Microwave imaging is a science which has been evolved from older detecting/locating techniques (e.g., radar ) in order to evaluate hidden or embedded objects in a structure (or media) using electromagnetic (EM) waves in microwave regime (i.e., ~300 MHz-300 GHz). Engineering and application oriented microwave imaging for non-destructive testing is called microwave testing , see below.
174-620: Hurricane Ike ( / aɪ k / ) was a powerful tropical cyclone that swept through portions of the Greater Antilles and Northern America in September ;2008, wreaking havoc on infrastructure and agriculture, particularly in Cuba and Texas. Ike took a similar track to the 1900 Galveston hurricane . The ninth tropical storm, fifth hurricane, and third major hurricane of the 2008 Atlantic hurricane season , Ike developed from
348-531: A Tropical Cyclone Warning Centre by the World Meteorological Organization 's (WMO) tropical cyclone programme. These warning centers issue advisories which provide basic information and cover a systems present, forecast position, movement and intensity, in their designated areas of responsibility. Meteorological services around the world are generally responsible for issuing warnings for their own country. There are exceptions, as
522-551: A state of emergency due to major damage and power outages, and the Louisville International Airport was closed temporarily. A LG&E spokesperson said that this was the worst power outage in 30 years. Later in the day, a statewide state of emergency was declared in Kentucky by Governor Steve Beshear . Cincinnati-Northern Kentucky International Airport was also temporarily shut down, and
696-479: A tropical wave west of Cape Verde on September 1 and strengthened to a peak intensity as a Category 4 hurricane over the open waters of the central Atlantic on September 4 as it tracked westward. Several fluctuations in strength occurred before Ike made landfall on eastern Cuba on September 8. The hurricane weakened prior to continuing into the Gulf of Mexico , but increased its intensity by
870-416: A 1.5 degree warming lead to "increased proportion of and peak wind speeds of intense tropical cyclones". We can say with medium confidence that regional impacts of further warming include more intense tropical cyclones and/or extratropical storms. Climate change can affect tropical cyclones in a variety of ways: an intensification of rainfall and wind speed, a decrease in overall frequency, an increase in
1044-444: A 2019 review paper show a future increase of rainfall rates. Additional sea level rise will increase storm surge levels. It is plausible that extreme wind waves see an increase as a consequence of changes in tropical cyclones, further exacerbating storm surge dangers to coastal communities. The compounding effects from floods, storm surge, and terrestrial flooding (rivers) are projected to increase due to global warming . There
1218-547: A built-in state, e. g. built-in non-visible gaskets in plastic valves. The microwave frequencies extend from 300 MHz to 300 GHz corresponding to wavelengths between 1 m and 1 mm. The section from 30 GHz to 300 GHz with wavelengths between 10 mm and 1 mm is also called millimeter waves . Microwaves are in the order of the size of the components to be tested. In different dielectric media they propagate differently fast and at surfaces between them they are reflected. Another part propagates beyond
1392-613: A circle, whirling round their central clear eye , with their surface winds blowing counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere . The opposite direction of circulation is due to the Coriolis effect . Tropical cyclones tend to develop during the summer, but have been noted in nearly every month in most tropical cyclone basins . Tropical cyclones on either side of
1566-460: A company spokesperson. Also hard hit were central Ohio (with over 350,000 customers losing power) and northeastern Ohio (with over 310,000 customers losing power), as well as Illinois (49,000), Missouri (85,000), and western Pennsylvania (with over 180,000 customers losing power). In western Kentucky, outside crews had to be brought in from as far away as Mississippi to restore power. In Indiana, about 350,000 customers lost power statewide, mainly in
1740-498: A contrast which can be detected by microwave imaging methods. As one example, there are several research groups all around the world working on developing efficient microwave imaging techniques for early detection of breast cancer. Ageing of infrastructure is becoming a serious problem worldwide. For example, in reinforced concrete structures, corrosion of their steel reinforcements is the main cause of their deterioration. In U.S. alone, repair and maintenance cost due to such corrosion
1914-405: A flow of warm, moist, rapidly rising air, which starts to rotate cyclonically as it interacts with the rotation of the earth. Several factors are required for these thunderstorms to develop further, including sea surface temperatures of around 27 °C (81 °F) and low vertical wind shear surrounding the system, atmospheric instability, high humidity in the lower to middle levels of
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#17328024336992088-675: A helicopter of the Canadian Coast Guard . The "Ike Spike" in gasoline prices was quite severe in Canada, with gas prices rising anywhere from 15 to 20 cents per liter. Ike's remnants combined with an unusual depression that affected southwestern Iceland on September 17, three days after Ike became extratropical. The storm produced 9 m (30 ft) waves along southwest coasts of the island. Rainfall peaked near 200 mm (7.9 in) close to Reykjavík . Wind gusts were measured up to 89 mph (143 km/h). Strong winds on
2262-815: A high storm surge, and travelled north up Galveston Bay , along the east side of Houston ( see storm-path image ). People in low-lying areas who had not heeded evacuation orders, in single-family one- or two-story homes, were warned by the weather service that they faced "certain death" from the overnight storm surge. Nearly 16,000 families in the Galveston-Houston area stayed in temporary shelters under federal housing programs, while 1700 were referred for assistance but could not be reached or were refused aid. In regional Texas towns, electrical power began failing on September 12 before 8 pm CDT, leaving millions without power (estimates range from 2.8 million to 4.5 million customers). Grocery store shelves in
2436-506: A higher intensity. Most tropical cyclones that experience rapid intensification are traversing regions of high ocean heat content rather than lower values. High ocean heat content values can help to offset the oceanic cooling caused by the passage of a tropical cyclone, limiting the effect this cooling has on the storm. Faster-moving systems are able to intensify to higher intensities with lower ocean heat content values. Slower-moving systems require higher values of ocean heat content to achieve
2610-464: A large number of forecasting centers, uses infrared geostationary satellite imagery and an algorithm based upon the Dvorak technique to assess the intensity of tropical cyclones. The ADT has a number of differences from the conventional Dvorak technique, including changes to intensity constraint rules and the usage of microwave imagery to base a system's intensity upon its internal structure, which prevents
2784-464: A large role in both the classification of a tropical cyclone and the determination of its intensity. Used in warning centers, the method was developed by Vernon Dvorak in the 1970s, and uses both visible and infrared satellite imagery in the assessment of tropical cyclone intensity. The Dvorak technique uses a scale of "T-numbers", scaling in increments of 0.5 from T1.0 to T8.0. Each T-number has an intensity assigned to it, with larger T-numbers indicating
2958-469: A minimum barometric pressure of 935 millibars (27.6 inches of mercury ), making the storm a Category 4 on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale . After peaking in strength, a ridge of high pressure to the storm's west strengthened, causing Ike to track towards the southwest—a path unusual for the time of year. However, this track also brought the storm into an area of strong wind shear, causing
3132-426: A much smaller area. This replenishing of moisture-bearing air after rain may cause multi-hour or multi-day extremely heavy rain up to 40 km (25 mi) from the coastline, far beyond the amount of water that the local atmosphere holds at any one time. This in turn can lead to river flooding , overland flooding, and a general overwhelming of local water control structures across a large area. A tropical cyclone
3306-467: A nonlinear inverse problem. The nonlinear inverse problem is converted into a linear inverse problem (i.e., Ax=b where A and b are known and x (or image) is unknown) by using Born or distorted Born approximations. Despite the fact that direct matrix inversion methods can be invoked to solve the inversion problem, this will be so costly when the size of the problem is so big (i.e., when A is a very dense and big matrix). To overcome this problem, direct inversion
3480-493: A number of techniques considered to try to artificially modify tropical cyclones. These techniques have included using nuclear weapons , cooling the ocean with icebergs, blowing the storm away from land with giant fans, and seeding selected storms with dry ice or silver iodide . These techniques, however, fail to appreciate the duration, intensity, power or size of tropical cyclones. A variety of methods or techniques, including surface, satellite, and aerial, are used to assess
3654-724: A powerful extratropical cyclone on September 14 over the Ozarks . A more steady weakening phase ensued, and after tracking across southern Ontario and Quebec , the remnants of Ike were absorbed by another extratropical low near the St. Lawrence River , on September 15. Fearing a repeat of Hurricane Donna in 1960 , the overseas branch of the British Red Cross began preparing contingency plans for 2,000 families considered to be at risk from Ike. A group of 260 Chinese construction workers stuck on Middle Caicos after
