Héder , also Hedrich , Heindrich and Henry ( Hungarian : Henrik ; died after 1164) was a German knight possibly from the Duchy of Swabia , who, alongside his brother Wolfer , settled down in the Kingdom of Hungary and became a member of the Hungarian nobility . Héder was also eponymous co-founder of the powerful Héder clan and ancestor of the Hédervári family .
134-400: ..., Volphger, who was descended from the counts of Hemburg, came with his brother Hedricus from Alemannia with three hundred armed horsemen, to whom Duke Geysa made a gift of Mount Kyscen and an island in the Danube near Iaurinum that he might dwell there for ever; here he built a castle of wood, and on the same mountain he founded a monastery, where he is buried. From him and his brother springs
268-549: A Benedictine monastery and later was buried himself there. Héder established his seat and erected a wooden castle in which later was called Hédervár (lit. "Héder's Castle") after him. Héder was the ancestor of the prestigious Hédervári family (flourished until the end of the 17th century), while the infamous and powerful Kőszegi family originated from Wolfer. As later the Héder genus was named after Héder and not after his elder brother, historian János Karácsonyi argued that Héder "
402-660: A devastating war with Persia exhausted the empire's resources; the early Muslim conquests that followed saw the loss of the empire's richest provinces— Egypt and Syria —to the Rashidun Caliphate . In 698, Africa was lost to the Umayyad Caliphate , but the empire subsequently stabilised under the Isaurian dynasty. The empire was able to expand once more under the Macedonian dynasty , experiencing
536-462: A sensational victory against Bulgaria and the Kievan Rus' in 971. John in particular was an astute administrator who reformed military structures and implemented effective fiscal policies. After John's death, Constantine VII's grandsons Basil II and Constantine VIII ruled jointly for half a century, although the latter exercised no real power before Basil's death in 1025. Their early reign
670-477: A church estate in order to obtain sum. When Géza invaded the Byzantine Empire and laid siege to Braničevo in late 1154, plausibly Héder and his brother also participated in the campaign alongside other German knights, as Greek historian John Kinnamos referred to them " Saxon " mercenaries. In fear of being seized and executed by King Géza II, his brother, the rebellious Duke Stephen sought refuge in
804-467: A combination of external threats and internal instabilities caused the Roman state to splinter as regional armies acclaimed their generals as "soldier-emperors". One of these, Diocletian ( r. 284–305 ), seeing that the state was too big to be ruled by one man, attempted to fix the problem by instituting a Tetrarchy , or rule of four, and dividing the empire into eastern and western halves. Although
938-645: A considerable increase in the size of urban settlements, together with a notable upsurge in new towns. Trade was also flourishing; the Venetians, the Genoese and others opened up the ports of the Aegean to commerce, shipping goods from the Crusader states and Fatimid Egypt to the west and trading with the empire via Constantinople. Manuel's death on 24 September 1180 left his 11-year-old son Alexios II Komnenos on
1072-436: A hereditary province, therefore, he was colloquially called Zoltán of Transylvania. He lived to the time of the holy king and was a very old man, that is why the king made him above the rich nations. He encouraged him not to delay, but rather to hasten the matter, and excited the king with this proverb: "Just as two sharp swords cannot fit in one scabbard, so you two cannot rule the same country." Count Vid's angry words seduced
1206-597: A judge from among themselves, a man named Kádár of the Torda clan, to handle the trials of the disputants and to punish thieves, rogues and evildoers, yet in such a way that if the judge gives an unfair sentence, the community can nullify it, and depose the erring judge and the captains whenever they want. This legal custom was kept by the Huns, namely the Hungarians, until the time of Grand Prince Géza, son of Taksony. For before
1340-595: A large number in Venice. According to chronicler Niketas Choniates , a prostitute was even set up on the patriarchal throne. When order had been restored, the crusaders and the Venetians proceeded to implement their agreement; Baldwin of Flanders was elected emperor of a new Latin Empire , and the Venetian Thomas Morosini was chosen as patriarch. The lands divided up among the leaders included most of
1474-512: A lengthy conflict against Sasanid Persia and ended in 363 with the death of his son-in-law Julian . The short Valentinianic dynasty , occupied with wars against barbarians , religious debates, and anti-corruption campaigns, ended in the East with the death of Valens at the Battle of Adrianople in 378. Valens's successor, Theodosius I ( r. 379–395 ), restored political stability in
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#17327944253681608-651: A line through the Adriatic Sea and south to Cyrene, Libya . This encompassed most of the Balkans , all of modern Greece, Turkey, Syria , Palestine ; North Africa, primarily with modern Egypt and Libya ; the Aegean islands along with Crete , Cyprus and Sicily , and a small settlement in Crimea . The landscape of the Empire was defined by the fertile fields of Anatolia , long mountain ranges and rivers such as
