Footwear refers to garments worn on the feet, which typically serve the purpose of protection against adversities of the environment such as wear from rough ground; stability on slippery ground; and temperature.
105-1175: Hunter Boot Limited is a British footwear manufacturer that is known for its rubber Wellington boots . Originally established in 1856 as the North British Rubber Company , the firm is headquartered in Edinburgh , Scotland . It also has offices in London, New York and Düsseldorf. In addition to rubber boots and other footwear , Hunter sells products such as bags , socks and accessories . It previously made tyres , conveyor belts , combs , golf balls , hot water bottles and rubber flooring . Hunter holds several Royal Warrants as suppliers of waterproof footwear. Green Wellington boots, now manufactured in China, are its best known product. In early January 1856, Henry Lee Norris, an American entrepreneur from Jersey City, New Jersey , and his friend and partner Spencer Thomas Parmelee of New Haven, Connecticut , landed in Scotland to work
210-461: A Scottish automobile manufacturer, in 1913, before the company was liquidated in 1931. This is said to be the first car factory in Britain to use ferro-concrete (concrete reinforced with metal bars), and was designed by Albert Kahn . The company's most famous Wellington, the "Original Green Wellington", was first made in the winter of 1955. It was the first orthopaedic boot made by Hunter, and
315-501: A decline in the footwear industry. While about 27,000 firms were in business in 2005, only 21,700 remained in 2009. Not only have these firms decreased in number, but direct employment has also reduced within the sector. In the U.S., the annual footwear industry revenue was $ 48 billion in 2012. In 2015, there were about 29,000 shoe stores in the U.S. and the shoe industry employed about 189,000 people. Due to rising imports, these numbers are also declining. The only way of staying afloat in
420-580: A loss from the expansion of its business to the United States . According to documents filed with Companies House, Hunter reported a loss of £600,000 from September 2003 to the end of February 2005, when it had a net debt of £2.03m. A private consortium led by Lord Marland of Odstock and comprising Peter Mullen, ex CEO of Thomas Pink , and Julian Taylor, all of whom were previous shareholders in Hunter Rubber Company, supported by
525-453: A major role in the evolution of concrete construction as a proven and studied science. Without Hyatt's work, more dangerous trial and error methods might have been depended on for the advancement in the technology. Joseph Monier , a 19th-century French gardener, was a pioneer in the development of structural, prefabricated and reinforced concrete, having been dissatisfied with the existing materials available for making durable flowerpots. He
630-492: A new Hunter Field logo was developed in Field Green to differentiate the two brands. The Balmoral Field boot is a technical style and features a Newflex Vibram outsole for extended use. In 2014, Hunter opened its first global flagship on London's Regent Street. The award-winning store takes inspiration from the brand's heritage presenting the full Hunter Original, Hunter Field and Hunter Kids collections over three floors. In
735-562: A patent of Charles Goodyear for the manufacture of India-rubber overshoes and boots. They arrived in Glasgow and began by searching for a suitable factory, which they eventually found at the Castle Mill in Edinburgh . A fine pair of condensing steam engines and boilers were included in the lease, which they were able to take up almost immediately due to the mill's partial occupation at the time. The pair were ready to begin operations in
840-457: A record season in summer 2007 announcing, in August, an 85% sales increase against the same period in 2006 Despite this, Hunter remained faced with major financial challenges regarding production. High manufacturing and fuel costs that contributed to the company's move into administration in 2006 remained prominent and, like many UK manufacturing businesses, Hunter was forced to consider whether it
945-419: A reduction in its durability. Corrosion and freeze/thaw cycles may damage poorly designed or constructed reinforced concrete. When rebar corrodes, the oxidation products ( rust ) expand and tends to flake, cracking the concrete and unbonding the rebar from the concrete. Typical mechanisms leading to durability problems are discussed below. Cracking of the concrete section is nearly impossible to prevent; however,
1050-545: A sign of respect towards someone of higher standing. Similarly, deliberately forcing other people to go barefoot while being shod oneself has been used to clearly showcase and convey one's superiority within a setting of power disparity. Practitioners of the craft of shoemaking are called shoemakers, cobblers, or cordwainers . Footwear has been used by humans since prehistoric times , with paleoclimatology suggesting that they would have been needed in some areas of human settlement by at least 50,000 years ago during
1155-422: A solid surface, it creates a two-dimensional impression. These types of impressions can be made with a variety of substances, like dirt and sand. When footwear removes material from a soft surface, it creates a three-dimensional impression. These types of impressions can be made in a variety of soft substances, like snow and dirt. Two-dimensional impressions also differ from three-dimensional impressions because
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#17327718263951260-512: A stage built on the main stand of Tynecastle Park . Footwear Cultures have different customs regarding footwear. These include not using any in some situations, usually bearing a symbolic meaning. This can however also be imposed on specific individuals to place them at a practical disadvantage against shod people, if they are excluded from having footwear available or are prohibited from using any. This usually takes place in situations of captivity, such as imprisonment or slavery , where
