was anointed with consecrated oil during the ceremony. Stephen's portrait, preserved on his royal cloak from 1031, shows that his crown, like the Holy Roman Emperor's diadem, was a hoop crown decorated with gemstones . Besides his crown, Stephen regarded a spear with a flag as an important symbol of his sovereignty. For instance, his first coins bear

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7068-401: The counsel of the princes of the realm, and without his father's knowledge, he granted the favor of reconciliation. Stephen's biographer, Hartvic, narrates that the King, whose children died one by one in infancy, "restrained the grief over their death by the solace on account of the love of his surviving son", Emeric . However, Emeric was wounded in a hunting accident and died in 1031. After

7182-406: The crown and consecration" from the Pope, but not without the Emperor's consent. Around 75 years after the coronation, Pope Gregory VII (r. 1075–1085), who claimed suzerainty over Hungary, declared that Stephen had "offered and devotedly surrendered" Hungary "to Saint Peter " (that is, to the Holy See ). In a contrasting report, Stephen's Greater Legend states that the King offered Hungary to

7296-417: The death of his son, the elderly King could never "fully regain his former health", according to the Illuminated Chronicle . Kristó writes that the picture, which has been preserved in Stephen's legends, of the king keeping the vigils and washing the feet of paupers, is connected with Stephen's last years, following the death of his son. Emeric's death jeopardized his father's achievements in establishing

7410-408: The disintegration of the Duchy of Swabia , a Swabian cultural identity and sense of cultural unity survived, expressed in the formation of the Swabian League of Cities in the 14th century, the Swabian League of 1488, and the establishment of the Swabian Circle in 1512. During this time, a division of culture and identity developed between Swabia and both the Margraviate of Baden to the west and

7524-407: The elderly king's life by members of his court. According to Kristó, the legends refer to a plot in which Vazul participated and his mutilation was a punishment for this act. That Vazul's ears were filled with molten lead was only recorded in later sources, including the Illuminated Chronicle . In the view of some historians, provisions in Stephen's Second Book of Laws on the "conspiracy against

7638-455: The exact date of his expedition is uncertain. Györffy argues that it was only in the last year of the war that Stephen led his troops against the Bulgarians. Bishop Leodvin wrote that Stephen collected relics of a number of saints in "Cesaries" during his campaign in the Balkans, including Saint George and Saint Nicholas . He donated them to his new triple-naved basilica dedicated to the Holy Virgin in Székesfehérvár, where he also set up

7752-460: The expression of German national high culture ( Christoph Martin Wieland and Friedrich Schiller , while born and raised in Swabia, moved to Weimar and became two of the "four luminaries" ( Viergestirn ) of Weimar Classicism). As a consequence, southern Germany and by extension both the Swabians and the Bavarians came to be seen as marked deviations from generic Standard German , and a number of clichés or stereotypes developed. These portrayed

7866-452: The fault of the Bavarians. And, as a result, King [Stephen] of Hungary made many incursions and raids in the realm of the Norici (that is, of the Bavarians). Disturbed on this account Emperor Conrad came upon the Hungarians with a great army. But King [Stephen], whose forces were entirely insufficient to meet the Emperor, relied solely on the guardianship of the Lord, which he sought with prayers and fasts proclaimed through his whole realm. Since

7980-775: The first family link between a Hungarian ruler and a Western European ruling house, as Gisela was closely related to the Ottonian dynasty of Holy Roman Emperors . According to popular tradition preserved in the Scheyern Abbey in Bavaria , the ceremony took place at the Scheyern castle and was celebrated by Saint Adalbert. Gisela was accompanied to her new home by Bavarian knights, many of whom received land grants from her husband and settled in Hungary, helping to strengthen Stephen's military position. According to Györffy, Stephen and his wife "presumably" settled in Nyitra after their marriage. Grand Prince Géza died in 997. Stephen convoked an assembly at Esztergom where his supporters declared him grand prince. Initially, he only controlled

8094-449: The first known Bishop of Bihar (r. c. 1050 – c. 1060), Stephen allied with the Byzantines and led a military expedition to assist them against " barbarians " in the Balkan Peninsula . The Byzantine and Hungarian troops jointly took "Cesaries" which Györffy identifies as the present-day town of Ohrid . Leodvin's report suggests that Stephen joined the Byzantines in the war ending with their conquest of Bulgaria in 1018. However,