1742-450: A small fleet of 100 ships to defend the capital, but other than that he was indifferent to the populace. He was finally overthrown when Isaac II Angelos , surviving an imperial assassination attempt, seized power with the aid of the people and had Andronikos killed. The reign of Isaac II, and more so that of his brother Alexios III , saw the collapse of what remained of the centralised machinery of Byzantine government and defence. Although
1876-417: A speedy and marked improvement. Gradually, however, Andronikos's reign deteriorated. The aristocrats were infuriated against him, and to make matters worse, Andronikos seemed to have become increasingly unbalanced; executions and violence became increasingly common, and his reign turned into a reign of terror. Andronikos seemed almost to seek the extermination of the aristocracy as a whole. The struggle against
2010-466: A sword, exiled, or mercilessly pushed into ordinary slavery. While Detre and Macrinus had settled down and discussed and debated in this way, the Huns crossed the Danube on hoses at Sicambria in the silence of the night and cruelly killed the army of Macrinus and Detre, which was encamped in the field, because the city of Potentiana could not receive them. This attack infuriated Detre, and he went to fight
2144-608: A two-century-long renaissance . This came to an end in 1071, with the defeat by the Seljuk Turks at the Battle of Manzikert . Thereafter, periods of civil war and Seljuk incursion resulted in the loss of most of Asia Minor . The empire recovered during the Komnenian restoration , and Constantinople would remain the largest and wealthiest city in Europe until the 13th century. The empire was largely dismantled in 1204, following
2278-517: A two-month siege on 29 May 1453. The final Byzantine emperor, Constantine XI Palaiologos , was last seen casting off his imperial regalia and throwing himself into hand-to-hand combat after the walls of the city were taken. The Empire was centred in what is now Greece and Turkey with Constantinople as its capital. In the 5th century, it controlled the eastern basis of the Mediterranean running east from Singidunum (modern Belgrade ) in
2412-541: Is "álom" in our language, and the birth of that boy was prophesied by a dream, that's why he was called Álmos. And this Captain Árpád had a special dignity in Scythia, it was the custom of his clan, according to the Scythian law and tradition, that he went alone before those who went to war and those who retreated, saying, therefore he was the first to enter this land before the other captains going to Pannonia. Bulcsú,
2546-510: Is a medieval illustrated chronicle from the Kingdom of Hungary from the 14th century. It represents the artistic style of the royal court of King Louis I of Hungary . The codex is a unique source of art, medieval and cultural history. The chronicle's full name is: Chronicon Pictum – Marci de Kalt Chronica de Gestis Hungarorum (Illustrated Chronicle – Mark of Kalt's Chronicle About the Deeds of
2680-541: Is evidence that some Komnenian heirs had set up a semi-independent state in Trebizond before 1204. According to the historian Alexander Vasiliev , "the dynasty of the Angeloi, Greek in its origin, ... accelerated the ruin of the Empire, already weakened without and disunited within." In 1198, Pope Innocent III broached the subject of a new crusade through legates and encyclical letters. The stated intent of
2814-547: Is impossible to precisely date the foundation of the Byzantine Empire. In a series of conflicts between the third and first centuries BC, the Roman Republic gradually established hegemony over the eastern Mediterranean , while its government ultimately transformed into the one-person rule of an emperor . The Roman Empire enjoyed a period of relative stability until the third century AD , when
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#17327944253682948-456: Is written in the Roman chronicle - the Hungarians came out the second time from Scythia. Ügyek's son Előd, fathered a son by the daughter of Eunodubilia in Scythian land, whose name was Álmos, because a bird in the shape of a falcon appeared in his mother's dream when she was pregnant, a rushing stream sprang from her womb, it grew, but not in its own land, and from this it was prophesied that glorious kings would come from her loins. Because dream
3082-715: The Tactica , a military treatise; and the Book of the Eparch , which codified Constantinople's trading regulations. In non-literary contexts Leo was less successful: the empire lost in Sicily and against the Bulgarians , while he provoked theological scandal by marrying four times in an attempt to father a legitimate heir. The early reign of that heir, Constantine VII , was tumultuous, as his mother Zoe , his uncle Alexander ,
3216-623: The Byzantine Empire , challenged his right to the crown, and the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenos launched an expedition against Hungary. Fearing an invasion by Manuel, the Hungarian magnates, also Héder, agreed to accept Ladislaus, as a "compromise candidate" in July 1162. After Ladislaus' death Stephen III was restored and overturned the other pretender Stephen IV's army. Héder held the office of Palatine until 1164, when he