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#17328024336993828-524: A primordial eye was developing within the intensifying tropical storm. Tracking northwestward, the NHC upgraded Ike to hurricane status at 18:00 UTC based on objective satellite intensity estimates and the appearance of the eye on visible satellite imagery . During this time, Ike was centered 690 mi (1,110 km) east-northeast of the Leeward Islands and was tracking west-northwestward as
4002-422: A process known as rapid intensification, a period in which the maximum sustained winds of a tropical cyclone increase by 30 kn (56 km/h; 35 mph) or more within 24 hours. Similarly, rapid deepening in tropical cyclones is defined as a minimum sea surface pressure decrease of 1.75 hPa (0.052 inHg) per hour or 42 hPa (1.2 inHg) within a 24-hour period; explosive deepening occurs when
4176-429: A remnant low-pressure area . Remnant systems may persist for several days before losing their identity. This dissipation mechanism is most common in the eastern North Pacific. Weakening or dissipation can also occur if a storm experiences vertical wind shear which causes the convection and heat engine to move away from the center. This normally ceases the development of a tropical cyclone. In addition, its interaction with
4350-452: A result of a weakened subtropical ridge to its northeast. Ike's placement in an area with virtually no wind shear allowed for the hurricane to undergo explosive intensification despite unfavorable upper-level winds to its north, reaching major hurricane strength six hours after its designation as a hurricane. At 06:00 UTC on September 4, Ike peaked with maximum sustained winds of 145 miles per hour (233 kilometers per hour) and
4524-599: A result of the winds, the worst power loss in that state since an ice storm in 2000. In the Louisville area, over 300,000 customers were without power — the worst power outage in the utility's history. The Cincinnati metropolitan area was hard hit as well, with over 927,000 customers losing power in that region. A Duke Energy spokesperson said "We have never seen anything like this. Never. We're talking about 90 percent of our customers without power." There were so many power outages and so few workers available Duke Energy
4698-545: A slight increase in winds, and at 0700 UTC on September 13, Ike made landfall on the northeast end of Galveston Island in Texas , with a minimum barometric pressure of 950 mbar (28 inHg) and sustained winds of 110 mph (180 km/h), making Ike a Category 2 hurricane. After tracking inland, Ike weakened as it sped northward and later northeastward, weakening to tropical storm status east of Palestine, Texas late on September 13 and later becoming
4872-423: A storm event, as a result of the relatively flat topography. On Bolivar Peninsula, Texas , dozens of people were rescued as flood waters exceeded 12 feet (3.7 m) above sea level in advance of the hurricane. Many residents, some trapped by high water on the road at Rollover Pass and others elsewhere along Bolivar Peninsula were not rescued. The peninsula bore the brunt of Ike's right-front quadrant, historically
5046-569: A storm. Tropical cyclone scales , such as the Saffir-Simpson hurricane wind scale and Australia's scale (Bureau of Meteorology), only use wind speed for determining the category of a storm. The most intense storm on record is Typhoon Tip in the northwestern Pacific Ocean in 1979, which reached a minimum pressure of 870 hPa (26 inHg ) and maximum sustained wind speeds of 165 kn (85 m/s; 305 km/h; 190 mph). The highest maximum sustained wind speed ever recorded
5220-581: A stronger system. Tropical cyclones are assessed by forecasters according to an array of patterns, including curved banding features , shear, central dense overcast, and eye, to determine the T-number and thus assess the intensity of the storm. The Cooperative Institute for Meteorological Satellite Studies works to develop and improve automated satellite methods, such as the Advanced Dvorak Technique (ADT) and SATCON. The ADT, used by
5394-399: A synthetic (virtual) aperture is produced by moving the antenna (similar to the synthetic aperture radar principle ). Later, the collected data, which is sometimes referred to as raw data, is fed into the software for processing. Depending on the applied processing algorithm, microwave imaging techniques can be categorized as quantitative and qualitative. Microwave imaging has been used in
Hurricane Ike - Misplaced Pages Continue
5568-405: A system has dissipated or lost its tropical characteristics, its remnants could regenerate a tropical cyclone if environmental conditions become favorable. A tropical cyclone can dissipate when it moves over waters significantly cooler than 26.5 °C (79.7 °F). This will deprive the storm of such tropical characteristics as a warm core with thunderstorms near the center, so that it becomes
5742-529: A tropical cyclone are a result of the conservation of angular momentum imparted by the Earth's rotation as air flows inwards toward the axis of rotation. As a result, cyclones rarely form within 5° of the equator . Tropical cyclones are very rare in the South Atlantic (although occasional examples do occur ) due to consistently strong wind shear and a weak Intertropical Convergence Zone . In contrast,
5916-461: A tropical cyclone's core has a negative effect on its development and intensity by diminishing atmospheric convection and introducing asymmetries in the storm's structure. Symmetric, strong outflow leads to a faster rate of intensification than observed in other systems by mitigating local wind shear. Weakening outflow is associated with the weakening of rainbands within a tropical cyclone. Tropical cyclones may still intensify, even rapidly, in
6090-401: A tropical cyclone's intensity or the direction it is traveling. Wind-pressure relationships (WPRs) are used as a way to determine the pressure of a storm based on its wind speed. Several different methods and equations have been proposed to calculate WPRs. Tropical cyclones agencies each use their own, fixed WPR, which can result in inaccuracies between agencies that are issuing estimates on
6264-514: A tugboat was dispatched to return the vessel to port. Ike's storm surge affected Louisiana well ahead of the hurricane's landfall in Texas. Areas in coastal south-central and southwestern Louisiana, some of which were flooded by Gustav, were re-flooded as a result of Ike. Some areas that had not yet recovered from Gustav power outages received additional outages. The hardest-hit areas were in and around Cameron Parish , with nearly every square inch of
6438-439: A two-digit number and suffix letter by the warning centers that monitor them. Microwave imaging Microwave imaging techniques can be classified as either quantitative or qualitative. Quantitative imaging techniques (are also known as inverse scattering methods) give the electrical (i.e., electrical and magnetic property distribution) and geometrical parameters (i.e., shape, size and location) of an imaged object by solving
6612-831: A typhoon. This happened in 2014 for Hurricane Genevieve , which became Typhoon Genevieve. Within the Southern Hemisphere, it is either called a hurricane, tropical cyclone or a severe tropical cyclone, depending on if it is located within the South Atlantic, South-West Indian Ocean, Australian region or the South Pacific Ocean. The descriptors for tropical cyclones with wind speeds below 65 kn (120 km/h; 75 mph) vary by tropical cyclone basin and may be further subdivided into categories such as "tropical storm", "cyclonic storm", "tropical depression", or "deep depression". The practice of using given names to identify tropical cyclones dates back to
6786-479: A variety of applications such as: nondestructive testing and evaluation (NDT&E, see below), medical imaging, concealed weapon detection at security check points, structural health monitoring, and through-the-wall imaging. Microwave imaging for medical applications is also becoming of more interest. The dielectric properties of malignant tissue change significantly in comparison with the properties of normal tissue (e.g., breast tissue). This difference translates into
6960-568: A wind-related death was reported near Houma . Two other deaths took place in a car crash in the evacuation phase in Iberville Parish , and two other storm-related deaths in Jefferson Davis Parish that were ruled as deaths by natural causes . On the morning of September 13, 2008, the eye of Hurricane Ike approached the upper Texas coast, making landfall at 2:10 am CDT over the east end of Galveston Island , with
7134-473: Is a rapidly rotating storm system with a low-pressure center, a closed low-level atmospheric circulation , strong winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain and squalls . Depending on its location and strength, a tropical cyclone is called a hurricane ( / ˈ h ʌr ɪ k ən , - k eɪ n / ), typhoon ( / t aɪ ˈ f uː n / ), tropical storm , cyclonic storm , tropical depression , or simply cyclone . A hurricane
Hurricane Ike - Misplaced Pages Continue
7308-696: Is a strong tropical cyclone that occurs in the Atlantic Ocean or northeastern Pacific Ocean . A typhoon occurs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean. In the Indian Ocean and South Pacific, comparable storms are referred to as "tropical cyclones". In modern times, on average around 80 to 90 named tropical cyclones form each year around the world, over half of which develop hurricane-force winds of 65 kn (120 km/h; 75 mph) or more. Tropical cyclones typically form over large bodies of relatively warm water. They derive their energy through
7482-450: Is a useful NDT method for dielectric materials. Among them are plastics , glass-fiber reinforced plastics (GFRP) , plastic foams , wood , wood-plastic composites (WPC) , and most types of ceramics . Defects interior in the DUT and at its surface can be detected, e. g. in semi-finished products or pipes . Special applications of microwave testing are non-destructive Microwave testing
