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54-417: Hyrax Hill is named after the hyrax , a small mammal that lives in rocky areas. Hyraxes were once common in the rocky crevasses of Hyrax Hill, but their numbers have dropped in recent years due to the rapid urbanization of the surrounding area. Hyrax Hill is the location of Hyrax Hill Prehistoric Site and Museum . Louis Leakey discovered the remains of prehistoric settlements at Hyrax Hill while excavating

108-481: A clearer chronology of the area was developed. The pottery types found at Hyrax Hill were originally named "Gumban A" and "Gumban B" by Louis and Mary Leakey when they were first discovered at Hyrax Hill and the Nakuru Burial Site. These terms fell out of use along with the term "Gumban". The ceramic type formerly known as "Gumban A" is now known as " Nderit ware " and the type formerly known as "Gumban B"

162-528: A designated, communal area. The viscous urine quickly dries and, over generations, accretes to form massive middens. These structures can date back thousands of years. The petrified urine itself is known as hyraceum and serves as a record of the environment, as well as being used medicinally and in perfumes. Hyraxes inhabit rocky terrain across sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East. Their feet have rubbery pads with numerous sweat glands, which may help

216-413: A distinctive "sand paper" finish, and some vessels have been found with red slips . Archaeological remains have been found on the hill outside of Sites I and II. At the top of the hill is a cleared area, possibly created by the later inhabitants of Site I or the inhabitants of Site II. Mary Leakey described it as possibly being a stone circle or fort. Two bao boards are carved into rock outcroppings at

270-561: A fence or stockade and on the downhill side, a single gate, usually with extra works and flanking guard houses. In rocky terrain, notably the Uasin Gishu Plateau and the Elgeyo border, stone walling substituted for fencing or provided a base for the same. At the time of the first recorded accounts during the late 18th centuries, some of the dry stone walling could still be seen though they were mostly in deteriorated state. From

324-535: A life span from 9 to 14 years. Both types of "rock" hyrax ( P. capensis and H. brucei ) live on rock outcrops, including cliffs in Ethiopia and isolated granite outcrops called koppies in southern Africa. With one exception, all hyraxes are limited to Africa ; the exception is the rock hyrax ( P. capensis ) which is also found in adjacent parts of the Middle East . Hyraxes were

378-523: A much more diverse group in the past encompassing species considerably larger than modern hyraxes. The largest known extinct hyrax, Titanohyrax ultimus , has been estimated to weigh 600–1,300 kilograms (1,300–2,900 lb), comparable to a rhinoceros. Hyraxes retain or have redeveloped a number of primitive mammalian characteristics; in particular, they have poorly developed internal temperature regulation , for which they compensate by behavioural thermoregulation , such as huddling together and basking in

432-597: A pair of teats, one located close to each of the front flippers. The tusks of hyraxes develop from the incisor teeth as do the tusks of elephants; most mammalian tusks develop from the canines . Hyraxes, like elephants, have flattened nails on the tips of their digits, rather than the curved, elongated claws usually seen on mammals. All modern hyraxes are members of the family Procaviidae (the only living family within Hyracoidea) and are found only in Africa and

486-590: A shallow depression, sometimes reinforced at the edges by stone revetments, around which habitation structures were built. There are a number of indicators that the central depression was a semi-fortified cattle boma , with people living in connected huts around the exterior. The evidence suggests that this culture was fully formed in the central Rift Valley at least by 1300 A.D. From here it spread westward to Sotik and Nyanza province, northwards to Cherangani hills and then to Mt. Elgon area and possibly into Uganda. This way of life would decline and eventually disappear by

540-775: Is a tree hyrax living between the Volta and Niger rivers but makes a unique barking call that is distinct from the shrieking vocalizations of hyraxes inhabiting other regions of the African forest zone. The following cladogram shows the relationship between the extant genera: Southern tree hyrax , D. arboreus arboreus Eastern tree hyrax , D. arboreus validus Western tree hyrax , D. dorsalis   Benin tree hyrax , D. interfluvialis Yellow-spotted rock hyrax , H. brucei   Rock hyrax , P. capensis   (extinct hyrax genera; uncertain position) References are made to hyraxes in

594-494: Is found at Site I. These are rounded vessels with a highly textured surface of wedge-shaped impressions, which are commonly found at Neolithic sites in eastern Africa. They resemble baskets. "Site II" lies on the north-western side of Hyrax hill, opposite from Site I. It was occupied earlier in the Iron Age than Site I. Radiocarbon dates have found that Site II was occupied between the twelfth and fifteenth centuries AD. Site II