3350-536: The Catalan Company ravaging the countryside and increasing resentment towards Constantinople. The situation became worse for Byzantium during the civil wars after Andronikos III died. A six-year-long civil war devastated the empire, allowing the Serbian ruler Stefan Dušan to overrun most of the empire's remaining territory and establish a Serbian Empire . In 1354, an earthquake at Gallipoli devastated
3484-706: The Council of Clermont and urged all those present to take up arms under the sign of the Cross and launch an armed pilgrimage to recover Jerusalem and the East from the Muslims. The response in Western Europe was overwhelming. Alexios was able to recover a number of important cities, islands and much of western Asia Minor. The Crusaders agreed to become Alexios' vassals under the Treaty of Devol in 1108, which marked
3618-684: The Council of Piacenza in 1095, envoys from Alexios spoke to Pope Urban II about the suffering of the Christians of the East and underscored that without help from the West, they would continue to suffer under Muslim rule. Urban saw Alexios' request as a dual opportunity to cement Western Europe and reunite the Eastern Orthodox Church with the Roman Catholic Church under his rule. On 27 November 1095, Urban called
3752-475: The Danube , he pushed his troops too far in 602—they mutinied, proclaimed an officer named Phocas as emperor, and executed Maurice. The Sasanians seized their moment and reopened hostilities ; Phocas was unable to cope and soon faced a major rebellion led by Heraclius . Phocas lost Constantinople in 610 and was soon executed, but the destructive civil war accelerated the empire's decline. Under Khosrow II ,
3886-750: The Danube . In the north and west were the Balkans, the corridors between the mountain ranges of Pindos , the Dinaric Alps , the Rhodopes and the Balkans . In the south and east were Anatolia, the Pontic Mountains and the Taurus - Anti-Taurus range, which served as passages for armies, while the Caucasus mountains lay between the Empire and its eastern neighbours. Roman roads connected
4020-636: The Empire of Trebizond , was created after Alexios I of Trebizond , commanding the Georgian expedition in Chaldia a few weeks before the sack of Constantinople, found himself de facto emperor and established himself in Trebizond. Of the three successor states, Epirus and Nicaea stood the best chance of reclaiming Constantinople. The Nicaean Empire struggled to survive the next few decades, however, and by
4154-640: The Holy Roman Empire in the summer of 1157. Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor , was willing to arbitrate the conflict between Géza II and Stephen, and dispatched his envoys to Hungary. In response, Géza sent delegates to the Emperor, Judge royal Héder and Gervasius, Bishop of Győr . At the Diet of Regensburg in January 1158, Héder and Gervasius rejected the accusations of Stephen and successfully reached
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4288-602: The Middle Ages . The eastern half of the Empire survived the conditions that caused the fall of the West in the 5th century AD, and continued to exist until the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire remained the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in the Mediterranean world . The term "Byzantine Empire" was only coined following
4422-689: The Normans who arrived in Italy at the beginning of the 11th century. During a period of strife between Constantinople and Rome culminating in the East-West Schism of 1054 , the Normans advanced gradually into Byzantine Italy . Reggio , the capital of the tagma of Calabria, was captured in 1060 by Robert Guiscard , followed by Otranto in 1068. Bari , the main Byzantine stronghold in Apulia ,
4556-581: The Pechenegs , who were caught by surprise and annihilated at the Battle of Levounion on 28 April 1091. Having achieved stability in the West, Alexios could turn his attention to the severe economic difficulties and the disintegration of the empire's traditional defences. However, he still did not have enough manpower to recover the lost territories in Asia Minor and to the advance by the Seljuks. At
4690-458: The Roman papacy . In 780, Empress Irene assumed power on behalf of her son Constantine VI . Although she was a capable administrator who temporarily resolved the iconoclasm controversy, the empire was destabilized by her feud with her son. The Bulgars and Abbasids meanwhile inflicted numerous defeats on the Byzantine armies, and the papacy crowned Charlemagne as Roman emperor in 800. In 802,
4824-615: The Sack of Constantinople by Latin armies at the end of the Fourth Crusade ; its former territories were then divided into competing Greek rump states and Latin realms . Despite the eventual recovery of Constantinople in 1261, the reconstituted empire would wield only regional power during its final two centuries of existence. Its remaining territories were progressively annexed by the Ottomans in perennial wars fought throughout
4958-513: The sea walls of Constantinople , overhaul provincial governance, and wage inconclusive campaigns against the Abbasids. After his death, his empress Theodora , ruling on behalf of her son Michael III , permanently extinguished the iconoclastic movement; the empire prospered under their sometimes-fraught rule. However, Michael was posthumously vilified by historians loyal to the dynasty of his successor Basil I , who assassinated him in 867 and who