7656-789: Is about $ 276 billion per year, . Recently, microwave imaging has shown great potential to be used for structural health monitoring. Lower frequency microwaves (e.g., <10 GHz) can easily penetrate through concrete and reach objects of interest such as reinforcement bars (rebars). If there is any rust on the rebar, since rust reflects less EM waves in comparison with sound metal, the microwave imaging method can distinguish between rebars with and without rust (or corrosion). Microwave imaging also can be used to detect any embedded anomaly inside concrete (e.g., crack or air void). These applications of microwave imaging are part of non-destructive (NDT) testing in civil engineering. More on microwave imaging in NDT
7830-415: Is assumed at this stage that a tropical cyclone has become self-sustaining and can continue to intensify without any help from its environment. Depending on its location and strength, a tropical cyclone is referred to by different names , including hurricane , typhoon , tropical storm , cyclonic storm , tropical depression , or simply cyclone . A hurricane is a strong tropical cyclone that occurs in
8004-406: Is calculated as: where p {\textstyle p} is the density of air, u {\textstyle u} is a sustained surface wind speed value, and d v {\textstyle d_{v}} is the volume element . Around the world, tropical cyclones are classified in different ways, based on the location ( tropical cyclone basins ), the structure of
8178-554: Is currently no consensus on how climate change will affect the overall frequency of tropical cyclones. A majority of climate models show a decreased frequency in future projections. For instance, a 2020 paper comparing nine high-resolution climate models found robust decreases in frequency in the Southern Indian Ocean and the Southern Hemisphere more generally, while finding mixed signals for Northern Hemisphere tropical cyclones. Observations have shown little change in
8352-414: Is cut off from its supply of warm moist maritime air and starts to draw in dry continental air. This, combined with the increased friction over land areas, leads to the weakening and dissipation of the tropical cyclone. Over a mountainous terrain, a system can quickly weaken. Over flat areas, it may endure for two to three days before circulation breaks down and dissipates. Over the years, there have been
8526-431: Is described in the following. Microwave testing uses the scientific basics of microwave imaging for the inspection of technical parts with harmless microwaves . Microwave testing is one of the methods of non-destructive testing (NDT). It is restricted to tests of dielectric, i. e. non-conducting material. This includes glass-fibre reinforced plastic (GRP, GFRP). Microwave testing can be used to inspect components also in
8700-707: Is equivalent to sustained wind levels found in a Category 1 hurricane. Additionally, a state of emergency was declared in Ohio. Damages in Ohio were originally estimated at $ 553 million with 131,000 insurance claims filed in the first few days following the storm. The overall total damage in Ohio exceeded $ 1.1 billion, tying the 1974 Xenia tornado as the costliest storm in Ohio's history. Also in Salem, Indiana , and Scottsburg, Indiana , wind gusts up to 81 mph (130 km/h) were recorded. In Indiana , high winds caused more than 200,000 customers to be without power throughout
8874-420: Is possible, in which separate transmit and receive antennas are used. The backside of the device under test (DUT) must be accessible and the method gives no information about the depth of a defect within the DUT. Microwave tests are possible with constant frequency ( CW ) or with continuously tuned frequency ( FMCW ). FMCW is advantageous to determine the depth of defects within the DUT. A test probe attached to
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#17328024336999048-502: Is replaced with iterative solvers. Techniques in this class are called forward iterative methods which are usually time consuming. On the other hand, qualitative microwave imaging methods calculate a qualitative profile (which is called as reflectivity function or qualitative image) to represent the hidden object. These techniques use approximations to simplify the imaging problem and then they use back-propagation (also called time reversal, phase compensation, or back-migration) to reconstruct
9222-445: Is the generic term for a warm-cored, non-frontal synoptic-scale low-pressure system over tropical or subtropical waters around the world. The systems generally have a well-defined center which is surrounded by deep atmospheric convection and a closed wind circulation at the surface. A tropical cyclone is generally deemed to have formed once mean surface winds in excess of 35 kn (65 km/h; 40 mph) are observed. It
9396-512: Is the greatest. However, each particular basin has its own seasonal patterns. On a worldwide scale, May is the least active month, while September is the most active month. November is the only month in which all the tropical cyclone basins are in season. In the Northern Atlantic Ocean , a distinct cyclone season occurs from June 1 to November 30, sharply peaking from late August through September. The statistical peak of
9570-405: Is the storm's wind speed and r {\textstyle r} is the radius of hurricane-force winds. The Hurricane Severity Index is a scale that can assign up to 50 points to a system; up to 25 points come from intensity, while the other 25 come from the size of the storm's wind field. The IKE model measures the destructive capability of a tropical cyclone via winds, waves, and surge. It
9744-464: Is used in many industrial sectors: In the last years the need for NDT has increased generally and especially also for dielectric materials. For this reason and because microwave technics more and more are used in consumer products and hereby became much less expensive, NDT with microwaves increases. In recognizing this growing importance, in 2011 the Expert committee for microwave and THz procedures of
9918-620: The African easterly jet and areas of atmospheric instability give rise to cyclones in the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea . Heat energy from the ocean acts as the accelerator for tropical cyclones. This causes inland regions to suffer far less damage from cyclones than coastal regions, although the impacts of flooding are felt across the board. Coastal damage may be caused by strong winds and rain, high waves (due to winds), storm surges (due to wind and severe pressure changes), and
10092-513: The Atlantic Ocean or northeastern Pacific Ocean , and a typhoon occurs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean. In the Indian Ocean and South Pacific, comparable storms are referred to as "tropical cyclones", and such storms in the Indian Ocean can also be called "severe cyclonic storms". Tropical refers to the geographical origin of these systems, which form almost exclusively over tropical seas. Cyclone refers to their winds moving in
10266-486: The Bahamas at 13:00 UTC on September 7 with winds of 125 mph (201 km/h). After passing over Inagua, the development of a double eyewall—a feature that usually denotes the beginning of an eyewall replacement cycle —slightly weakened Ike late on September 7. However, the hurricane was able to reintensify and reach Category 4 intensity for a final time before making landfall near Cabo Lucrecia on
10440-485: The Cape Verde Islands , the system was only able to generate intermittent thunderstorm activity . The broad low-pressure continued to track westward and was considered to have become sufficiently organized to be classified as a tropical depression at 06:00 UTC on September 1. By this time the cyclone had tracked 780 miles (1,260 kilometers) west of Cape Verde. Although post-analysis indicated that
10614-647: The Hurricane Surge Index , the Hurricane Severity Index , the Power Dissipation Index (PDI), and integrated kinetic energy (IKE). ACE is a metric of the total energy a system has exerted over its lifespan. ACE is calculated by summing the squares of a cyclone's sustained wind speed, every six hours as long as the system is at or above tropical storm intensity and either tropical or subtropical. The calculation of
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#173280243369910788-559: The Madden–Julian oscillation . The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report summarize the latest scientific findings about the impact of climate change on tropical cyclones. According to the report, we have now better understanding about the impact of climate change on tropical storm than before. Major tropical storms likely became more frequent in the last 40 years. We can say with high confidence that climate change increase rainfall during tropical cyclones. We can say with high confidence that
10962-815: The Mississippi coastline and the Florida Panhandle . Damages from Ike in U.S. coastal and inland areas are estimated at $ 30 billion (2008 USD), with additional damage of $ 7.3 billion in Cuba, $ 200 million in the Bahamas, and $ 500 million in the Turks and Caicos , amounting to a total of at least $ 38 billion in damage. At the time, the hurricane was the second-costliest in United States history. The search-and-rescue operation after Ike
11136-533: The National Weather Service in Houston / Galveston, Texas issued a strongly worded bulletin, regarding storm surge along the shoreline of Galveston Bay . The bulletin advised that residents living in single-family homes in some parts of coastal Texas faced "certain death" if they did not heed orders to evacuate. Reports said as many as 40 percent of Galveston's citizens did not pay attention to
11310-404: The Saffir–Simpson scale . Climate oscillations such as El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and the Madden–Julian oscillation modulate the timing and frequency of tropical cyclone development. Rossby waves can aid in the formation of a new tropical cyclone by disseminating the energy of an existing, mature storm. Kelvin waves can contribute to tropical cyclone formation by regulating