1365-426: A well-chosen concrete mix will provide additional protection for many applications. Uncoated, low carbon/chromium rebar looks similar to standard carbon steel rebar due to its lack of a coating; its highly corrosion-resistant features are inherent in the steel microstructure. It can be identified by the unique ASTM specified mill marking on its smooth, dark charcoal finish. Epoxy-coated rebar can easily be identified by
1470-658: Is a mixture of coarse (stone or brick chips) and fine (generally sand and/or crushed stone) aggregates with a paste of binder material (usually Portland cement ) and water. When cement is mixed with a small amount of water, it hydrates to form microscopic opaque crystal lattices encapsulating and locking the aggregate into a rigid shape. The aggregates used for making concrete should be free from harmful substances like organic impurities, silt, clay, lignite, etc. Typical concrete mixes have high resistance to compressive stresses (about 4,000 psi (28 MPa)); however, any appreciable tension ( e.g., due to bending ) will break
1575-528: Is coating them with zinc phosphate . Zinc phosphate slowly reacts with calcium cations and the hydroxyl anions present in the cement pore water and forms a stable hydroxyapatite layer. Penetrating sealants typically must be applied some time after curing. Sealants include paint, plastic foams, films and aluminum foil , felts or fabric mats sealed with tar, and layers of bentonite clay, sometimes used to seal roadbeds. Corrosion inhibitors , such as calcium nitrite [Ca(NO 2 ) 2 ], can also be added to
1680-577: Is considered to be the accepted type of car tyre today. Around 1907, the fledgling British Dunlop tyre company bought the 'Bartlett' patent from the North British Rubber Company for US$ 973,000, in order to acquire the rights to manufacture and distribute tyres under the same name. It is estimated that, today, the patent would be worth more than US$ 200,000,000. The company made not only rubber boots but also tyres, conveyors, combs, golf balls, hot water bottles and rubber flooring. In
1785-504: Is located across the bay from San Francisco . Two years later, El Campanil survived the 1906 San Francisco earthquake without any damage, which helped build her reputation and launch her prolific career. The 1906 earthquake also changed the public's initial resistance to reinforced concrete as a building material, which had been criticized for its perceived dullness. In 1908, the San Francisco Board of Supervisors changed
1890-541: Is one in which both the compressive and tensile zones reach yielding at the same imposed load on the beam, and the concrete will crush and the tensile steel will yield at the same time. This design criterion is however as risky as over-reinforced concrete, because failure is sudden as the concrete crushes at the same time of the tensile steel yields, which gives a very little warning of distress in tension failure. Steel-reinforced concrete moment-carrying elements should normally be designed to be under-reinforced so that users of
1995-428: Is one in which the concrete element is only reinforced near the tensile face and the reinforcement, called tension steel, is designed to resist the tension. A doubly reinforced beam is the section in which besides the tensile reinforcement the concrete element is also reinforced near the compressive face to help the concrete resist compression and take stresses. The latter reinforcement is called compression steel. When
2100-430: Is one in which the tension capacity of the tension steel is greater than the combined compression capacity of the concrete and the compression steel (over-reinforced at tensile face). So the "over-reinforced concrete" beam fails by crushing of the compressive-zone concrete and before the tension zone steel yields, which does not provide any warning before failure as the failure is instantaneous. A balanced-reinforced beam
2205-579: Is the theoretical failure point with a certain probability. It is stated under factored loads and factored resistances. Reinforced concrete structures are normally designed according to rules and regulations or recommendation of a code such as ACI-318, CEB, Eurocode 2 or the like. WSD, USD or LRFD methods are used in design of RC structural members. Analysis and design of RC members can be carried out by using linear or non-linear approaches. When applying safety factors, building codes normally propose linear approaches, but for some cases non-linear approaches. To see
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#17327718263952310-446: Is transferred from the concrete to the bar interface so as to change the tensile stress in the reinforcing bar along its length. This load transfer is achieved by means of bond (anchorage) and is idealized as a continuous stress field that develops in the vicinity of the steel-concrete interface. The reasons that the two different material components concrete and steel can work together are as follows: (1) Reinforcement can be well bonded to
2415-499: Is usually made of leather or plastic , and rubber . In fact, leather was one of the original materials used for the first versions of a shoe. The soles can be made of rubber or plastic, sometimes with the addition of a sheet of metal on the inside. Roman sandals had sheets of metal on their soles so that they would not bend out of shape. In more recent times, footwear suppliers such as Nike have begun to source environmentally friendly materials. In Europe, recent decades have seen
2520-404: Is usually, though not necessarily, steel reinforcing bars (known as rebar ) and is usually embedded passively in the concrete before the concrete sets. However, post-tensioning is also employed as a technique to reinforce the concrete. In terms of volume used annually, it is one of the most common engineering materials. In corrosion engineering terms, when designed correctly, the alkalinity of
2625-702: The American South was an exception. Its demand for masses of low-quality shoes for its slaves was met by workshops around Boston , Philadelphia , and New York , a dependence that later hobbled the Confederate Army during the Civil War and was responsible in legend for the decisive Battle of Gettysburg . Amid the Industrial Revolution , John Adam Dagyr's introduction of assembly line production and tight quality control to