5092-453: The state religion , and other religious practices were proscribed . Greek gradually replaced Latin for official use as Latin fell into disuse. The empire experienced several cycles of decline and recovery throughout its history, reaching its greatest extent after the fall of the west during the reign of Justinian I ( r. 527–565 ), who briefly reconquered much of Italy and the western Mediterranean coast . The appearance of plague and
5226-522: The "land of the Romans" ( Bilād al-Rūm ), but the people of medieval Western Europe preferred to call them "Greeks" ( Graeci ), due to having a contested legacy to Roman identity and to associate negative connotations from ancient Latin literature. The adjective "Byzantine", which derived from Byzantion (Latinised as Byzantium ), the name of the Greek settlement Constantinople was established on,
5360-667: The 14th and 15th centuries. The fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453 ultimately brought the empire to an end. Many refugees who had fled the city after its capture settled in Italy and throughout Europe, helping to ignite the Renaissance . The fall of Constantinople is sometimes used to mark the dividing line between the Middle Ages and the early modern period . The inhabitants of the empire, now generally termed Byzantines, thought of themselves as Romans ( Romaioi ). Their Islamic neighbours similarly called their empire
5494-468: The 15th-century historian Laonikos Chalkokondyles , whose works were widely propagated, including by Hieronymus Wolf . "Byzantine" was used adjectivally alongside terms such as "Empire of the Greeks" until the 19th century. It is now the primary term, used to refer to all aspects of the empire; some modern historians believe that, as an originally prejudicial and inaccurate term, it should not be used. As
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5628-641: The 532 Nika revolt he rebuilt much of Constantinople, including the original Hagia Sophia . Justinian took advantage of political instability in Italy to attempt the reconquest of lost western territories. The Vandal Kingdom in North Africa was subjugated in 534 by the general Belisarius , who then invaded Italy ; the Ostrogothic Kingdom was destroyed in 554. In the 540s, however, Justinian began to suffer reversals on multiple fronts. Taking advantage of Constantinople's preoccupation with
5762-513: The Arab efforts to capture Constantinople in the 670s , but suffered a reversal against the Bulgars , who soon established an empire in the northern Balkans . Nevertheless, he and Constans had done enough to secure the empire's position, especially as the Umayyad Caliphate was undergoing another civil war . Justinian II sought to build on the stability secured by his father Constantine but
5896-408: The Byzantine administration's policy of heavy taxation and abolishing of the levy. The weakening of Georgia and Armenia played a significant role in the Byzantine defeat at Manzikert in 1071. Basil II is considered among the most capable Byzantine emperors and his reign as the apex of the empire in the Middle Ages . By 1025, the date of Basil II's death, the Byzantine Empire stretched from Armenia in
6030-621: The Counts of Hainburg . Grand Prince Géza donated [to Wolfer] the Mountain of Küszén and an island in Győr 's neighborhood, where he built a wood castle and founded an abbey , he was buried there. The Héders' genus originates from them ". Mark of Kalt 's work incorrectly – accidentally or intentionally – refers to Grand Prince Géza (c. 972–997), father of Saint Stephen , the first King of Hungary , in fact, Wolfer and Héder arrived to Hungary during
6164-450: The Emperor withdrew his support from the pretender. After that Stephen left for Constantinople . Following the death of Géza II, Héder supported the 15-year-old Stephen III , who was crowned on 31 May 1162. Héder was appointed Palatine soon and because of the King's young age, also functioned as de facto regent. Stephen III's two uncles, Ladislaus and Stephen, who had joined the court of
6298-415: The Empire by land, with the Via Egnatia running from Constantinople to the Albanian coast through Macedonia and the Via Traiana to Adrianople (modern Edirne ), Serdica (modern Sofia ) and Singidunum. By water, Crete, Cyprus and Sicily were key naval points and the main ports connecting Constantinople were Alexandria, Gaza, Caesarea and Antioch. The Aegean sea was considered an internal lake within
6432-432: The Empire. The emperor was the centre of the whole administration of the Empire, who the legal historian Kaius Tuori has said was "above the law, within the law, and the law itself"; with a power that is difficult to define and which does not align with our modern understanding of the separation of powers. The proclamations of the crowds of Constantinople, and the inaugurations of the patriarch from 457, would legitimise
6566-463: The German king. At the same time, in the year 1263rd of the Lord, the people were running everywhere whipping themselves. In the year 1326th of the Lord, the king's son was born on 7 of March, whom he happily named Louis after his holy confessor brother. Byzantine Empire The Byzantine Empire , also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire , was the continuation of the Roman Empire centred in Constantinople during late antiquity and
6700-405: The Hungarian medieval chronicle tradition states that the Huns , i.e. the Hungarians , came out twice from the regions of Scythia , the guiding principle being the Hun-Hungarian continuity. The chronicle was given by the Hungarian king Louis I to the French king Charles V , when the daughter of Louis, Catherine , was engaged to Charles's son Louis I, Duke of Orléans in 1374. The chronicle