11484-575: The Saffir–Simpson scale . The trend was most clear in the North Atlantic and in the Southern Indian Ocean. In the North Pacific, tropical cyclones have been moving poleward into colder waters and there was no increase in intensity over this period. With 2 °C (3.6 °F) warming, a greater percentage (+13%) of tropical cyclones are expected to reach Category 4 and 5 strength. A 2019 study indicates that climate change has been driving
11658-514: The troposphere , enough Coriolis force to develop a low-pressure center , and a pre-existing low-level focus or disturbance. There is a limit on tropical cyclone intensity which is strongly related to the water temperatures along its path. and upper-level divergence. An average of 86 tropical cyclones of tropical storm intensity form annually worldwide. Of those, 47 reach strength higher than 119 km/h (74 mph), and 20 become intense tropical cyclones, of at least Category 3 intensity on
11832-468: The "worst ever" storms by Cuban officials. In total, seven people were killed in Cuba from Ike due to drowning or collapsing structures. Over 300,000 houses were damaged, with an estimated 43,000 a total loss. The combined damage estimate from Ike and Gustav, and succeeding Paloma is about $ 9.7 billion (USD), with $ 7.3 billion of that from Ike, making Ike the most destructive hurricane in Cuban history at
12006-639: The 58,000 residents remained, but the figures of remaining residents were in the thousands. Widespread flooding included downtown Galveston: six feet (1.8 m) deep inside the Galveston County Courthouse, and the University of Texas Medical Branch , the primary hospital in Galveston county, was dealt significant damage due to flooding. The wide-scale flooding caused failures to all the facilities systems and allowed mold to invade all
12180-404: The 75-story JP Morgan Chase Tower , and Reliant Stadium lost part of its roof. As a result of the high wind and eyewall that passed directly through the city, power outages were a major problem. Some residents were without electricity for over a month. Because the storm system moved rapidly and did not linger over Houston, flooding was not a major problem for most of the city, as it normally is in
12354-640: The Atlantic hurricane season is September 10. The Northeast Pacific Ocean has a broader period of activity, but in a similar time frame to the Atlantic. The Northwest Pacific sees tropical cyclones year-round, with a minimum in February and March and a peak in early September. In the North Indian basin, storms are most common from April to December, with peaks in May and November. In the Southern Hemisphere,
12528-779: The Caribbean Electric Utilities Services Cooperation offered to support the restoration of power services. The British HMS Iron Duke (F234) was sent to the islands to assist in recovery efforts, and personnel from the British Red Cross were also dispatched. After Hurricane Ike, many residents applied to FEMA for loans and FEMA trailers. Many residents were forced to wait several weeks until their trailers arrived. Some waited for up to two months, living in hotels, in homes of relatives several miles away, or in their homes, with no power or running water . Many residents were angry at
12702-464: The DUT's surface gives information about the material distribution below the point of contact. When moving over the DUT surface point by point many such information is stored and then evaluated to give an overall image. This takes time. Directly imaging procedures are faster: Microwave versions are either electronic or make use of planar microwave detector consisting of a microwave absorbing foil and an infrared camera (NIDIT procedure ). Microwave testing
12876-632: The Dallas/Fort Worth(DFW) Metroplex where they were provided a place of refuge, medical treatment, and provisions. In addition to the orders of local and state officials, federal officials were thoroughly involved in evacuation decisions. On September 10, U.S. President George W. Bush made an emergency declaration for Texas, making more federal help available for preparations and evacuations. More than one million people evacuated in advance of Hurricane Ike, but more than 100,000 people did not. At 8:19 pm ( CDT ) September 11,
13050-556: The Equator generally have their origins in the Intertropical Convergence Zone , where winds blow from either the northeast or southeast. Within this broad area of low-pressure, air is heated over the warm tropical ocean and rises in discrete parcels, which causes thundery showers to form. These showers dissipate quite quickly; however, they can group together into large clusters of thunderstorms. This creates
13224-580: The Galveston area. On September 15, 2008, the United States Congress held a moment of silence for those who died in the hurricane. On September 11, the MV Antalina , a 584-foot (178 m) cargo ship, was among the ships that left Port Arthur to avoid the hurricane. The ship had a crew of 22 and carried a cargo of petroleum coke . On September 12, the ship's engine failed, and the ship was adrift 90 nautical miles (170 km) from
13398-822: The Gulf Coast. Florida Keys officials began evacuations on the low-lying chain of islands in phases, starting at the end in Key West by 8 am Sunday and continuing throughout the day—at noon for the Middle Keys , and at 4 pm for the Upper Keys , including Key Largo . Visitors were told to leave on Saturday. Overall 15,000 tourists evacuated, but the storm stayed to the south, only causing minor beach erosion . On September 7, The Texas Water/Wastewater Agency Response Network (TXWARN) activated its 700-member utility mutual aid network and began coordination with
13572-472: The Gulf of Mexico (ranging from major integrated producers like BP and Shell to small privately owned independents) shut in operations in advance of Ike's approach as a precautionary measure. As a result of these shut-ins, US oil production dropped from 5 million barrels per day (790,000 cubic meters per day) to 4 Mbbl/d (640,000 m/d) in the immediate aftermath of the hurricane. By late November, production
13746-476: The Houston area were empty for weeks in the aftermath of the storm. In Galveston , by 4 pm CDT (2100 UTC) on September 12, the rising storm surge began overtopping the 17 ft (5.2 m) Galveston Seawall , which faces the Gulf of Mexico; waves had been crashing along the seawall earlier, from 9 am CDT. Although Seawall Boulevard is elevated above the shoreline, many areas of town slope down behind
13920-821: The NCAA football game on September 13 between the Houston Cougars and the Air Force Falcons to be moved from Robertson Stadium in Houston to Gerald Ford Stadium in Dallas. Ike also forced the postponement of a Texas Longhorns game in Austin, Texas due to increased evacuee traffic in the city's shelters. The Sam Houston Bearkats football game with Prairie View A&M was also canceled. Tickets for World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) WrestleMania XXV were originally scheduled to go on sale September 20, 2008, but it
14094-632: The PDI is similar in nature to ACE, with the major difference being that wind speeds are cubed rather than squared. The Hurricane Surge Index is a metric of the potential damage a storm may inflict via storm surge. It is calculated by squaring the dividend of the storm's wind speed and a climatological value (33 m/s or 74 mph), and then multiplying that quantity by the dividend of the radius of hurricane-force winds and its climatological value (96.6 km or 60.0 mi). This can be represented in equation form as: where v {\textstyle v}
14268-463: The South Atlantic is not a major basin, and not an official basin according to the WMO. Each year on average, around 80 to 90 named tropical cyclones form around the world, of which over half develop hurricane-force winds of 65 kn (120 km/h; 75 mph) or more. Worldwide, tropical cyclone activity peaks in late summer, when the difference between temperatures aloft and sea surface temperatures
14442-497: The South Texas coast, or at least delays in production from the oil and gas platforms in the Gulf of Mexico. 14 oil refineries shut down production and nearly 150 oil tankers and cargo ships waited off-shore as every port from Lake Charles, Louisiana to Corpus Christi, Texas shut down in preparation for the storm. Power was lost throughout Grand Turk Island , an estimated 80%–95% of the houses there were damaged, 20% of which
14616-641: The St. Lawrence River leaving around 25,000 customers without electricity, especially in Belleville , Brockville , Bancroft , Peterborough , Bowmanville, Huntsville , and Timmins . In Quebec , regions to the north of the Saint Lawrence River received 50 to 70 mm (2.0 to 2.8 in) of rainfall ( Hautes-Laurentides , Haute- Mauricie , Réserve faunique des Laurentides , Saguenay-Lac-Saint-Jean , Charlevoix and Côte-Nord ). Maximum rainfall
14790-606: The State Emergency Operations Center and the Texas Commission on Environmental Quality (TCEQ) to begin preparations and notifications to utilities to prepare for Ike. State rural water associations activated mutual aid networks to prepare for the landfall of Ike while still providing assistance to areas affected by Hurricane Gustav . The Texas Rural Water Association held meetings with state agencies on September 9, to plan for landfall along
14964-746: The Texas Gulf Coast. On September 11, forecasting models began to show Ike making landfall just south of Galveston. City Manager Steven LeBlanc late Wednesday issued a mandatory evacuation order for the low-lying west end of Galveston Island . Later, the mandatory evacuation order was extended to the entire island of Galveston, as well as low-lying areas around Houston , Texas. Mandatory evacuations were also ordered for Jefferson , Orange , and Chambers counties located east of Houston. Voluntary evacuations were in effect for Hardin and Tyler as well as Newton and Jasper counties. Residents evacuating ahead of Ike were received by emergency workers in