8208-720: The foundation deed of the Benedictine monastery of Bzovík proves that hereditary estates from the time before the arrival of the Magyars prevailed in the Hunts' property. The Pázmánys oversaw the Benedictine monastery below Zobor hill near Nitra and became its secular patrons. According to the theory, the seat of the Hunt family was the Hont castle and they ruled in the Central Ipeľ region in today's southern Slovakia, while

8322-475: The frequent issues in interpretation may have arisen from an incomplete loop on the letter "G," suggesting that the original form might have been "Guntius." The Slavic origin of this name could be inferred from the letter "G," which was replaced with "H" only around the 12th century. The meaning of Hunt/Hont has nothing to do with the German word "hund" (dog), as some chroniclers mistakenly noted. Hunt and Poznan were old families whose roots most likely trace back to

8436-453: The identification, proposed by Kristó, Györffy and other Hungarian historians, of Gyula with one Prokui—who was Stephen's uncle according to Thietmar of Merseburg—is valid, Gyula later escaped from captivity and fled to Bolesław I the Brave , Duke of Poland (r. 992–1025). [Duke Boleslav the Brave's] territory included a certain burg, located near the border with the Hungarians. Its guardian

8550-410: The inscription LANCEA REGIS ("the king's spear") and depict an arm holding a spear with flag. According to the contemporaneous Adémar de Chabannes , a spear had been given to Stephen's father by Emperor Otto III as a token of Géza's right to "enjoy the most freedom in the possession of his country". Stephen is styled in various ways— Ungarorum rex ("king of the Hungarians"), Pannoniorum rex ("king of

8664-501: The invading troops of Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor , to withdraw from Hungary in 1030. Stephen established at least one archbishopric, six bishoprics and three Benedictine monasteries, leading the Church in Hungary to develop independently from the archbishops of the Holy Roman Empire . He encouraged the spread of Christianity by meting out severe punishments for ignoring Christian customs. His system of local administration

8778-429: The king and the kingdom" imply that the book was promulgated after Vazul's unsuccessful plot against Stephen. However, this view has not been universally accepted. Györffy states that the law book was issued, not after 1031, but around 1009. Likewise, the authenticity of the decree on tithes is debated: according to Györffy, it was issued during Stephen's reign, but Berend, Laszlovszky and Szakács argue that it "might be

8892-510: The knowledge of the grammatical art" in his childhood. This implies that he studied Latin, though some scepticism is warranted as few kings of this era were able to write. His two other late 11th-century hagiographies do not mention any grammatical studies, stating only that he "was brought up by receiving an education appropriate for a little prince". Kristó says that the latter remark only refers to Stephen's physical training, including his participation in hunts and military actions. According to

9006-456: The large number of well-to-do Swabians moving to the capital), or a remark by chancellor Angela Merkel in praise of the "thrifty Swabian housewife" (recommending Swabian, and by extension German economic prudence as a model for Europe during the financial crisis ). The ethno-linguistic group of Swabians speak Swabian German , a branch of the Alemannic group of German dialects . Swabian

9120-481: The late Adalbert of Prague, including Radla and Astrik , arrived in Hungary in the first years of his reign. The presence of an unnamed "Archbishop of the Hungarians" at the synod of 1007 of Frankfurt and the consecration of an altar in Bamberg in 1012 by Archbishop Astrik show that Stephen's prelates maintained a good relationship with the clergy of the Holy Roman Empire. The transformation of Hungary into

9234-543: The latter report is valid, the dioceses of Veszprém and Győr are the most probable candidates, according to historian Gábor Thoroczkay . By ordering the display of one part of Koppány's quartered corpse in Gyulafehérvár, the seat of his maternal uncle, Gyula the Younger , Stephen asserted his claim to rule all lands dominated by Hungarian lords. He also decided to strengthen his international status by adopting

9348-644: The left bank of the Lech , in an areal centered on the Swabian Alps roughly stretching from Stuttgart to Augsburg . SIL Ethnologue cites an estimate of 819,000 Swabian speakers as of 2006. During the 17th and 18th century, the Dutch Republic was known for its wealth and religious tolerance, and substantial numbers of Swabians moved there in search of either work or religious freedom. Those with large debts ended up conscripted as sailors and soldiers for