6834-418: The Hungarians were baptized, the messenger's voice shouted throughout the camp, rallying the Huns in this way: "The word of God and the whole community, that each one, armed or as he is, should appear exactly at the appointed place, to listen to the order and advice of the community." And whoever disregarded the commandment and did not give a sufficient reason for it, according to Scythian law, was cut in two with
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#17327944253686968-417: The Hungarians). The chronicle was written by Mark of Kalt ( Latin : Marci de Kalt , Hungarian : Kálti Márk ) in 1358 in Latin , with the last of the illuminations being finished between 1370 and 1373. According to historian Bálint Hóman , the original source of all extant Hungarian chronicles was the lost Gesta Ungarorum , which was written in the time of Saint Ladislaus . The basic premise of
7102-415: The Huns for many years. In the 401st year of Our Lord's birth, in the 28th year since the arrival of the Hungarians in Pannonia, according to the custom of the Romans, the Huns, namely the Hungarians unanimously exalted Attila as king above themselves, the son of Bendegúz, who was before among the captains. And he ordained his brother Buda as prince and judge from the River Tisza to the River Don. He himself
7236-440: The Huns on the field of Tárnok Valley, he clashed with them, and is said to have defeated the Huns at the great danger and ruin of his people. The remnants of the Huns crossed the Tisza. 125,000 Huns were killed that day, among them, Captain Keve also fell in the battle. 210,000 men from the army of Detre and Macrinus perished there, not counting those who were killed under the tents. Detre saw the great loss his people had suffered in
7370-411: The Mongol invasion also gave Nicaea a temporary respite from Seljuk attacks, allowing it to concentrate on the Latin Empire to its north. The Empire of Nicaea, founded by the Laskarid dynasty , managed to recapture Constantinople in 1261 and defeat Epirus . This led to a short-lived revival of Byzantine fortunes under Michael VIII Palaiologos , but the war-ravaged empire was ill-equipped to deal with
7504-405: The Normans were driven out of Greece, in 1186 the Vlachs and Bulgars began a rebellion that led to the formation of the Second Bulgarian Empire . The internal policy of the Angeloi was characterised by the squandering of the public treasure and fiscal maladministration. Imperial authority was severely weakened, and the growing power vacuum at the centre of the empire encouraged fragmentation. There
7638-401: The Sassanids occupied the Levant and Egypt and pushed into Asia Minor, while Byzantine control of Italy slipped and the Avars and Slavs ran riot in the Balkans. Although Heraclius repelled a siege of Constantinople in 626 and defeated the Sassanids in 627, this was a pyrrhic victory . The early Muslim conquests soon saw the conquest of the Levant , Egypt , and the Sassanid Empire by
7772-408: The Sixth Captain Örs, the Seventh Captain At that place the famous captains, Lehel and Bulcsú were also captured, and taken in front of the emperor. When the emperor asked, why they are so cruel against the Christians, they replied: "We are the revenge of the highest God, sent to you as a scourge. You shall imprison us and kill us when we cease to chase you." Then the emperor called them: "Choose
7906-413: The Tetrarchy system quickly failed, the division of the empire proved an enduring concept. Constantine I ( r. 306–337 ) secured sole power in 324. Over the following six years, he rebuilt the city of Byzantium as a capital city , which was renamed Constantinople . Rome , the previous capital, was further from the important eastern provinces and in a less strategically important location; it
8040-426: The Turkish invaders at the Battle of Hyelion and Leimocheir , brought troops from the capital and was able to gather an army along the way, a sign that the Byzantine army remained strong and that the defensive program of western Asia Minor was still successful. John and Manuel pursued active military policies, and both deployed considerable resources on sieges and city defences; aggressive fortification policies were at
8174-486: The West, Khosrow I of the Sasanian Empire invaded Byzantine territory and sacked Antioch in 540. Meanwhile, the emperor's internal reforms and policies began to falter, not helped by a devastating plague that killed a large proportion of the population and severely weakened the empire's social and financial stability. The most difficult period of the Ostrogothic war, against their king Totila , came during this decade, while divisions among Justinian's advisors undercut
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#17327944253688308-401: The West. Zeno ( r. 474–491 ) convinced the problematic Ostrogoth king Theodoric to take control of Italy from Odoacer, which he did; dying with the empire at peace, Zeno was succeeded by Anastasius I ( r. 491–518 ). Although his Monophysitism brought occasional issues, Anastasius was a capable administrator and instituted several successful financial reforms including