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648-417: Is located near Lake Nakuru . 5000 to 6000 years ago, during the occupation of Site I, a wetter climate meant that lake levels were as much as 100 meters higher than their present levels. Hyrax Hill was a peninsula at this time, which jutted out into the north side of the lake. The occupants would have had access to a steady supply of fresh water, as well as fish. Mary Leakey identified the ancient rocky beach of

702-400: Is not widely used today, having been supplanted by " Savanna Pastoral Neolithic ", a culture which Christopher Ehret indicates was likely produced by early Cushitic settlers. In Kenya, the broader term "Pastoral Neolithic" refers to sites archaeological containing a Later Stone Age lithic industry, predominant livestock husbandry, and ceramic vessels. The ceramic type known as "Nderit ware"

756-688: Is now known as "Lanet ware." Both these names refer to the locations that the ceramic types were first identified. Hyrax For extinct genera, see text Hyraxes (from Ancient Greek ὕραξ hýrax ' shrew -mouse'), also called dassies , are small, stout, herbivorous mammals in the order Hyracoidea . Hyraxes are well-furred, rotund animals with short tails. Modern hyraxes are typically between 30 and 70 cm (12 and 28 in) in length and weigh between 2 and 5 kg (4 and 11 lb). They are superficially similar to marmots , or over-large pikas , but are much more closely related to elephants and sea cows . Hyraxes have

810-681: Is shown by the lack of lactating age cows in archaeological assemblages. Large herds of sheep and goats were kept for meat, and made up a large proportion of the Sirikwa diet. In the Kerio Valley of Kenya , among other neighboring areas, there are vestiges of elaborate irrigation systems. At one site six coins were found at a depth of between 45 cm and 50 cm (except one) and have been dated to between about 60 and 500 years old. These coins (three of them copper and three of silver) are all of Indian origin and are believed to have come from

864-483: Is the area of Hyrax Hill that was occupied during the Neolithic and late Iron Age . Although the early occupation of the site 5000 years ago is frequently referred to as the "Neolithic" (a trend started by Louis and Mary Leakey during the first excavations in the area), evidence has yet to be found for the cultivation of crops or raising of animals at the early occupation of Site I at Hyrax Hill. The Iron Age portion of

918-943: The Elmenteitan culture of the East African Pastoral Neolithic c.3300-1200 BP, it was followed in much of its area by the Kalenjin , Maa , western and central Kenyan communities of the 18th and 19th centuries. The archaeological evidence indicates that from about AD 1200, the Central Rift and Western Highlands of Kenya were relatively densely inhabited by a group (or groups) of people who practiced both cereal cultivation and pastoralism. They made occasional use of metals and created distinctive roulette-decorated pottery. These people are principally known from their characteristic settlement sites, commonly known as 'Sirikwa holes or hollows' . These comprise

972-618: The Hebrew Bible ( Leviticus 11:5 ; Deuteronomy 14:7 ; Psalm 104:18 ; Proverbs 30:26 ). In Leviticus they are described as lacking a split hoof and therefore not being kosher . It also describes the hyrax as chewing its cud, reflecting its observable ruminant-like mandible motions; the Hebrew phrase in question ( מַעֲלֵה גֵרָה ) means "bringing up cud". Some of the modern translations refer to them as rock hyraxes. ... hyraxes are creatures of little power, yet they make their home in

1026-615: The Middle East . In the past, however, hyraxes were more diverse and widespread. At one site in Egypt, the order first appears in the fossil record in the form of Dimaitherium , 37 million years ago, but much older fossils exist elsewhere. For many millions of years, hyraxes, proboscideans, and other afrotherian mammals were the primary terrestrial herbivores in Africa, just as odd-toed ungulates were in North America. Through

1080-530: The even-toed ungulates and some of the macropods . This behaviour is referred to in a passage in the Bible which describes hyraxes as "chewing the cud". This chewing behaviour may be a form of agonistic behaviour when the animal feels threatened. The hyrax does not construct dens, as most rodents and rodent-like mammals do, but over the course of its lifetime rather seeks shelter in existing holes of great variety in size and configuration. Hyraxes urinate in

1134-878: The extinct orders Embrithopoda and Desmostylia . The extinct meridiungulate family Archaeohyracidae , consisting of seven genera of notoungulate mammals known from the Paleocene through the Oligocene of South America , is a group unrelated to the true hyraxes. † Seggeurius † Microhyrax † Bunohyrax † Pachyhyrax † Thyrohyrax   † Selenohyrax     † Saghatherium     † Titanohyrax     † Antilohyrax   † Megalohyrax † Geniohyus ( elephants , mammoths , and mastodons )   ( horses, asses, and zebras ; rhinos ; and tapirs )   † Phenacodontidae Hyracoidea In