9462-501: The meeting in Győr where the royal charter determining the borders of the newly established Bishopric of Pécs was issued on 23 August 1009. The Diocese of Eger was also set up around 1009. According to Thoroczkay, "it is very probable" that the bishopric's establishment was connected with the conversion of the Kabars —an ethnic group of Khazar origin— and their chieftain. The head of

9576-460: The mid-12th century; allied by marriage to the Hunts, the line became "Hont-Pázmány". The oldest genealogic data about the Poznans are preserved in the Zobor charters (1111-1113). The charters contain names at least of fourth nobles from the Poznan family - Una, Bacha (Bača) and two sons of Bukven - Deda (Dedo) and Caca (Kačä). The high number of Slavic names in the Hunt-Poznan family is obvious until

9690-491: The names of the Hunt-Poznan family from the 11th–13th centuries, there is no indication of German names. Instead, a strong Slavic influence is apparent in both branches of the family up until the early 14th century. The successors of the Hunt-Poznan family included the Counts of Svätý Jur and Pezinok and the noble Forgách family. The family also produced nobility from Šíšov, Sek, Hradná, Nýrovce, Bučany, and Nitrianska Blatnica. By

9804-485: The north-western parts of the kingdom (primarily in present-day Slovakia ). Hont County was named after one of them. Lampert (?–1132) founded the Abbey of Bozók. His first wife was the sister of King Ladislaus I of Hungary . He held about 30 possessions and thus he was one of the wealthiest landowners of the kingdom. In 1124, he took part in the campaign of King Stephen II of Hungary against Dalmatia . Lampert

9918-483: The northern regions of Transdanubia, took many of Stephen's forts and plundered his lands. Stephen, who, according to the Illuminated Chronicle , "was for the first time girded with his sword", placed the brothers Hont and Pázmány at the head of his own guard and nominated Vecelin to lead the royal army. The last was a German knight who had come to Hungary in the reign of Géza. Hont and Pázmány were, according to Simon of Kéza 's Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum and

10032-481: The northwestern regions of the Carpathian Basin ; the rest of the territory was still dominated by tribal chieftains. Stephen's ascension to the throne was in line with the principle of primogeniture , which prescribed that a father was succeeded by his son. On the other hand, it contradicted the traditional idea of seniority , according to which Géza should have been succeeded by the most senior member of

10146-516: The nuclei of Church organization. The settlements developing around them, where markets were held on each Sunday, were important local economic centers. Stephen's brother-in-law, Henry II , became King of Germany in 1002 and Holy Roman Emperor in 1013. Their friendly relationship ensured that the western borders of Hungary experienced a period of peace in the first decades of the 11th century. Even when Henry II's discontented brother, Bruno , sought refuge in Hungary in 1004, Stephen preserved

10260-449: The observance of feast days and the confession before death. His other laws protected property rights and the interests of widows and orphans, or regulated the status of serfs. If someone has such a hardened heart—God forbid it to any Christian—that he does not want to confess his faults according to the counsel of a priest, he shall lie without any divine service and alms like an infidel. If his relatives and neighbors fail to summon

10374-526: The occasion of the 50th anniversary of Baden-Württemberg , economically the most successful state in modern Germany, the Swabians famously embraced their stereotyping, "We can do everything—except speak Standard German " ( Wir können alles. Außer Hochdeutsch ). Swabian stereotypes persist in contemporary Germany, as expressed e.g. in the " Schwabenhass " conflict (surrounding gentrification in Berlin due to

10488-466: The office of judge royal (országbíró) . He founded the Abbey of Ipolyság (today Šahy in Slovakia). Achilles ( b. 1210–1252) was bishop of Pécs between 1251 and 1252. Lampert (of the branch of Csalomja) was bishop of Eger from 1247 to 1275. Ivánka II from the Szeg branch was Judge royal sometime before 1289. Andrew I was a confidant of Béla IV of Hungary . He erected

10602-515: The opponents of Stephen's proselytizing policy—is uncertain. Györffy locates their lands to the east of the river Tisza ; while Thoroczkay says they live in the southern parts of Transdanubia. Bruno of Querfurt's report of the Black Hungarians' conversion by force suggests that Stephen conquered their lands at the latest in 1009 when "the first mission of Saint Peter" —a papal legate , Cardinal Azo—arrived in Hungary. The latter attended