8442-429: The Western provinces to achieve an economic revival that continued until the close of the century. It has been argued that Byzantium under the Komnenian rule was more prosperous than at any time since the Persian invasions of the 7th century. During the 12th century, population levels rose and extensive tracts of new agricultural land were brought into production. Archaeological evidence from both Europe and Asia Minor shows
8576-522: The abolition of the chrysargyron tax . He was the first emperor to die with no serious problems affecting his empire since Diocletian. The reign of Justinian I was a watershed in Byzantine history. Following his accession in 527, the law-code was rewritten as the influential Corpus Juris Civilis and Justinian produced extensive legislation on provincial administration; he reasserted imperial control over religion and morality through purges of non-Christians and "deviants"; and having ruthlessly subdued
8710-401: The administration's response. He also did not fully heal the divisions in Chalcedonian Christianity , as the Second Council of Constantinople failed to make a real difference. Justinian died in 565; his reign saw more success than that of any other Byzantine emperor, yet he left his empire under massive strain. Financially and territorially overextended, Justin II ( r. 565–578 )
8844-568: The aristocracy turned into wholesale slaughter, while the emperor resorted to ever more ruthless measures to shore up his regime. Despite his military background, Andronikos failed to deal with Isaac Komnenos of Cyprus, Béla III of Hungary who reincorporated Croatian territories into Hungary, and Stephen Nemanja of Serbia who declared his independence from the Byzantine Empire. Yet, none of these troubles compared to William II of Sicily 's invasion force of 300 ships and 80,000 men, arriving in 1185 and sacking Thessalonica . Andronikos mobilised
8978-436: The battle, on the second day after the battle, he marched with Macrinus towards the city of Tulln, which was then a Latin seat and counted among the cities of Pannonia. The city of Tulln locates in Austria, three stations away from Vienna. When the Huns understood that their enemies had withdrawn, they returned to the battlefield and buried the corpses of their comrades and Captain Keve according to Scythian custom, – we think – by
9112-412: The bottom of 4 pages, 99 images enclosed in initials , and 5 initials without images. In addition, there are 82 pieces of ornamental art painted in the margins. The images are listed in the same order as their appearance in the chronicle. Saint Catherine of Alexandria In the 1358th year of Our Lord's birth, in the eighth of the ascension of the same Lord, I started this chronicle on Tuesday about
9246-432: The capital, and Alexios Angelos was elevated to the throne as Alexios IV along with his blind father Isaac. Alexios IV and Isaac II were unable to keep their promises and were deposed by Alexios V . The crusaders again took the city on 13 April 1204 , and Constantinople was subjected to pillage and massacre by the rank and file for three days. Many priceless icons, relics and other objects later turned up in Western Europe ,
9380-464: The chronicle represent a large source of information on medieval Hungarian cultural history, costume and court life, they're also the most important records extent of Hungarian painting practices in the 14th century. The artistic value is quite high, and the characters are drawn with detail and by artists with a knowledge of anatomy. The chronicle contains 147 miniatures : 10 larger images, 29 images in columns, smaller images painted in medallion shapes at
9514-413: The city had collapsed so severely that it was now little more than a cluster of villages separated by fields. On 2 April 1453, Sultan Mehmed 's army of 80,000 men and large numbers of irregulars laid siege to the city. Despite a desperate last-ditch defence of the city by the massively outnumbered Christian forces (c. 7,000 men, 2,000 of whom were foreign), Constantinople finally fell to the Ottomans after
9648-461: The city, she is already fleeing so as not to be lost there with the citizens. So be more valiant in the battle tomorrow and you will see that the city is lost!" After he could not take the city by any war machine, he now gave orders with Scythian insight and asked one-one saddle from one million of his valiant warriors, he stacked them under a huge pile under the wall, and commanded that the saddles be set on fire: their flames and heat cracked, demolished
9782-590: The clan of Heder. ... Wolfger and his brother Hedrich come to Hungary from Wildon with forty knights in armour. Wolfger was given Mt. Güssing to settle in. There he built a wooden fort, and later a monks' cloister, where he was buried after his death. The Héder descend from him. According to the Illuminated Chronicle , "[After that] Wolfger [Wolfer] came from Germany [to Hungary] alongside his younger brother Henry [Héder] with three-hundred armored war-horses and forty armored knights; They belong to
9916-603: The crusade was to conquer Egypt , the centre of Muslim power in the Levant. The Crusader army arrived at Venice in the summer of 1202 and hired the Venetian fleet to transport them to Egypt. As a payment to the Venetians, they captured the (Christian) port of Zara in Dalmatia , which was a vassal city of Venice, it had rebelled and placed itself under Hungary's protection in 1186. Shortly afterward, Alexios IV Angelos , son of