2730-677: The Army's demands. The Wellington boot was envied by German soldiers during World War I and its dependability was seen to contribute to the British army's success. For World War II , the company was again called upon to supply vast quantities of Wellington and thigh boots. Eighty per cent of production was for war materials - from ground sheets to life belts and gas masks. In the Netherlands , forces were working in flooded conditions which demanded Wellingtons and tight boots in vast supplies. By
2835-616: The British Army amid the Napoleonic Wars —failed commercially as soon as the wars were over because the demobilized soldiers reduced the price of manual labor. John Brooks Nichols 's 1850 adaptation of Howe and Singer 's sewing machines to handle binding uppers to soles and the Surinamese immigrant Jan Ernst Matzeliger 's 1880 invention of an automatic lasting machine finally allowed true industrialization, taking
2940-540: The Diocletianic Persecution . In medieval Europe , leather shoes and boots became more common. At first most were simply pieces of leather sewn together and then held tight around the foot with a toggle or drawstring. This developed into the turnshoe , where the sole and upper were sewn together and then turned inside-out to hide and protect the seam and improve water resistance. From the reign of Charlemagne , Byzantine fashions began to influence
3045-764: The Last Glacial Period . Osteologists have found evidence of the effect of footwear on human remains by around 40,000 years ago. The oldest shoes so far recovered were found by a team under Luther Cressman in Fort Rock Cave , Oregon, US, in 1938. They had been preserved under the Mazama Ash deposited c. 5025 BC during the volcanic eruption that formed Crater Lake . In 1999, they were dated to around 10,500– 9,300 BP . Egyptian butchers sometimes wore platform sandals with thicker soles than usual to raise their feet out of
3150-567: The Marshall Plan after World War II , Italy became the major shoe exporting country in the 1950s. It was joined in the 1960s by Japan , which offshored its production to Taiwan , South Korea , and Hong Kong as its own labor became too expensive. In their turn, the Hong Kong manufacturers began moving production to Guangdong in mainland China almost immediately after the establishment of Deng Xiaoping 's Opening Up Policy in
3255-619: The Queen in 1986. By this time, a pair of Hunter boots had become an essential item for those guided in upmarket country fashion. By the end of the 1980s, they were synonymous with the much caricatured figures of the Sloane Ranger Handbook . In 1986, Uniroyal was bought by the Gates Rubber Company of Denver, Colorado . From the beginning of 1987, the company was known under the name of its new owner. It entered
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3360-611: The Royal Horticultural Society , the Lady Northampton riding boot, combining a molded waterproof rubber and canvas upper, was also added to extend from the company's traditional all-rubber Wellington boot range. In 2006, the Hunter Rubber Company was placed into administration due to cash flow problems. In spite of a reported turnover of over £5m, accountants from KPMG said the firm suffered from high manufacturing costs, including fuel costs, and made
3465-662: The following civil war , contributing to disease and desertion , particularly among the Nationalists . Following the world wars, the increasing importance of professional sports greatly popularized a variety of athletic shoes , particularly sneakers . Major brands such as Converse , Adidas , and Nike used celebrity endorsements from Chuck Taylor , Michael Jordan , Lionel Messi , and others to promote their products. Fashion houses periodically prompted new trends in women's and high-end fashion. In particular, while working for Christian Dior , Roger Vivier popularized
3570-400: The imperial period , however, as the emperors appropriated more and more symbols of high status for themselves. The Romans were the earliest people currently known to have shaped their right and left shoes distinctly during creation, rather than pulling them tight and allowing them to wear into shape. The Catholic patron saints of shoemaking— Crispin and Crispinian —were martyred during
3675-414: The large dresses of the era . Shoe fetishism was first publicized in the work of Nicolas-Edme Rétif in prerevolutionary France . 17th-century Cavalier boots developed into upper-class fashion and into sailing boots prized by fishermen and pirates before being replaced as military gear by the 18th-century Hessian and 19th-century Wellington boot . In Ming and Qing China , foot binding led to
3780-508: The stiletto heel in 1954. (Men's dress shoes have tended to retain 19th-century British looks such as the Oxford shoe and loafers .) Various subcultures have employed distinctive footwear as part of their identity, including winklepickers , Doc Martens , and skate shoes . The international trade in footwear was at first chiefly restricted to American exports to Europe and Europe's exports to its various colonial empires . Assisted by
3885-468: The tensile strength of concrete was improved by the reinforcing. Before the 1870s, the use of concrete construction, though dating back to the Roman Empire , and having been reintroduced in the early 19th century, was not yet a proven scientific technology. Ernest L. Ransome , an English-born engineer, was an early innovator of reinforced concrete techniques at the end of the 19th century. Using
3990-465: The "ten-footer" workshops in Lynn, Massachusetts , US, around 1760 is sometimes credited as the first shoe factory . However, although mechanized textile mills greatly reduced the price of proper socks , each step of the shoemaking process still needed to be done by hand in a slowly optimized putting-out system . The first mechanized systems—developed by Marc Isambard Brunel in 1810 to supply boots to