10716-532: The peace with Germany and negotiated a settlement between his two brothers-in-law. Around 1009, he gave his younger sister in marriage to Otto Orseolo , Doge of Venice (r. 1008–1026), a close ally of the Byzantine Emperor , Basil II (r. 976–1025), which suggests that Hungary's relationship with the Byzantine Empire was also peaceful. On the other hand, the alliance between Hungary and

10830-472: The priest, and therefore he should die unconfessed, prayers and alms should be offered, but his relatives shall wash away their negligence by fasting in accordance with the judgement of the priests. Those who die a sudden death shall be buried with all ecclesiastical honor; for divine judgment is hidden from us and unknown. Many Hungarian lords refused to accept Stephen's suzerainty even after his coronation. The new King first turned against his own uncle, Gyula

10944-405: The process. Stephen set up a territory-based administrative system, establishing counties . Each county, headed by a royal official known as a count or ispán , was an administrative unit organized around a royal fortress. Most fortresses were earthworks in this period, but the castles at Esztergom, Székesfehérvár and Veszprém were built of stone. Forts serving as county seats also became

11058-587: The retinue of Stephen's Bavarian wife Giselle. The united forces then defeated Koppány, making Stephen the sole ruler of the emerging Hungarian state. In the 11th and 12th century the Hunts owned estates mainly in the county of Hont and along the Ipeľ river. By the 11th and 12th centuries the Pázmáns' estates were mainly in the valley of the Nitra river. According to the alternate theory, the Pázmáns' male line died out in

11172-577: The road safe for everyone, welcomed as brothers all he saw and gave them enormous gifts. This action led many people, nobles and commoners, to go to Jerusalem. In addition to pilgrims, merchants often used the safe route across Hungary when travelling between Constantinople and Western Europe. Stephen's legends refer to 60 wealthy Pechenegs who travelled to Hungary, but were attacked by Hungarian border guards. The king sentenced his soldiers to death in order to demonstrate his determination to preserve internal peace. Regular minting of coinage began in Hungary in

11286-665: The royal bride undoubtedly accelerated his career. Lampert was also the founder of the monastery at Bzovík and, in 1124, participated in King Stephen II's campaign to Dalmatia. Both Lampert II and his son Nicholas died in battle during a civil war. Among the members of the Hunt-Poznan family was Count Thomas, who served as the Count of Nitra in the first quarter of the 13th century. Thomas distinguished himself in military service to King Emeric, leading troops in Bulgaria and also in

11400-400: The supposed borders of Koppány's duchy, suggest that significant auxiliary units and groups of Hungarian warriors—who had been settled there by Grand Prince Géza—fought in Stephen's army. Kristó states that the entire conflict between Stephen and Koppány was only a feud between two members of the Árpád dynasty , with no effect on other Hungarian tribal leaders. Koppány and his troops invaded

11514-617: The times of Great Moravia . This is evidenced by the extent of their estates, which they already possessed by the end of the 10th century, and the fact that they were not part of the nomadic Hungarian aristocracy. The Hunts owned lands in the regions of Hont , Malohont , and Novohrad , while the Poznans’ lands were mainly around Nitra and in Ponitrie . The earliest family members, magnates Hunt and Poznan, are mentioned in 997 when, in Bína ,

11628-625: The title of king. However, the exact circumstances of his coronation and its political consequences are subject to scholarly debate. Thietmar of Merseburg writes that Stephen received the crown "with the favour and urging" of Emperor Otto III (r. 996–1002), implying that Stephen accepted the Emperor's suzerainty before his coronation. On the other hand, all of Stephen's legends emphasize that he received his crown from Pope Sylvester II (r. 999–1003). Kristó and other historians point out that Pope Sylvester and Emperor Otto were close allies, which implies that both reports are valid: Stephen "received

11742-403: The will of God". The exact date of Stephen's coronation is unknown. According to later Hungarian tradition, he was crowned on the first day of the second millennium, which may refer either to 25 December 1000 or to 1 January 1001. Details of Stephen's coronation preserved in his Greater Legend suggest that the ceremony, which took place in Esztergom or Székesfehérvár followed the rite of