10050-504: The deposed and blinded Emperor Isaac II, made contact with the Crusaders. Alexios offered to reunite the Byzantine church with Rome, pay the Crusaders 200,000 silver marks, join the crusade, and provide all the supplies they needed to reach Egypt. The crusaders arrived at Constantinople in the summer of 1203 and quickly attacked , starting a major fire that damaged large parts of the city, and briefly seized control. Alexios III fled from
10184-475: The east by allowing the Goths to settle in Roman territory; he also twice intervened in the western half, defeating the usurpers Magnus Maximus and Eugenius in 388 and 394 respectively. He actively condemned paganism , confirmed the primacy of Nicene Christianity over Arianism , and established Christianity as the Roman state religion . He was the last emperor to rule both the western and eastern halves of
10318-433: The east to Calabria in southern Italy in the west. Many successes had been achieved, ranging from the conquest of Bulgaria to the annexation of parts of Georgia and Armenia, and the reconquests of Crete , Cyprus , and the important city of Antioch . These were not temporary tactical gains but long-term reconquests. At the same time, Byzantium was faced with new enemies. Its provinces in southern Italy were threatened by
10452-537: The emperor's role as the leader of the Christian world, John marched into the Holy Land at the head of the combined forces of the empire and the Crusader states; yet despite his efforts in leading the campaign, his hopes were disappointed by the treachery of his Crusader allies. In 1142, John returned to press his claims to Antioch, but he died in the spring of 1143 following a hunting accident. John's chosen heir
10586-418: The empire's demise; its citizens referred to the polity as the "Roman Empire" and to themselves as "Romans". Due to the imperial seat's move from Rome to Byzantium , the adoption of state Christianity , and the predominance of Greek instead of Latin , modern historians continue to make a distinction between the earlier Roman Empire and the later Byzantine Empire . During the earlier Pax Romana period,
10720-533: The empire's eastern defences. The emergency lent weight to the military aristocracy in Anatolia, who in 1068 secured the election of one of their own, Romanos Diogenes , as emperor. In the summer of 1071, Romanos undertook a massive eastern campaign to draw the Seljuks into a general engagement with the Byzantine army. At the Battle of Manzikert , Romanos suffered a surprise defeat against Sultan Alp Arslan and
10854-552: The empire, gaining only short-term success. To avoid another sacking of the capital by the Latins, he forced the Church to submit to Rome, again a temporary solution for which the peasantry hated Michael and Constantinople. The efforts of Andronikos II and later his grandson Andronikos III marked Byzantium's last genuine attempts to restoring the glory of the empire. However, the use of mercenaries by Andronikos II often backfired, with
10988-468: The empire; after his death, the West would be destabilised by a succession of "soldier-emperors", unlike the East, where administrators would continue to hold power. Theodosius II ( r. 408–450 ) largely left the rule of the east to officials such as Anthemius , who constructed the Theodosian Walls to defend Constantinople, now firmly entrenched as Rome's capital. Theodosius' reign
11122-522: The end of the Norman threat during Alexios' reign. Alexios's son John II Komnenos succeeded him in 1118 and ruled until 1143. John was a pious and dedicated emperor who was determined to undo the damage to the empire suffered at the Battle of Manzikert half a century earlier. Famed for his piety and his remarkably mild and just reign, John was an exceptional example of a moral ruler at a time when cruelty
11256-620: The enemies that surrounded it. To maintain his campaigns against the Latins, Michael pulled troops from Asia Minor and levied crippling taxes on the peasantry, causing much resentment. Massive construction projects were completed in Constantinople to repair the damage of the Fourth Crusade, but none of these initiatives were of any comfort to the farmers in Asia Minor suffering raids from Muslim ghazis. Rather than holding on to his possessions in Asia Minor, Michael chose to expand
11390-517: The first regnal years of the minor Géza II of Hungary (definitely before 1146). The brothers' place of origin is in dispute. Simon of Kéza 's Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum writes that Wolfer and Héder came from " Vildonia " with forty armored soldiers, referring to Burgruine Wildon in Styria , however the castle itself was built only after 1157 thus that identification is incorrect. Johannes de Thurocz says in his work Chronica Hungarorum that
11524-584: The former Byzantine possessions. Although Venice was more interested in commerce than conquering territory, it took key areas of Constantinople, and the Doge took the title of " Lord of a Quarter and Half a Quarter of the Roman Empire ". After the sack of Constantinople in 1204 by Latin crusaders, two Byzantine successor states were established: the Empire of Nicaea and the Despotate of Epirus . A third,
11658-554: The fort, allowing the Ottomans (who were hired as mercenaries during the civil war by John VI Kantakouzenos ) to establish themselves in Europe. By the time the Byzantine civil wars had ended, the Ottomans had defeated the Serbians and subjugated them as vassals. Following the Battle of Kosovo , much of the Balkans became dominated by the Ottomans. Constantinople by this stage was underpopulated and dilapidated. The population of