4095-454: The 'Green Welly Brigade'. In 1966, North British Rubber was bought by Uniroyal Limited of Greenville, South Carolina . Formerly known as the U.S. Rubber Company, Uniroyal is best known for car tyres and still operates today. In 1976, having continued to supply boots to the royal households, Hunter was awarded a Royal Warrant from the Duke of Edinburgh . This was shortly followed by another from
4200-423: The 1533 marriage of the 14-year-old Florentine Catherine de Medici to Prince Henry of France , both male and female royalty and nobles began wearing high heels , giving rise to the expression "well heeled". This was done sometimes for display or appearance and sometimes as an aid to riding in stirrups . For the most part, male footwear was more ornate and expensive because women's feet were usually covered by
4305-719: The 1890s, Wayss and his firm greatly contributed to the advancement of Monier's system of reinforcing, established it as a well-developed scientific technology. One of the first skyscrapers made with reinforced concrete was the 16-story Ingalls Building in Cincinnati, constructed in 1904. The first reinforced concrete building in Southern California was the Laughlin Annex in downtown Los Angeles , constructed in 1905. In 1906, 16 building permits were reportedly issued for reinforced concrete buildings in
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4410-557: The 50th anniversary of the Green Wellington Boot. Each different coloured boot, along with the kids' range, represented one of eight charities and were used to raise funds for them. The company launched a dedicated website, www.giving-welly.co.uk , to this purpose, and raised over £250,000 for charity. Hunter launched several extensions to the Wellington range in mid-2005. Along with developing boots under licence for
4515-697: The City of Los Angeles, including the Temple Auditorium and 8-story Hayward Hotel. In 1906, a partial collapse of the Bixby Hotel in Long Beach killed 10 workers during construction when shoring was removed prematurely. That event spurred a scrutiny of concrete erection practices and building inspections. The structure was constructed of reinforced concrete frames with hollow clay tile ribbed flooring and hollow clay tile infill walls. That practice
4620-607: The English counties of Norfolk and Suffolk. In 1877, Thaddeus Hyatt , published a report entitled An Account of Some Experiments with Portland-Cement-Concrete Combined with Iron as a Building Material, with Reference to Economy of Metal in Construction and for Security against Fire in the Making of Roofs, Floors, and Walking Surfaces , in which he reported his experiments on the behaviour of reinforced concrete. His work played
4725-635: The Hunter Division of Interfloor. In early 2004, a management-led investor group acquired the Hunter Boots business of Interfloor Group Ltd for £1.98m in a leveraged buyout transaction. For the first time, Hunter became an independent company under its own name, specifically, the Hunter Rubber Company . At the end of 2004, Hunter announced that they would be releasing a range of seven different coloured Wellingtons to celebrate
4830-673: The Original Chelsea Boot, Cara Delevingne wearing the Original Backpack and Niall Horan in Hunter Original outerwear. In 2016, Hunter launched its Core collection, a range of weatherproof Hunter boots in an array of colours. "Rain Starts Play" was coined as a hashtag for the launch. In June 2023 Hunter Boot went into administration owing creditors £ 112.8 million. The administrator stated, that
4935-584: The Pentland Group plc, bought Hunter out of administration and Hunter Boot Ltd was born. After rapid re-structuring of the company, new supply routes and distribution partners were found in the UK and USA and the Hunter portfolio was rationalised to core products exhibiting the key skills and tradition of the company. Hunter regained a large market share of the traditional country and leisure footwear market in
5040-537: The UK after the buy-out, and positioned itself as a strong contender in the USA - opening showrooms on 7th Avenue in New York and Regent Street in London. A new management team retained many of the staff from Hunter Rubber. In November 2006, Hunter Diving Ltd - the arm of Hunter Rubber that was responsible for manufacturing drysuits - was sold to Swedish rival company Trelleborg Group for an undisclosed sum. Spring 2007 saw
5145-695: The actual available length is inadequate for full development, special anchorages must be provided, such as cogs or hooks or mechanical end plates. The same concept applies to lap splice length mentioned in the codes where splices (overlapping) provided between two adjacent bars in order to maintain the required continuity of stress in the splice zone. In wet and cold climates, reinforced concrete for roads, bridges, parking structures and other structures that may be exposed to deicing salt may benefit from use of corrosion-resistant reinforcement such as uncoated, low carbon/chromium (micro composite), epoxy-coated, hot dip galvanized or stainless steel rebar. Good design and
5250-461: The actual bond stress varies along the length of a bar anchored in a zone of tension, current international codes of specifications use the concept of development length rather than bond stress. The main requirement for safety against bond failure is to provide a sufficient extension of the length of the bar beyond the point where the steel is required to develop its yield stress and this length must be at least equal to its development length. However, if
5355-623: The beginning, there were only four people working for the company; by 1875, the team had grown to 600. The company had offices in Edinburgh, London and New York. Production of Wellington boots was dramatically boosted with the advent of World War I , when the company was asked by the War Office to construct a sturdy boot suitable for the conditions in flooded trenches . The mills ran day and night to produce immense quantities of these trench boots. In total, 1,185,036 pairs were made to cope with