11856-450: The young prince. Györffy writes, without identifying his source, that Géza appointed his son to rule the " Nyitra ducate " around that time. Slovak historians, including Ján Steinhübel and Ján Lukačka, accept Györffy's view and propose that Stephen administered Nyitra (now Nitra , Slovakia) from around 995. Géza arranged Stephen's marriage to Gisela , daughter of Henry II, Duke of Bavaria , in or after 995. This marriage established

11970-685: Was Gisela of Burgundy , a member of the Welf dynasty . Born around 985, Gisela was younger than her husband, whom she survived. She left Hungary in 1045 and died as Abbess of the Niedernburg Abbey in Passau in Bavaria around 1060. Although the Illuminated Chronicle states that Stephen "begot many sons", only two of them, Otto and Emeric, are known by name. Otto, who was named after Otto III, seems to have been born before 1002. He died as

12084-591: Was baptized by the saintly Bishop Adalbert of Prague , who stayed in Géza's court several times between 983 and 994. However, Saint Adalbert's nearly contemporaneous Legend , written by Bruno of Querfurt , does not mention this event. Accordingly, the date of Stephen's baptism is unknown: Györffy argues that he was baptized soon after birth, while Kristó proposes that he only received baptism just before his father's death in 997. Stephen's official hagiography , written by Bishop Hartvic and sanctioned by Pope Innocent III , narrates that he "was fully instructed in

12198-504: Was based on counties organized around fortresses and administered by royal officials . Hungary enjoyed a lasting period of peace during his reign, and became a preferred route for pilgrims and merchants traveling between Western Europe , the Holy Land and Constantinople . Stephen survived all of his children, dying on 15 August 1038 aged 62 or 63. He was buried in his new basilica , built in Székesfehérvár and dedicated to

12312-458: Was born in Esztergom , which implies that he was born after 972 because his father, Géza, Grand Prince of the Hungarians , chose Esztergom as royal residence around that year. Géza promoted the spread of Christianity among his subjects by force, but never ceased worshipping pagan gods. Both his son's Greater Legend and the nearly contemporaneous Thietmar of Merseburg described Géza as

12426-433: Was descended from a prominent family of gyulas . Although both of his parents were baptized, Stephen was the first member of his family to become a devout Christian. He married Gisela of Bavaria , a scion of the imperial Ottonian dynasty . After succeeding his father in 997, Stephen had to fight for the throne against his relative, Koppány , who was supported by large numbers of pagan warriors. He defeated Koppány with

12540-532: Was identical with " Gylas ", who had been baptized in Constantinople around 952 and "remained faithful to Christianity", according to Byzantine chronicler John Skylitzes . However, this identification is not unanimously accepted; historian György Györffy states that it was not Sarolt's father, but his younger brother, who was baptized in the Byzantine capital. In contrast with all Hungarian sources,

12654-433: Was lord Prokui, an uncle of the Hungarian king. Both in the past and more recently, Prokui had been driven from his lands by the king and his wife had been taken captive. When he was unable to free her, his nephew arranged for her unconditional release, even though he was Prokui's enemy. I have never heard of anyone who showed such restraint towards a defeated foe. Because of this, God repeatedly granted him victory, not only in

12768-550: Was murdered by the followers of King Béla II the Blind , because he was suspected of supporting Boris Kalamanos 's claim to the throne. Around 1201, Martin (?–1236/1245) held the office of count (comes) at the court of the future King Andrew II of Hungary , and served as the Ban of Croatia and Dalmatia . In 1202 and between 1212-1213, Martin was the Ban of Slavonia and he was styled Ban also in 1224 and 1234. In 1214, he held

12882-402: Was the head of a small state located in the southern parts of Transylvania and Stephen occupied his country around 1003. Other historians, including Györffy, say that the chronicle's report preserved the memory of Stephen's campaign against Bulgaria in the late 1010s. Likewise, the identification of the " Black Hungarians " —who were mentioned by Bruno of Querfurt and Adémar de Chabannes among

12996-431: Was the last grand prince of the Hungarians between 997 and 1000 or 1001, and the first king of Hungary from 1000 or 1001 until his death in 1038. The year of his birth is uncertain, but many details of his life suggest that he was born in, or after, 975, in Esztergom . He was given the pagan name Vajk at birth, but the date of his baptism is unknown. He was the only son of Grand Prince Géza and his wife, Sarolt , who

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