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1188-468: The "land of the 'rabbits ' ". The Phoenician shpania is cognate to the modern Hebrew shafan . Sirikwa#sirikwa holes Modern ethnicities Diaspora Performing arts Government agencies Television Radio Newspapers The Sirikwa culture was the predominant Kenyan hinterland culture of the Pastoral Iron Age, c.2000 BP. Seen to have developed out of

1242-548: The 18th and 19th centuries. The name Sirikwa derives from the name that various early informants gave to the builders of the structures today known as Sirikwa Holes . The oral literature of the Sengwer people , a community that has been associated with the culture, features a patriarch named Sirikwa whose descendants occupied the Uasin Gishu pateau. Sengwer had two sons named Sirikwa (elder) and Mitia. Sirikwa occupied

1296-429: The 2000s, taxonomists reduced the number of recognized species of hyraxes. In 1995, they recognized 11 species or more. However, as of 2013, only four were recognized, with the others all considered as subspecies of one of the recognized four. Over 50 subspecies and species are described, many of which are considered highly endangered. The most recently identified species is Dendrohyrax interfluvialis , which

1350-529: The Central Rift Valley and Western Highlands of Kenya were relatively densely inhabited by a group (or groups) of people who practiced both cereal cultivation and pastoralism. They made occasional use of metals and created distinctive roulette-decorated pottery. These people are however principally known from their characteristic settlement sites, known as 'Sirikwa holes or hollows' . Numerous saucer-shaped hollows have been found in various areas on

1404-588: The Great Lakes region to Lake Eyasi in the south. Its cross-section stretched from the eastern escarpment of the Great Rift Valley to the foot of Mount Elgon . Some of the localities include Cherengany, Kapcherop, Sabwani, Sirende, Wehoya, Moi's Bridge, Hyrax Hill , Lanet , Deloraine ( Rongai ), Tambach, Moiben , Soy, Turbo, Ainabkoi, Timboroa, Kabyoyon, Namgoi and Chemangel (Sotik). The archaeological evidence indicates that from about AD 1200,

1458-651: The Gulf of Kutch. Two of them, a rupee and an anna, had some inscriptions in English while the rest were inscribed with an Indian language. Cup like holes pecked into the rocks in two rows are found in a number of places around Hyrax hill and were used to play bao. Bao is a game of skill played in diverse places, from the Far East and Arab world to Africa and the Caribbean. There are a number of these "bao boards" around

1512-768: The Mokwan, the Meru as the Mwoko, the Kikuyu as the Enjoe, and the Maasai as the Eboratta. Radiocarbon dating of artifacts from Sirikwa sites indicates traces of a Proto-Sirikwa culture dating from c. 700 AD to c. 1200 AD and a Sirikwa Culture proper from c. 1200 AD to c. 1800 AD. Sirikwa-inhabited territory is believed to have extended from Lake Turkana in the northern part of

1566-534: The Neolithic cemetery at Hyrax Hill and other sites in the area. The bowls from Hyrax Hill are round or oblong, particularly shallow, and made from an easily accessed local variety of stone. Because these bowls were so distinctive at many sites in the Rift Valley , archaeologists created the term "Stone Bowl Culture" to encompass the Neolithic culture they were believed to represent. The term "Stone Bowl Culture"

1620-474: The actual date. Scattered obsidian flakes similar to those used by earlier cultures were also found at the site. It is unknown whether these were made by the inhabitants of Site II, or the earlier inhabitants of Site I. The pottery found at Site II is "Lanet ware" dated to the Iron Age. It consists of tall beakers with simple rims, rounded bottoms, and decoration made from cord impressions. These occasionally have small spouts and rounded handles. The pottery has

1674-402: The animal maintain its grip when quickly moving up steep, rocky surfaces. Hyraxes have stumpy toes with hoof-like nails; four toes are on each front foot and three are on each back foot. They also have efficient kidneys , retaining water so that they can better survive in arid environments. Female hyraxes give birth to up to four young after a gestation period of 7–8 months, depending on