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#17327718263955460-417: The behavior of the final structure under working loads. In the United States , the most common methods of doing this are known as pre-tensioning and post-tensioning . For a strong, ductile and durable construction the reinforcement needs to have the following properties at least: François Coignet used iron-reinforced concrete as a technique for constructing building structures. In 1853, Coignet built
5565-543: The chief reasons for the failure of reinforcement bars in concrete. The relative cross-sectional area of steel required for typical reinforced concrete is usually quite small and varies from 1% for most beams and slabs to 6% for some columns. Reinforcing bars are normally round in cross-section and vary in diameter. Reinforced concrete structures sometimes have provisions such as ventilated hollow cores to control their moisture & humidity. Distribution of concrete (in spite of reinforcement) strength characteristics along
5670-539: The chopines directly to the nalins worn in Ottoman baths and whose height was considered to be a marker of status.) By the early modern period , the development of better socks and less stiff hose allowed European footwear to become firmer and more durable. Welting was developed, using a narrow band of leather between the uppers and sole to improve appearance and comfort, increase water resistance, and simplify repair, particularly resoling worn shoes. Beginning with
5775-756: The city's building codes to allow wider use of reinforced concrete. In 1906, the National Association of Cement Users (NACU) published Standard No. 1 and, in 1910, the Standard Building Regulations for the Use of Reinforced Concrete . Many different types of structures and components of structures can be built using reinforced concrete elements including slabs , walls , beams , columns , foundations , frames and more. Reinforced concrete can be classified as precast or cast-in-place concrete . Designing and implementing
5880-594: The classic Hunter Original boot for Jack Wills , WaterAid , Cowshed and Fortnum & Mason , as well as a trench coat designed by Suzy Radcliffe, owner of denim brand Radcliffe . In September 2008, following the 2008 Olympics in Beijing , Hunter Boot Ltd sent specially made gold Wellington boots to every member of the Great Britain Olympic team who won a gold medal at the games. In January 2009, Hunter announced that it would be collaborating with
5985-405: The company had been on a decline as a result of reduced demand in combination with the pandemic , supply chain disruption and inflation. The stage play Sweet F.A. dramatized the real-life women's association football club formed during World War I by the company's workers in its Fountainbridge , Edinburgh factory. The play was performed at the 2021 Edinburgh Festival Fringe festival on
6090-422: The compression zone of a concrete is inadequate to resist the compressive moment (positive moment), extra reinforcement has to be provided if the architect limits the dimensions of the section. An under-reinforced beam is one in which the tension capacity of the tensile reinforcement is smaller than the combined compression capacity of the concrete and the compression steel (under-reinforced at tensile face). When
6195-521: The concrete protects the steel rebar from corrosion . Reinforcing schemes are generally designed to resist tensile stresses in particular regions of the concrete that might cause unacceptable cracking and/or structural failure. Modern reinforced concrete can contain varied reinforcing materials made of steel, polymers or alternate composite material in conjunction with rebar or not. Reinforced concrete may also be permanently stressed (concrete in compression, reinforcement in tension), so as to improve
6300-541: The concrete resists compression and reinforcement " rebar " resists tension can be made into almost any shape and size for the construction industry. Three physical characteristics give reinforced concrete its special properties: As a rule of thumb, only to give an idea on orders of magnitude, steel is protected at pH above ~11 but starts to corrode below ~10 depending on steel characteristics and local physico-chemical conditions when concrete becomes carbonated. Carbonation of concrete along with chloride ingress are amongst
6405-412: The concrete roof and floors in the two-story house he was constructing. His positioning of the reinforcement demonstrated that, unlike his predecessors, he had knowledge of tensile stresses. Between 1869 and 1870, Henry Eton would design, and Messrs W & T Phillips of London construct the wrought iron reinforced Homersfield Bridge bridge, with a 50' (15.25 meter) span, over the river Waveney, between
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#17327718263956510-416: The concrete, thus they can jointly resist external loads and deform. (2) The thermal expansion coefficients of concrete and steel are so close ( 1.0 × 10 to 1.5 × 10 for concrete and 1.2 × 10 for steel) that the thermal stress-induced damage to the bond between the two components can be prevented. (3) Concrete can protect the embedded steel from corrosion and high-temperature induced softening. Because
6615-403: The cross-section of vertical reinforced concrete elements is inhomogeneous. The reinforcement in a RC structure, such as a steel bar, has to undergo the same strain or deformation as the surrounding concrete in order to prevent discontinuity, slip or separation of the two materials under load. Maintaining composite action requires transfer of load between the concrete and steel. The direct stress
6720-458: The development of lotus shoes for Han women and then flowerpot shoes for the Manchu women who wanted to emulate the characteristic walk of women with bound feet without undergoing the process themselves. In Africa , North America , and Spanish and Portuguese South America , slave codes often mandated slaves should be barefoot at all times without exception. Following its independence ,
6825-546: The development of plimsolls , deck shoes , rubber boots , galoshes , and waders . The prevalence of trench foot in World War I focused attention on the importance of providing of adequate footwear in following conflicts, although this was not always possible. Millions of Chinese soldiers in both the NRA and PLA were obliged to use straw and rope shoes to allow easy replacement on long marches during both World War II and