15138-509: The Turks and Caicos and the Bahamas was estimated between $ 50 million and $ 200 million. The outer bands of Ike caused additional flooding in Haiti , which was already devastated by Hanna and also hit hard by Fay and Gustav . The last bridge still standing into the city of Gonaïves was washed away, slowing relief in the community considerably and creating a deep humanitarian and food crisis in
15312-610: The United States National Hurricane Center and Fiji Meteorological Service issue alerts, watches and warnings for various island nations in their areas of responsibility. The United States Joint Typhoon Warning Center and Fleet Weather Center also publicly issue warnings about tropical cyclones on behalf of the United States Government . The Brazilian Navy Hydrographic Center names South Atlantic tropical cyclones , however
15486-591: The Western Pacific. Tropical cyclones have to have a significant amount of gale-force winds occurring around the center before they are named within the Southern Hemisphere . The names of significant tropical cyclones in the North Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean, and Australian region are retired from the naming lists and replaced with another name. Tropical cyclones that develop around the world are assigned an identification code consisting of
15660-428: The anomaly and the surrounding medium is, the stronger the reflected wave will be. This reflection is collected by the same antenna in a monostatic system, or a different receiver antenna in bistatic configurations. To increase the cross-range resolution of the imaging system, several antennas should be distributed over an area (which is called the sampling area) with a spacing less than the operating wavelength. However,
15834-643: The areas that were impacted by the hurricane stayed closed while only one hospital continued to operate but with a limit of patients. The need for mental health services increased after the disaster especially for depression and post-traumatic stress disorder . Most individuals will not progress to constant behavioral or mental health problems, but the World Health Organization estimates between five and ten percent of victims will have more long-term issues. Telephone interviews and mental health diagnoses were ordered randomly to households concerning
16008-434: The backside of the system produced a large dust storm in northern areas of the island. Due to the damage brought by Ike in the Turks and Caicos Islands , the insular government declared the islands of Grand Turk and South Caicos as disaster areas . Damage on the islands was surveyed immediately following the hurricane's passage by a CDERA assessment team from Jamaica . Following the occurrence of extensive power outages,
16182-410: The buildings. Tourist attractions on the island suffered various degrees of damage. The Lone Star Flight Museum suffered massive damage, as the storm surge washed through the airport and hangars with about 8 feet (2.4 m) of water; however, Moody Gardens was built with storms in mind and was able to withstand the worst of the storm. In Houston, windows also broke in downtown buildings, including
16356-496: The city may have to be rebuilt elsewhere. Two additional deaths were reported in the Dominican Republic . About 2.6 million Cubans, a fourth of the population, were evacuated ahead of Ike. In Baracoa , 200 homes were reported to be destroyed and waves were running 23 ft (7 m) high and peaked at 40 ft (12 m) in different areas of Cuba. The Category 4 hurricane made landfall on September 8 on
16530-472: The coast of Holguín Province in Cuba by 00:00 UTC the next day. Although Ike remained well-defined for most of its crossing of eastern Cuba, the hurricane's core had become disrupted by the time it had reached the Caribbean Sea after spending a few hours over land. Over the next day, Ike tracked westward, paralleling the southern coast of Cuba without much intensification; at times the center of
16704-558: The coast. Bridge City mayor Kirk Roccaforte estimated that only about 14 homes (later updated to around two dozen) in the city were unaffected by the surge. Ike also caused widespread wind damage throughout southeast Texas, but was not bad due to Hurricane Rita striking the region in 2005 and Hurricane Humberto in 2007. NASA's Johnson Space Center suffered minor roof damage to Mission Control and minor cosmetic damage to some of its other buildings. NASA's operations at Ellington Field also sustained roof and awning damage, and one hangar
16878-557: The coastline in that area was flooded heavily, reaching as far north as Lake Charles , nearly 30 miles inland. Hundreds of people had to be rescued, including 363 people who were rescued by Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Search and Rescue teams in conjunction with the Louisiana National Guard and the U.S. Coast Guard. One person was killed in a flooded bayou in Terrebonne Parish , and
17052-474: The control tower was evacuated. In Cincinnati , numerous reports of roof damage and uprooted trees were called in to law enforcement, and on September 15, most of the schools in Hamilton County , Butler County, and Warren County had classes canceled because of power outages, some of which lasted seven days. Wind gusts of 75 mph (121 km/h) were recorded in both Cincinnati and Columbus , which
17226-561: The cyclone further west than initially anticipated. Moving over the warm waters of the Loop Current , Ike reached a secondary minimum in barometric pressure on 00:00 UTC with an estimate of 944 mbar (27.9 inHg); though winds would continue to strengthen afterward, the storm's pressure would rise. By late on September 12, Ike had reached the western edge of the nearby high-pressure area and began to curve northward. The formation of an eye just prior to landfall resulted in
17400-403: The depression reached tropical storm strength at 12:00 UTC that day, operationally the NHC began issuing advisories on Ike three hours later, by which time the system had already gained numerous curved rainbands and well-established outflow . Over the next few hours, Ike developed additional rainbands, but failed to develop a centralized area of convection due to the presence of dry air to
17574-435: The development of the westerlies . Cyclone formation is usually reduced 3 days prior to the wave's crest and increased during the 3 days after. The majority of tropical cyclones each year form in one of seven tropical cyclone basins, which are monitored by a variety of meteorological services and warning centers. Ten of these warning centers worldwide are designated as either a Regional Specialized Meteorological Centre or
17748-560: The effects of Hurricane Ike. Post-disaster mental health occurrences were 5.9 percent for post-traumatic stress disorder , 4.5 percent for major depressive episode , and 9.9 percent for general anxiety disorder . A Galveston Bay Recovery Study (GBRS) was a survey distributed through a random stratified cluster sampling of victims in the Galveston Bay area for research on traumatic stress and disaster exposure. When surveyed victims were asked how they felt and what they experienced after
17922-492: The equator, then move poleward past the ridge axis before recurving into the main belt of the Westerlies . When the subtropical ridge position shifts due to El Niño, so will the preferred tropical cyclone tracks. Areas west of Japan and Korea tend to experience much fewer September–November tropical cyclone impacts during El Niño and neutral years. During La Niña years, the formation of tropical cyclones, along with
18096-469: The evaporation of water from the ocean surface, which ultimately condenses into clouds and rain when moist air rises and cools to saturation . This energy source differs from that of mid-latitude cyclonic storms , such as nor'easters and European windstorms , which are powered primarily by horizontal temperature contrasts . Tropical cyclones are typically between 100 and 2,000 km (62 and 1,243 mi) in diameter. The strong rotating winds of
18270-532: The extent and magnitude of damage and affected the population, the Government of the Turks and Caicos declared Grand Turk and South Caicos Islands disaster areas. In Great Inagua Island , the Bahamas , eighty percent of houses sustained damage with almost a third of them having significant damage. The local Morton Salt factory was damaged and shut down operations. A few outlining islands suffered minor damage and no casualties were reported. Overall damage from
18444-481: The eyewall of the storm, and an upper-level anticyclone helps channel this air away from the cyclone efficiently. However, some cyclones such as Hurricane Epsilon have rapidly intensified despite relatively unfavorable conditions. There are a number of ways a tropical cyclone can weaken, dissipate, or lose its tropical characteristics. These include making landfall, moving over cooler water, encountering dry air, or interacting with other weather systems; however, once
18618-410: The form of cold water from falling raindrops (this is because the atmosphere is cooler at higher altitudes). Cloud cover may also play a role in cooling the ocean, by shielding the ocean surface from direct sunlight before and slightly after the storm passage. All these effects can combine to produce a dramatic drop in sea surface temperature over a large area in just a few days. Conversely, the mixing of
18792-453: The frequency of very intense storms and a poleward extension of where the cyclones reach maximum intensity are among the possible consequences of human-induced climate change. Tropical cyclones use warm, moist air as their fuel. As climate change is warming ocean temperatures , there is potentially more of this fuel available. Between 1979 and 2017, there was a global increase in the proportion of tropical cyclones of Category 3 and higher on