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1728-617: The area before the Kikuyu. He further broke the category down into the "Gumban A" and "Gumban B" variations. Leakey did not intend to imply that the Gumba were the creators of the Neolithic sites, but intended the term to broadly refer to a culture that predated the modern inhabitants of the area. Leakey used this term while excavating the nearby Nakuru burial site, and Mary Leakey continued the usage when excavating Hyrax Hill. The name has since fallen out of use, due to its misleading nature. "Gumban B"

1782-482: The carnivore gnaw-marks that have been found on bones at the site. Site II was mistakenly identified as a late Neolithic site when it was first excavated, and Mary Leakey assigned it to the Neolithic "Gumban B" culture which Louis Leakey had identified from earlier excavations in the area. Few Iron-Age sites had been excavated in the area, and there was no reliable way for Mary Leakey to date the site. Few iron artifacts have ever been found at Site II, which further confused

1836-494: The crags; ... The words "rabbit", "hare", "coney", or "daman" appear as terms for the hyrax in some English translations of the Bible. Early English translators had no knowledge of the hyrax, so they didn't give a name for them, though "badger" or "rock-badger" has also been used more recently in new translations, especially in "common language" translations such as the Common English Bible (2011). One of

1890-553: The hillsides of the western highlands of Kenya and in the elevated stretch of the central Rift Valley around Nakuru. These hollows, having a diameter of 10–20 metres and an average depth of 2.4 metres, are usually found in groups sometimes numbering less than ten and at times more than a hundred. Excavations at several examples of these sites in the western highlands and in the Nakuru area have shown that they were deliberately constructed to house livestock. These hollows were surrounded by

1944-440: The incisors and the cheek teeth. The dental formula for hyraxes is 1.0.4.3 2.0.4.3 . Although not ruminants , hyraxes have complex, multichambered stomachs that allow symbiotic bacteria to break down tough plant materials, but their overall ability to digest fibre is lower than that of the ungulates . Their mandibular motions are similar to chewing cud , but the hyrax is physically incapable of regurgitation as in

1998-410: The lake in her 1938 excavations. The early occupation of Site I lies directly on the ancient beach, and she was able to use this and relative dating to date this portion of the site. Lake levels began to drop starting 3500 years ago, and the area became a more open savanna grassland. The drier environment was well suited to the pastoralism used by the later Sirikwan inhabitants of Site II. "Site I"

2052-477: The mandible of an equine species, possibly a donkey . Excavations in 1990 identified the cattle as likely belonging to the Zebu species. Further analysis showed that female cows were only slaughtered until after lactating age, indicating an emphasis on milk production. This excavation also found the remains of a domesticated dog, the first ever found at a Sirikwa site. Scavenging domesticated dogs possibly account for

2106-459: The middle to late Eocene , many different species existed. The smallest of these were the size of a mouse but others were much larger than any extant relatives. Titanohyrax could reach 600 kg (1,300 lb) or even as much as over 1,300 kg (2,900 lb). Megalohyrax from the upper Eocene-lower Oligocene was as huge as a tapir. During the Miocene , however, competition from

2160-450: The modern hyrax family. Others appear to have taken to the water (perhaps like the modern capybara ), ultimately giving rise to the elephant family and perhaps also the sirenians. DNA evidence supports this hypothesis, and the small modern hyraxes share numerous features with elephants, such as toenails , excellent hearing, sensitive pads on their feet, small tusks, good memory, higher brain functions compared with other similar mammals, and

2214-419: The nearby Nakuru Burial in 1926. He did not excavate it at the time because he believed it to be a recent occupation, and was busy working at several other sites. Louis Leakey returned to the area in 1937 with his wife, Mary Leakey . It was Mary Leakey who began major excavations at Hyrax Hill. She excavated and named both Site I and Site II between 1937 and 1938. With no carbon dating technology available, dating

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2268-538: The newly developed bovids , which were very efficient grazers and browsers, displaced the hyraxes into marginal niches. Nevertheless, the order remained widespread and diverse as late as the end of the Pliocene (about two million years ago) with representatives throughout most of Africa, Europe, and Asia. The descendants of the giant "hyracoids" (common ancestors to the hyraxes, elephants, and sirenians) evolved in different ways. Some became smaller, and evolved to become

2322-571: The north side of the hill. One is only partially preserved, but both appear to be a two-row version of the game rather than a four-row version. They are thought to be associated with the Site II Sirikwa habitation. While investigating archaeological sites in Kenya, Louis Leakey identified early sites belonging to the Neolithic period. He named these "Gumban" sites, after small forest-dwellers in Kikuyu mythology that were said to have lived in