6930-463: The drysuit market shortly after the takeover by Gates, at its peak becoming the number two producer in the market with a 35% market share. Its fortunes continued to improve over the next ten years until, in 1996, Gates Corporation, formerly known as The Gates Rubber Company, became a wholly owned subsidiary of Tomkins plc , ending 85 years of ownership by the Gates family. Tomkins paid a reported £366m for
7035-519: The early 1980s. Competitors were soon forced to follow suit, including removal of Taiwanese and Korean production to Fujian and to Wenzhou in southern Zhejiang . Similarly, amid Perestroika and the Fall of Communism , Italy dismantled its domestic industry, outsourcing its work to Eastern Europe , which proved less dependable than the Chinese and further eroded their market share. Beginning around
7140-515: The end of the war, the Wellington had become popular among men, women and children for wear in wet weather. It had become far roomier with a thick sole and rounded toe . Also, with the rationing of that time, labourers began to use them for daily work. After World War II, boot making had to move to a larger factory in Heathhall, Dumfries , to deal with the rise in demand. The factory was originally built for Arrol-Johnston (later Arrol-Aster),
7245-403: The examples of a non-linear numerical simulation and calculation visit the references: Prestressing concrete is a technique that greatly increases the load-bearing strength of concrete beams. The reinforcing steel in the bottom part of the beam, which will be subjected to tensile forces when in service, is placed in tension before the concrete is poured around it. Once the concrete has hardened,
7350-675: The fashion designer Jimmy Choo for a limited edition black Wellington boot, embossed with Jimmy Choo crocodile print and containing gold rivets and a leopard-print lining. Another boot was then launched in 2011. The Hunter boot tooling from the Scottish factory, and the manufacturing technique, is now used in Eastern Europe (Serbia) by Tigar Footwear and the products are marketed as Century Boots. In 2012, Searchlight Capital Partners , with headquarters in Europe and North America, became
7455-568: The first concrete buildings constructed in the United States was a private home designed by William Ward , completed in 1876. The home was particularly designed to be fireproof. G. A. Wayss was a German civil engineer and a pioneer of the iron and steel concrete construction. In 1879, Wayss bought the German rights to Monier's patents and, in 1884, his firm, Wayss & Freytag , made the first commercial use of reinforced concrete. Up until
7560-511: The first iron reinforced concrete structure, a four-story house at 72 rue Charles Michels in the suburbs of Paris. Coignet's descriptions of reinforcing concrete suggests that he did not do it for means of adding strength to the concrete but for keeping walls in monolithic construction from overturning. The, 1872–1873, Pippen building in Brooklyn stands as a testament to his technique. In 1854, English builder William B. Wilkinson reinforced
7665-447: The gore. Wealthier Egyptians also sometimes wore platforms. The Greeks distinguished a great variety of footwear, particularly different styles of sandals . The heeled cothurnus was part of the standard costume for tragedians , and the effeminate soccus for comedians . Going barefoot , however, was frequently lauded: Spartan boys undergoing military training, Socrates , and Olympic athletes all went without shoes most of
7770-459: The groups are among other things distinctly divided by whether or not footwear is being worn. In some cultures, people remove their shoes before entering a home. Bare feet are also seen as a sign of humility and respect, and adherents of many religions worship or mourn while barefoot. Some religious communities explicitly require people to remove shoes before they enter holy buildings, such as temples. In several cultures people remove their shoes as
7875-516: The industry: "edgesetter", "heel trimmer", " McKay machine operator". Many were replaced by cheaper immigrants ; the Czech Tomáš Baťa joined these workers at Lynn in 1904 and then returned to his own factory in Zlín , Moravia, mechanizing and rationalizing its production while guiding the factory town that developed into a garden city . By the early 20th century, vulcanization had led to
7980-660: The knowledge of reinforced concrete developed during the previous 50 years, Ransome improved nearly all the styles and techniques of the earlier inventors of reinforced concrete. Ransome's key innovation was to twist the reinforcing steel bar, thereby improving its bond with the concrete. Gaining increasing fame from his concrete constructed buildings, Ransome was able to build two of the first reinforced concrete bridges in North America. One of his bridges still stands on Shelter Island in New Yorks East End, One of
8085-488: The latter demonstrate length, width, and depth whereas two-dimensional impressions only demonstrate the first two aspects. [REDACTED] Media related to Footwear at Wikimedia Commons Ferro-concrete Reinforced concrete , also called ferroconcrete , is a composite material in which concrete 's relatively low tensile strength and ductility are compensated for by the inclusion of reinforcement having higher tensile strength or ductility. The reinforcement
8190-824: The light green color of its epoxy coating. Hot dip galvanized rebar may be bright or dull gray depending on length of exposure, and stainless rebar exhibits a typical white metallic sheen that is readily distinguishable from carbon steel reinforcing bar. Reference ASTM standard specifications A1035/A1035M Standard Specification for Deformed and Plain Low-carbon, Chromium, Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement, A767 Standard Specification for Hot Dip Galvanized Reinforcing Bars, A775 Standard Specification for Epoxy Coated Steel Reinforcing Bars and A955 Standard Specification for Deformed and Plain Stainless Bars for Concrete Reinforcement. Another, cheaper way of protecting rebars