18966-571: The frontal boundary to the north, saw significant additional rainfall. Due to flooding in Chicago, Todd Stroger declared a state of emergency for Cook County due to flooding of the Des Plaines River . Hurricane-force wind gusts were reported to the east of the centre across parts of Kentucky, Indiana , Ohio , and Pennsylvania with significant wind damage including structural damage to buildings and trees. The Louisville area declared
19140-532: The general public regarding forecasts, watches, and warnings. Since the systems can last a week or longer, and more than one can be occurring in the same basin at the same time, the names are thought to reduce the confusion about what storm is being described. Names are assigned in order from predetermined lists with one, three, or ten-minute sustained wind speeds of more than 65 km/h (40 mph) depending on which basin it originates. Standards vary from basin to basin. Some tropical depressions are named in
19314-479: The hard-hit region. 74 deaths were reported in Haiti from Ike, most of which were in the coastal community of Cabaret which was swept away by floodwaters and mudslides . Haitian Prime Minister Michèle Pierre-Louis called for help at the end of the week, saying that four storms in three weeks have left over 550 dead and as many as one million homeless. She also said that parts of Gonaïves were so severely damaged that
19488-441: The hurricane there was an immediate emotional response to fear of the loss of property, employment, displacement, and damages. Children were targeted for physical abuse by parents and guardians because of loss of property and employment. Results of post-traumatic stress disorder, depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms, dysfunctions, and disabilities were reported when asked how stressful their lives have been since Hurricane Ike. There
19662-488: The hurricane was within 12 mi (19 km) of the island. At around 14:00 UTC on September 9, Ike made a second Cuban landfall, this time on Punta La Capitana in Pinar del Rio , with winds of 80 mph (130 km/h). Roughly six hours later, the hurricane emerged into the Gulf of Mexico as a slightly weakened system. Despite tracking back over water, Ike's prolonged interaction with Cuba had greatly disrupted
19836-584: The impact of three storms ( Fay , Gustav , and Hanna ) that had made landfall the same year. Seven people were killed in Cuba. In the United States, 113 people were reported killed, directly or indirectly, and 16 were still missing as of August 2011. Due to its immense size, Ike caused devastation from the Louisiana coastline all the way to the Kenedy County region near Corpus Christi, Texas . In addition, Ike caused flooding and significant damage along
20010-488: The improper use of generators. The Texas Department of State Health Services issued that gasoline generators should not be used indoors. Fifty-four people were reported by the Texas poison centers to have storm-related carbon monoxide exposure. The Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society and The Center for Disease Control reported 15 people had to undergo hyperbaric oxygen treatment for carbon monoxide poisoning. Symptoms from exposure were headaches, nausea, and vomiting with
20184-451: The intensity from leveling off before an eye emerges in infrared imagery. The SATCON weights estimates from various satellite-based systems and microwave sounders , accounting for the strengths and flaws in each individual estimate, to produce a consensus estimate of a tropical cyclone's intensity which can be more reliable than the Dvorak technique at times. Multiple intensity metrics are used, including accumulated cyclone energy (ACE),
20358-522: The intensity of a tropical cyclone. Reconnaissance aircraft fly around and through tropical cyclones, outfitted with specialized instruments, to collect information that can be used to ascertain the winds and pressure of a system. Tropical cyclones possess winds of different speeds at different heights. Winds recorded at flight level can be converted to find the wind speeds at the surface. Surface observations, such as ship reports, land stations, mesonets , coastal stations, and buoys, can provide information on
20532-430: The interior of the device under test reflect the incident microwave and send a part of it back to the test probe, which acts as a transmitter and as a receiver. The electronic data evaluation leads to a display of the results, e. g. as a B-scan (cross sectional view) or as a C-scan (top view). These display methods are adopted from ultrasonic testing. Besides the reflection method also the through transmission method
20706-574: The island. It then followed the southern coast of Cuba and crossed the western end of the island in Pinar del Río Province , close to the path taken by Hurricane Gustav ten days previously. The western areas of Cuba, already devastated by just 10 days before Ike hit, suffered additional major flooding from the rain and storm surge. The sugar cane crop was devastated, with over 3,400 square kilometres (1,300 sq mi) destroyed. The banana , yucca , coffee , and corn crops also suffered significant damage. Alongside Gustav, they were described as
20880-693: The late 1800s and early 1900s and gradually superseded the existing system—simply naming cyclones based on what they hit. The system currently used provides positive identification of severe weather systems in a brief form, that is readily understood and recognized by the public. The credit for the first usage of personal names for weather systems is generally given to the Queensland Government Meteorologist Clement Wragge who named systems between 1887 and 1907. This system of naming weather systems fell into disuse for several years after Wragge retired, until it
21054-404: The main belt of the Westerlies , by means of merging with a nearby frontal zone, can cause tropical cyclones to evolve into extratropical cyclones . This transition can take 1–3 days. Should a tropical cyclone make landfall or pass over an island, its circulation could start to break down, especially if it encounters mountainous terrain. When a system makes landfall on a large landmass, it
21228-731: The majority of the treated cases under the age of eighteen. Hurricane Ike forced the Houston Astros and the Chicago Cubs to play out their 3-game set in Milwaukee at Miller Park . Ike also forced the postponement of the second-week NFL game between the Houston Texans and the Baltimore Ravens. The game was later made up in Houston after repairs were made to Reliant Stadium on November 9, 2008. It also forced
21402-508: The marshy area around several producing wells, beam pumps and storage tanks. During the days both before and after the storm, companies, and residents reported around 448 releases of gas, oil and other substances into the environment in Louisiana and Texas. The hardest hit places were industrial centres near Houston and Port Arthur, Texas, as well as oil production facilities off Louisiana's coast. Tropical cyclone A tropical cyclone
21576-1286: The mountains, where average prices were as much as 60 cents higher than the national average. The closing of refineries so soon after Hurricane Gustav, and the time required to restart production, also resulted in shortages of gasoline in such places as the Carolinas and Tennessee, partly as a result of panic buying . 113 direct and indirect deaths have been reported in the US, including 85 in Texas (18 direct), eight in Louisiana , one in Arkansas , two in Tennessee , one in Kentucky , seven in Indiana , four in Missouri , two in Illinois , two in Michigan , seven in Ohio and one in Pennsylvania . As of August 2011, 16 people remain unaccounted for, 11 of them in
21750-458: The mutual coupling between the antennas, which are placed close to each other, may degrade the accuracy of the collected signals. Moreover, the transmitter and receiver system will become very complex. To address these problems, one single scanning antenna is used instead of several antennas. In this configuration, the antenna scans over the entire sampling area, and the collected data is mapped together with their antenna position coordinates. In fact,
21924-402: The north coast of eastern Cuba in the province of Holguín near Puerto de Sama, with sustained winds of about 130 mph (209 km/h), causing widespread flooding and damage to the eastern provinces. It passed across the central provinces of Holguín, Las Tunas, and Camagüey, emerging over the sea to the south of Cuba during the day. Ike dropped to Category One intensity by the time it crossed
22098-522: The observed trend of rapid intensification of tropical cyclones in the Atlantic basin. Rapidly intensifying cyclones are hard to forecast and therefore pose additional risk to coastal communities. Warmer air can hold more water vapor: the theoretical maximum water vapor content is given by the Clausius–Clapeyron relation , which yields ≈7% increase in water vapor in the atmosphere per 1 °C (1.8 °F) warming. All models that were assessed in
22272-677: The old record of 39.1 mm (1.54 in) in 1979, according to Environment Canada . Most damage in the Windsor area with Ike was confined to downed power lines and toppled tree branches with the wind gusts reaching 80 km/h (50 mph), with spotty street flooding that made driving completely treacherous in some areas. Highways were washed out in the Bruce Peninsula , and trees were uprooted in London, Ontario . The storm continued to cause wind and rain damage as it continued east along
22446-466: The overall frequency of tropical cyclones worldwide, with increased frequency in the North Atlantic and central Pacific, and significant decreases in the southern Indian Ocean and western North Pacific. There has been a poleward expansion of the latitude at which the maximum intensity of tropical cyclones occurs, which may be associated with climate change. In the North Pacific, there may also have been an eastward expansion. Between 1949 and 2016, there