2376-489: The plains (Soi) of what is now part of Trans Nzoia, Lugari and Uasin Gishu districts. Sirikwa had his first son named Chepkoilel. The plains have since been referred to as Kapchepkoilel. The children of Sirikwa and Mitia form the sub-tribes of Sengwer... Other Nilotic and Bantu peoples that today inhabit the eastern Great Lakes region have other names for the Sirikwa and Sirikwa-like communities. The Dorobo refer to them as

2430-585: The proposed etymologies for " Spain " is that it may be a derivation of the Phoenician I-Shpania , meaning "island of hyraxes", "land of hyraxes", but the Phoenecian-speaking Carthaginians are believed to have used this name to refer to rabbits, animals with which they were unfamiliar. Roman coins struck in the region from the reign of Hadrian show a female figure with a rabbit at her feet, and Strabo called it

2484-515: The remains it is apparent that houses were not built inside the actual Sirikwa holes but were attached however and were constructed on the outer side of the fence, being approached through the stock-pen and entered through a connecting door. These hollows are mostly covered over by grass and bush today. The Sirikwa practiced pastoralism . They herded goats , sheep , and cattle . There is also evidence that they raised donkeys, as well as domesticated dogs. The Sirikwa focused on milk production, which

2538-409: The shape of some of their bones . Hyraxes are sometimes described as being the closest living relative of the elephant, although whether this is so is disputed. Recent morphological- and molecular-based classifications reveal the sirenians to be the closest living relatives of elephants. While hyraxes are closely related, they form a taxonomic outgroup to the assemblage of elephants, sirenians, and

2592-467: The site dates to around 200 years ago, and consists of several stone enclosures and a large midden . Directly under this layer was an earlier Neolithic cemetery. The Neolithic cemetery consisted of several low burial mounds formed out of large blocks of stone. Many of the individuals buried at the site were dismembered. The occupants of this period of the site manufactured distinctive ground stone bowls, and many were found associated with female burials in

2646-466: The sites was difficult at the time. Leakey mistakenly described the Iron Age "Sirikwa Holes" as a pre-Iron Age village with "pit-dwellings." Excavations at the site were not undertaken again until after Hyrax Hill was obtained by the National Museums of Kenya in 1965, at which time one of the Sirikwa holes was fully excavated by Ron Clark and museum staff for display at the museum. Hyrax Hill

2700-792: The species. The young are weaned at 1–5 months of age, and reach sexual maturity at 16–17 months. Hyraxes live in small family groups, with a single male that aggressively defends the territory from rivals. Where living space is abundant, the male may have sole access to multiple groups of females, each with its own range. The remaining males live solitary lives, often on the periphery of areas controlled by larger males, and mate only with younger females. Hyraxes have highly charged myoglobin , which has been inferred to reflect an aquatic ancestry. Hyraxes share several unusual characteristics with mammalian orders Proboscidea (elephants and their extinct relatives) and Sirenia ( manatees and dugongs ), which have resulted in their all being placed in

2754-404: The sun. Unlike most other browsing and grazing animals, they do not use the incisors at the front of the jaw for slicing off leaves and grass; rather, they use the molar teeth at the side of the jaw. The two upper incisors are large and tusk-like, and grow continuously through life, similar to those of rodents. The four lower incisors are deeply grooved "comb teeth". A diastema occurs between

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2808-399: The taxon Paenungulata . Male hyraxes lack a scrotum and their testicles remain tucked up in their abdominal cavity next to the kidneys, as do those of elephants, manatees, and dugongs. Female hyraxes have a pair of teats near their armpits ( axilla ), as well as four teats in their groin (inguinal area); elephants have a pair of teats near their axillae, and dugongs and manatees have

2862-600: Was occupied by the Sirikwa , a later group of cattle pastoralists. The main feature of this site is a series of thirteen sandy bowl-shaped depressions and mounds. These depressions, called Sirikwa Holes , were deliberately constructed as pens for securing cattle, and the low mounds that are adjacent to these hollows were created from heaping dung and refuse outside the pen. The remains of cattle , goats , and sheep have been found at Site II, many of which show cut-marks and signs of human use. John Sutton's excavations in 1985 found

2916-497: Was originally identified as a Neolithic culture, but it was often mistakenly used to refer to sites that are now correctly dated to the Iron-Age. There was no reliable way to date the sites at the time, and Louis Leakey accidentally included Iron-Age pottery sherds among the "Gumban B" artifacts of the pre-Iron-Age Nakuru Burial site. Thus, Iron-Age sites like Site II of Hyrax hill became associated with Neolithic "Gumban B" sites until

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