8295-438: The microscopic rigid lattice, resulting in cracking and separation of the concrete. For this reason, typical non-reinforced concrete must be well supported to prevent the development of tension. If a material with high strength in tension, such as steel , is placed in concrete, then the composite material, reinforced concrete, resists not only compression but also bending and other direct tensile actions. A composite section where
8400-478: The midsummer of 1856. Originally, the company was named Norris & Co., which existed until the first limited liability act was introduced to Great Britain . The North British Rubber Company (which much later became known as Hunter Boot Limited) was registered as a limited liability company in September 1857. Norris was eventually succeeded at the company by William Erskine Bartlett, who arguably invented what
8505-656: The most efficient floor system is key to creating optimal building structures. Small changes in the design of a floor system can have significant impact on material costs, construction schedule, ultimate strength, operating costs, occupancy levels and end use of a building. Without reinforcement, constructing modern structures with concrete material would not be possible. When reinforced concrete elements are used in construction, these reinforced concrete elements exhibit basic behavior when subjected to external loads . Reinforced concrete elements may be subject to tension , compression , bending , shear , and/or torsion . Concrete
8610-598: The new controlling shareholder in Hunter Boot Ltd. In 2013, Alasdhair Willis was appointed Creative Director and two new brand categories Hunter Original and Hunter Field were introduced. The launch of Hunter Original has seen four pioneering catwalk shows at London Fashion Week showcasing new footwear, outerwear and accessories alongside the Original boot. Hunter Field is a technical collection. Introduced in SS15,
8715-541: The original Scottish made boots apart from the addition of an internal seam. Some manufacturing efficiencies have also been made including the removal of the latex dipping process, making the boots virtually identical to those from many other manufacturers. Hunter formed many relationships and collaborations with other brands in 2008, further extending its reach into the US, festival and fashion markets, while also contributing strongly to charity organisations. It produced versions of
8820-448: The passivation of steel at the anodic oxidation sites. Nitrite is a much more active corrosion inhibitor than nitrate , which is a less powerful oxidizer of the divalent iron. A beam bends under bending moment , resulting in a small curvature. At the outer face (tensile face) of the curvature the concrete experiences tensile stress, while at the inner face (compressive face) it experiences compressive stress. A singly reinforced beam
8925-424: The productivity of individual workers from 20 or 50 pairs a day to as many as 700, halving prices, and briefly making Lynn the center of world shoe production. As late as 1865, most men in the industry identified in the census and city directory as general purpose "cordwainers" or "shoemakers"; by 1890, they were almost universally described as "shoe workers" or—more often—by the specific name of their work within
9030-447: The prominently pointed shoe or boot now known as the calceus repandus . The Romans saw clothing and footwear as unmistakable signs of power and status in society . Patricians typically wore dyed and ornamented shoes of tanned leather with their togas or armor , while plebeians wore rawhide or hobnail boots and slaves were usually required to be barefoot . These class distinctions in footwear seem to have lessened during
9135-433: The reinforced concrete element is subject to increasing bending moment, the tension steel yields while the concrete does not reach its ultimate failure condition. As the tension steel yields and stretches, an "under-reinforced" concrete also yields in a ductile manner, exhibiting a large deformation and warning before its ultimate failure. In this case the yield stress of the steel governs the design. An over-reinforced beam
9240-629: The relationship between Hunter and the Royal Horticultural Society further strengthened by the launch of a new range of RHS boots at the Chelsea Flower Show in London in May. Hunter also set up the 'Century' Division to handle its global range of safety boots, and to develop new products in this sector. A little over a year later, Century Safety was acquired by the Tigar Corporation for an undisclosed sum. Hunter Boot Ltd enjoyed
9345-408: The same time, several mendicant orders began practicing discalceation as an aspect of their vows of humility and poverty , going entirely barefoot at all times or only wearing sandals in any weather. From the 1480s, the poulaine was replaced by the duckbill , which had a flat front but soon became impractically wide. The stiff hose of the era usually required fairly soft footwear, which in turn
9450-518: The same year, magician Steven Frayne, also known as Dynamo , worked with Hunter to become an integral part of their London Fashion Week show. Frayne appeared to levitate and then made models, including Suki Waterhouse , vanish in front of the crowd which included Stella McCartney and Anna Wintour . In 2015, in collaboration with Checkland Kindleysides, Hunter won Best Store Concept at the VM Excellence Awards. A second global flagship
9555-592: The shoe market is to establish a presence in niche markets. To ensure high quality and safety of footwear , manufacturers have to make sure all products comply to existing and relevant standards. By producing footwear in accordance with national and international regulations, potential risks can be minimized and the interest of both textile manufacturers and consumers can be protected. The following standards/regulations apply to footwear products: Footwear can create two types of impressions: two-dimensional and three-dimensional impressions. When footwear places material onto