22620-601: The passage of Hurricane Hanna were evacuated by the British Red Cross. Immediately before the storm struck, 348 people on Grand Turk were put into emergency shelters. On September 5, Florida Governor Charlie Crist declared a state of emergency in advance of Ike's arrival, (which was expected to be as early as September 8). Authorities in Key West issued a mandatory evacuation for all visitors for September 6. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) positioned supplies, and emergency response crews in Florida and along
22794-440: The potential of spawning tornadoes . Climate change affects tropical cyclones in several ways. Scientists found that climate change can exacerbate the impact of tropical cyclones by increasing their duration, occurrence, and intensity due to the warming of ocean waters and intensification of the water cycle . Tropical cyclones draw in air from a large area and concentrate the water content of that air into precipitation over
22968-413: The presence of moderate or strong wind shear depending on the evolution and structure of the storm's convection. The size of tropical cyclones plays a role in how quickly they intensify. Smaller tropical cyclones are more prone to rapid intensification than larger ones. The Fujiwhara effect , which involves interaction between two tropical cyclones, can weaken and ultimately result in the dissipation of
23142-440: The process created health threats of diseases, air contamination, smoke inhalation, and lead poisoning. As disaster victims return to their damaged homes children were exposed to the debris and other hazards, developing a risk of injury. After the hurricane because of power outages individuals and family misused portable generators causing carbon monoxide poisoning . Eighty-two percent to 87 percent of carbon monoxide were caused by
23316-444: The release of latent heat from the saturated soil. Orographic lift can cause a significant increase in the intensity of the convection of a tropical cyclone when its eye moves over a mountain, breaking the capped boundary layer that had been restraining it. Jet streams can both enhance and inhibit tropical cyclone intensity by influencing the storm's outflow as well as vertical wind shear. On occasion, tropical cyclones may undergo
23490-455: The residents of the hard-hit Bolivar peninsula and helped provide a Christmas party for residents of Bridge City, Texas . Direct Relief, an emergency response organization, provided over $ 1.1 million in hurricane emergency aid as of September 20, 2008. The organization sent shipments that contained medicines, and hygienic supplies. Hurricane Ike's winds, surge, and giant waves tossed storage tanks and punctured pipelines. However, operators in
23664-558: The response that FEMA gave to the problem. Texas state leaders also accused FEMA of foot dragging and insensitivity. $ 3.1 billion in federal aid was eventually allocated to Texas by the Department of Housing and Urban Development . It was supposed to be used to repair single-family homes of lower and middle-class income families, but as of 2011 only 10% of those funds were released, while the rest were held up because of "state bureaucracy". Hurricane Ike also brought many health issues to
23838-492: The same intensity. The passage of a tropical cyclone over the ocean causes the upper layers of the ocean to cool substantially, a process known as upwelling , which can negatively influence subsequent cyclone development. This cooling is primarily caused by wind-driven mixing of cold water from deeper in the ocean with the warm surface waters. This effect results in a negative feedback process that can inhibit further development or lead to weakening. Additional cooling may come in
24012-492: The same system. The ASCAT is a scatterometer used by the MetOp satellites to map the wind field vectors of tropical cyclones. The SMAP uses an L-band radiometer channel to determine the wind speeds of tropical cyclones at the ocean surface, and has been shown to be reliable at higher intensities and under heavy rainfall conditions, unlike scatterometer-based and other radiometer-based instruments. The Dvorak technique plays
24186-460: The sample under test (e.g., human body for medical imaging). If the sample is made of only homogeneous material and is of infinite size, theoretically no EM wave will be reflected. Introduction of any anomaly which has different properties (i.e., electrical/magnetic) in comparison with the surrounding homogeneous medium may reflect a portion of the EM wave. The bigger the difference between the properties of
24360-513: The sea can result in heat being inserted in deeper waters, with potential effects on global climate . Vertical wind shear decreases tropical cyclone predicability, with storms exhibiting wide range of responses in the presence of shear. Wind shear often negatively affects tropical cyclone intensification by displacing moisture and heat from a system's center. Low levels of vertical wind shear are most optimal for strengthening, while stronger wind shear induces weakening. Dry air entraining into
24534-445: The seawall to the lower elevation of Galveston Island . Even though there were advance evacuation plans, Mary Jo Naschke, spokesperson for the city of Galveston, estimated that (as of Friday morning) a quarter of the city's residents paid no attention to calls for them to evacuate, despite predictions that most of Galveston Island would suffer heavy flooding from storm tide . By 6 pm Friday night estimates varied as to how many of
24708-519: The shore. The crew unsuccessfully attempted to repair the engine and requested to be evacuated by the Coast Guard , but the rescue mission was aborted because weather conditions were not within the safety parameters. The crew was forced to ride out the storm but kept in contact with the Coast Guard. The ship successfully rode out the storm and all 22 crew members were uninjured. On September 13,
24882-492: The southern part of the state. In New York State, over 100,000 customers were reported without power. In total, 28 deaths have been blamed on Ike in the inland states. In Ontario , Ike's remnants brought a record amount of rain on Sunday, September 14, in the Windsor region. It was closely following a slow-moving frontal system that had drenched the city the day before, dumping 75.2 millimeters (2.96 inches) of rain and breaking
25056-488: The state. Wind gusts of 63 mph (101 km/h) were recorded at Indianapolis International Airport . Coming into Indianapolis , on September 14, Ike also caused disruptions to the first-ever motorcycle Grand Prix held in Indianapolis , stopping both the 125cc and MotoGP races after two-thirds of the race distance, and causing the cancellation of the 250cc race. In Arkansas , about 200,000 customers lost power as
25230-419: The storm to become asymmetric in structure late on September 4 and weaken, briefly dropping below major hurricane status on September 6 while 150 miles (240 km) east of Grand Turk Island . Although wind shear abated and allowed for reintensification, Ike would fluctuate in strength over the next few days. After passing near the Turks and Caicos Islands , Ike made its first landfall on Inagua in
25404-426: The storm's south and its location in an area with only marginally favorable sea surface temperatures . These factors were also responsible for Ike's slow developmental trend that began after formation. Ike's gradual strengthening began to quicken early on September 3, with the strengthening of an intense rainband around the center of the storm. At roughly 15:00 UTC that day, microwave imaging indicated that
25578-617: The subtropical ridge position, shifts westward across the western Pacific Ocean, which increases the landfall threat to China and much greater intensity in the Philippines . The Atlantic Ocean experiences depressed activity due to increased vertical wind shear across the region during El Niño years. Tropical cyclones are further influenced by the Atlantic Meridional Mode , the Quasi-biennial oscillation and
25752-419: The surface pressure decreases by 2.5 hPa (0.074 inHg) per hour for at least 12 hours or 5 hPa (0.15 inHg) per hour for at least 6 hours. For rapid intensification to occur, several conditions must be in place. Water temperatures must be extremely high, near or above 30 °C (86 °F), and water of this temperature must be sufficiently deep such that waves do not upwell cooler waters to
25926-483: The surface. On the other hand, Tropical Cyclone Heat Potential is one of such non-conventional subsurface oceanographic parameters influencing the cyclone intensity. Wind shear must be low. When wind shear is high, the convection and circulation in the cyclone will be disrupted. Usually, an anticyclone in the upper layers of the troposphere above the storm must be present as well—for extremely low surface pressures to develop, air must be rising very rapidly in
26100-459: The surface. The larger the difference in the wave impedance , the larger is the reflected part. In order to find material defects, a test probe, attached or in a small distance, is moved over the surface of the device under test. This can be done manually or automatically. The test probe transmits and receives microwaves. Changes of the dielectric properties at surfaces (e. g. shrinkage cavities, pores, foreign material inclusion, or cracks) within
26274-648: The system and its intensity. For example, within the Northern Atlantic and Eastern Pacific basins, a tropical cyclone with wind speeds of over 65 kn (120 km/h; 75 mph) is called a hurricane , while it is called a typhoon or a severe cyclonic storm within the Western Pacific or North Indian oceans. When a hurricane passes west across the International Dateline in the Northern Hemisphere, it becomes known as
26448-585: The system caused electrical malfunction one of the lines of the subway , stranding over 25,000 commuters. High winds up to 78 km/h (48 mph) caused, at their worst, over 25,000 households to lose electricity in Montreal , Laval , Estrie and Montérégie and when it reached the Magdalen Islands , it had enough strength to cause a sailboat, the Océan , to sink. Its six passengers were rescued by