9660-581: The size and location of cracks can be limited and controlled by appropriate reinforcement, control joints, curing methodology and concrete mix design. Cracking can allow moisture to penetrate and corrode the reinforcement. This is a serviceability failure in limit state design . Cracking is normally the result of an inadequate quantity of rebar, or rebar spaced at too great a distance. The concrete cracks either under excess loading, or due to internal effects such as early thermal shrinkage while it cures. Ultimate failure leading to collapse can be caused by crushing
9765-463: The stake. At that time, Gates was the largest non-tyre rubber company in the world. Intent on strengthening its positions in its core engineering markets, Tomkins began to dispose of a number of businesses during the period 1998-2001. In 1999, it sold the Consumer and Industrial Division of The Gates Rubber Company to Interfloor , the country's largest carpet underlay manufacturer. The company became
9870-474: The structure will receive warning of impending collapse. The characteristic strength is the strength of a material where less than 5% of the specimen shows lower strength. The design strength or nominal strength is the strength of a material, including a material-safety factor. The value of the safety factor generally ranges from 0.75 to 0.85 in Permissible stress design . The ultimate limit state
9975-454: The tension on the reinforcing steel is released, placing a built-in compressive force on the concrete. When loads are applied, the reinforcing steel takes on more stress and the compressive force in the concrete is reduced, but does not become a tensile force. Since the concrete is always under compression, it is less subject to cracking and failure. Reinforced concrete can fail due to inadequate strength, leading to mechanical failure, or due to
10080-661: The time. Similarly, ancient China considered footwear an important aspect of civilization—particularly embroidered slippers —but often depicted Taoist immortals and gods like Xuanwu barefoot. The Book of Exodus records Moses reverentially removing his shoes at Mount Sinai and the priests likewise went barefoot at the Temple of Solomon before Babylonian customs prevailed and entering houses of worship in footwear became common in Judaism and Christianity . The Etruscans experienced several footwear trends, including
10185-403: The water mix before pouring concrete. Generally, 1–2 wt. % of [Ca(NO 2 ) 2 ] with respect to cement weight is needed to prevent corrosion of the rebars. The nitrite anion is a mild oxidizer that oxidizes the soluble and mobile ferrous ions (Fe ) present at the surface of the corroding steel and causes them to precipitate as an insoluble ferric hydroxide (Fe(OH) 3 ). This causes
10290-485: The west and the pontificalia of the popes and other bishops began to feature greater luxury, including embroidered silk and velvet slippers . By the High Middle Ages , fashion trends periodically prompted sumptuary taxes or regulations and church condemnation for vanity . The 12th-century pigache and 14th- and 15th-century poulaine had elongated toes, often stuffed to maintain their shape. Around
10395-482: The year 2000, China has constantly produced more than half of the world's shoes. As of 2021, footwear is the 30th most traded category internationally; but, while China produces well over 60% of exported footwear, it currently earns less than 36% of the value of the total trade owing to the continuing importance of American, German, and other brands in the North American and European markets. Modern footwear
10500-465: Was easier to damage in the dirt and muck of the street and outdoors. This led many people to use wooden-soled calopedes , pattens , or galoshes , overshoes that served as a platform while walking. Particularly in Venice , these platforms were combined with the shoe to make chopines , sometimes so awkwardly high that the wearer required servants to help support them. ( Turkish sources, meanwhile, credit
10605-404: Was granted a patent for reinforcing concrete flowerpots by means of mixing a wire mesh and a mortar shell. In 1877, Monier was granted another patent for a more advanced technique of reinforcing concrete columns and girders, using iron rods placed in a grid pattern. Though Monier undoubtedly knew that reinforcing concrete would improve its inner cohesion, it is not clear whether he even knew how much
10710-516: Was launched alongside the Royal Hunter - another boot that remained in Hunter's range in 2012. Reaction from trade was slow, and an order of 36 pairs considered an achievement. However, the company persisted, taking them to county shows and trade fairs. Thought of as more up-market than the traditional black Wellington of the time, the 'Original' tended at first to be worn by middle- to upper-class rural people, who are still sometimes referred to as
10815-579: Was opened in the Ginza district of Tokyo in 2016. In 2016, Hunter launched the Duke of Wellington by Hunter Field collection, a range of all-purpose equestrian outerwear and footwear. Vincent Wauters was appointed CEO. Hunter continues to be chosen by festival goers the world over, and is particularly synonymous with the mud-filled Glastonbury Festival. Kate Moss first wore her Original Tall boots to Glastonbury in 2005, while recent years have seen Alexa Chung in
10920-422: Was strongly questioned by experts and recommendations for "pure" concrete construction were made, using reinforced concrete for the floors and walls as well as the frames. In April 1904, Julia Morgan , an American architect and engineer, who pioneered the aesthetic use of reinforced concrete, completed her first reinforced concrete structure, El Campanil, a 72-foot (22 m) bell tower at Mills College , which
11025-538: Was worth manufacturing in the UK. The company also had to negotiate a volatile relationship with its landlord and an expensive and inefficient 96-year-old factory. Eventually, alternative supply sources were sought and developed in Europe and the Far East and plans were made to leave the Dumfries plant and move the company HQ to Edinburgh . This move was finally made in September 2008. The Chinese made boots look like
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