26622-415: The system's core, and instead of quickly strengthening and coalescing, the storm's wind field instead grew and only gradual intensification ensued. Due to the storm's comparatively small inner core and intensity of the outer rainbands, an eyewall replacement cycle took place, preventing Ike from rapidly intensifying. At around the same time, a high-pressure area strengthened to the hurricane's north, steering
26796-466: The time of its final landfall in Galveston, Texas , on September 13 before becoming an extratropical storm on September 14. The remnants of Ike continued to track across the United States and into Canada, causing considerable damage inland, before dissipating on the next day. Ike was blamed for at least 195 deaths. Of these deaths, 74 were in Haiti , which was already trying to recover from
26970-494: The time. It was later surpassed by Hurricane Irma almost exactly nine years later. Due to the intensity of the storm, Texas closed many of its chemical plants and oil refineries. Because much of the United States oil refining capacity is located in Texas, the closings caused a temporary increase in the prices of gasoline, home heating oil, and natural gas. Increases were particularly high in North Carolina , especially in
27144-423: The tropical cyclone year begins on July 1 and runs all year-round encompassing the tropical cyclone seasons, which run from November 1 until the end of April, with peaks in mid-February to early March. Of various modes of variability in the climate system, El Niño–Southern Oscillation has the largest effect on tropical cyclone activity. Most tropical cyclones form on the side of the subtropical ridge closer to
27318-401: The unknown image profile. Synthetic aperture radar (SAR), ground-penetrating radar (GPR), and frequency-wave number migration algorithm are some of the most popular qualitative microwave imaging methods . In general, a microwave imaging system is made up of hardware and software components. The hardware collects data from the sample under test. A transmitting antenna sends EM waves towards
27492-475: The victims. Damages from the homes and the environment helped create these issues amongst the public. Following the disaster, communities were challenged to provide the correct medical treatment in emergency rooms and other medical facilities. It developed stress restricting victims their basic health services. Orange County had an 88.5 percent capacity loss of intermediate care facilities reducing its overall capacity. By late October five hospitals that usually served
27666-523: The warnings. It was feared to be much the same in Port Arthur, and it was predicted that low-lying areas between Morgan City, Louisiana and Baffin Bay, Texas , particularly those areas east of Ike's projected eye landfall would experience the greatest damage from storm surges of up to 20 feet (6.1 m). The price of gas increased in the expectation of damage to some of the numerous oil refineries along
27840-451: The weaker of two tropical cyclones by reducing the organization of the system's convection and imparting horizontal wind shear. Tropical cyclones typically weaken while situated over a landmass because conditions are often unfavorable as a result of the lack of oceanic forcing. The Brown ocean effect can allow a tropical cyclone to maintain or increase its intensity following landfall , in cases where there has been copious rainfall, through
28014-402: The wind speed of Hurricane Helene by 11%, it increased the destruction from it by more than twice. According to World Weather Attribution the influence of climate change on the rainfall of some latest hurricanes can be described as follows: Tropical cyclone intensity is based on wind speeds and pressure. Relationships between winds and pressure are often used in determining the intensity of
28188-465: The worst part of a hurricane, and experienced catastrophic damage with the worst being between Rollover Pass and Gilchrist, Texas – west of High Island. Estimates of lost homes in the peninsula were around 80%. The Southeast Texas communities of Bridge City on Sabine Lake and large areas of nearby Orange (80 miles or 130 kilometres from the center of landfall) were inundated by the storm surge which traveled as much as 16 miles (26 km) inland from
28362-795: Was 185 kn (95 m/s; 345 km/h; 215 mph) in Hurricane Patricia in 2015—the most intense cyclone ever recorded in the Western Hemisphere . Warm sea surface temperatures are required for tropical cyclones to form and strengthen. The commonly-accepted minimum temperature range for this to occur is 26–27 °C (79–81 °F), however, multiple studies have proposed a lower minimum of 25.5 °C (77.9 °F). Higher sea surface temperatures result in faster intensification rates and sometimes even rapid intensification . High ocean heat content , also known as Tropical Cyclone Heat Potential , allows storms to achieve
28536-527: Was a slowdown in tropical cyclone translation speeds. It is unclear still to what extent this can be attributed to climate change: climate models do not all show this feature. A 2021 study review article concluded that the geographic range of tropical cyclones will probably expand poleward in response to climate warming of the Hadley circulation . When hurricane winds speed rise by 5%, its destructive power rise by about 50%. Therfore, as climate change increased
28710-455: Was a total loss. There was also significant structural damage to roofs and buildings containing health services resulting in the disruption of most health services. The local pharmacy roof collapsed, destroying the area's prescription drug supply, the police station, and the prison was significantly damaged and local supplies facilities were either damaged or destroyed. A two-year-old cruise ship terminal on Grand Turk owned by Carnival Cruise Lines
28884-487: Was an increase of impairments, interference with social activities and health behaviors such as eating poorly, smoking more, and restlessness. Development of these mental health problems was due to the lack of sufficient clean clothing, electricity, food, money, transportation, or water for at least one week. Victims and workers face numerous residential and occupational hazards during the process of repairing their homes or community. An exposure to hazardous materials through
29058-655: Was postponed due to the effect of Ike on the state of Texas until November 8, 2008. There were a number of relief efforts set up to help those caught up in Ike, including one set up by Portlight and Weather Underground . Most of them raised at least $ 10,000 to help out. The Portlight/Weather Underground effort created some initial controversy springing from the unexpected overwhelming response to requests for assistance. Portlight delivered over $ 500,000 worth of equipment to people with disabilities and outlying communities that were impacted by Hurricane Ike. They also delivered pizza to
29232-662: Was recorded between Lac-St-Jean and the Réserve faunique des Laurentides with a station recording more than 90 mm (3.5 in) of rain Along the river, the amount was more in the 10 and 30 mm (0.4 and 1.2 in) range, except in Quebec City area which received almost 50 mm (2.0 in), most of it between 7:00 pm and 8:00 pm. This rain caused small inundations, storm drain overflows, and closed one major highway. In Montreal , high humidity levels pushed by
29406-460: Was restored to pre-Ike levels. Despite the hurricane, only 500,000 U.S. gallons (1,900 cubic meters) of crude oil split into the Gulf of Mexico and the marshes, bayous and bays of Louisiana and Texas over a coastline distance of 185 miles (298 kilometres). Much of the spillage occurred in the High Island area of Galveston County, Texas, where storm surge rose over a low-lying oilfield and flooded
29580-474: Was revived in the latter part of World War II for the Western Pacific. Formal naming schemes have subsequently been introduced for the North and South Atlantic, Eastern, Central, Western and Southern Pacific basins as well as the Australian region and Indian Ocean. At present, tropical cyclones are officially named by one of twelve meteorological services and retain their names throughout their lifetimes to provide ease of communication between forecasters and
29754-466: Was severely damaged. On September 14, after Ike became extratropical and was enhanced by an upper-level shortwave trough, a major wind event took place across the lower and middle Ohio Valley and lower Great Lakes, and significant rainfall and flooding took place to the west. The St. Louis Metropolitan Area experienced hurricane conditions, with Ike's remnants inflicting severe damage to homes. Several areas in Illinois and Indiana , already flooded by
29928-446: Was significantly damaged. Water and electricity were also disrupted but since have been restored. Meanwhile, in South Caicos, 95% of the houses were also damaged, with over one-third significantly damaged or destroyed. Damage also occurred on other islands, mostly agricultural or the fishing industry, but in general, the damage was minor. Buildings on the islands have been severely weakened and 750 people have lost their homes. Due to
30102-405: Was the largest search-and-rescue operation in Texas history. The origins of Hurricane Ike can be traced back to a well-defined tropical wave , first identified by the National Hurricane Center (NHC) just within the western coast of Africa on August 28. Despite the development of a low-pressure area associated with the wave and signs of organization within favorable conditions near
30276-429: Was thinking of sending workers from their base in Charlotte, North Carolina . Many homes and business were without power for three–seven days. Cincinnati Public Schools cancelled classes for students for at least three days for all schools. In the Dayton, Ohio area 300,000 of 515,000 Dayton Power & Light Co. customers lost power at some point following severe wind storms on the afternoon of September 14, according to
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