11792-488: The heart of their imperial military policies. Despite the defeat at Myriokephalon, the policies of Alexios, John and Manuel resulted in vast territorial gains, increased frontier stability in Asia Minor, and secured the stabilisation of the empire's European frontiers. From c. 1081 to c. 1180 , the Komnenian army assured the empire's security, enabling Byzantine civilisation to flourish. This allowed
11926-583: The historiographical periodizations of " Roman history ", " late antiquity ", and "Byzantine history" significantly overlap, there is no consensus on a "foundation date" for the Byzantine Empire, if there was one at all. The growth of the study of "late antiquity" has led to some historians setting a start date in the seventh or eighth centuries. Others believe a "new empire" began during changes in c. 300 AD. Still others hold that these starting points are too early or too late, and instead begin c. 500 . Geoffrey Greatrex believes that it
12060-515: The king, causing hatred and strife to boil within him. The king let the prince go in peace to hunt in the Bakony. He sent two of his serfs with him under the pretext of honoring him, but he secretly trained them to carefully probe the prince's soul: to report to the king if the prince was intrigued against him. The prince arrived in Csór, released his falcon, and it caught a crow. The prince then said to
12194-726: The later part of his reign, John focused his activities on the East, personally leading numerous campaigns against the Turks in Asia Minor. His campaigns fundamentally altered the balance of power in the East, forcing the Turks onto the defensive, while retaking many towns, fortresses, and cities across the peninsula for the Byzantines. He defeated the Danishmend Emirate of Melitene and reconquered all of Cilicia , while forcing Raymond of Poitiers , Prince of Antioch, to recognise Byzantine suzerainty. In an effort to demonstrate
12328-436: The leader of the Bulgarians and Slavs. These peoples live in places that are very strong according to their natural location, therefore it cost him to much trouble and battle sweat until he finally defeated and killed the named leader. He acquired an inestimable amount of treasure, especially gold, pearls and precious stones. He placed one of his great-grandfathers here, Zoltán by name, who later held those parts of Transylvania as
12462-418: The measures he took to reform the government of the empire have been praised by historians. According to the historian George Ostrogorsky , Andronikos was determined to root out corruption: under his rule, the sale of offices ceased; selection was based on merit, rather than favouritism; and officials were paid an adequate salary to reduce the temptation of bribery. In the provinces, Andronikos's reforms produced
12596-592: The mid-13th century it had lost much of southern Anatolia. The weakening of the Sultanate of Rûm following the Mongol invasion in 1242–1243 allowed many beyliks and ghazis to set up their own principalities in Anatolia, weakening the Byzantine hold on Asia Minor. Two centuries later, one of the Beys of these beyliks, Osman I , would establish the Ottoman Empire that would eventually conquer Constantinople. However,
12730-546: The most capable Byzantine emperors, withstood continued Arab attacks, civil unrest, and natural disasters, and reestablished the state as a major regional power. Leo's reign produced the Ecloga , a new code of law to succeed that of Justinian II, and continued to reform the "theme system" in order to lead offensive campaigns against the Muslims, culminating in a decisive victory in 740 . Constantine overcame an early civil war against his brother-in-law Artabasdos , made peace with
12864-586: The new Abbasid Caliphate , campaigned successfully against the Bulgars, and continued to make administrative and military reforms. However, due to both emperors' support for the Byzantine Iconoclasm , which opposed the use of religious icons , they were later vilified by Byzantine historians; Constantine's reign also saw the loss of Ravenna to the Lombards , and the beginning of a split with
12998-466: The newly-formed Arabic Rashidun Caliphate . By Heraclius' death in 641, the empire had been severely reduced economically as well as territorially—the loss of the wealthy eastern provinces had deprived Constantinople of three-quarters of its revenue. The next seventy-five years are poorly documented. Arab raids into Asia Minor began almost immediately, and the Byzantines resorted to holding fortified centres and avoiding battle at all costs; although it
13132-438: The ninth hour, and the Romans were defeated. Macrinus also fell there, Detre was wounded in the forehead by an arrow, the entire Roman army was destroyed and fled. 40,000 Huns were lost in this battle, Béla, Keve and Kadocsa also fell, their bodies were taken from there and buried in the mentioned place, at the stone idol with the other Huns. After the army of Romans was dispersed at Zeiselmauer, they could not gather for war against
13266-592: The old and new deeds of the Hungarians, their origin and growth, their triumphs and courage... It happened one day after they had gone hunting, in the wilderness a stag appeared before them, this was chased into the swamps of Maeotian... In the 373rd year of Our Lord's birth, in the time of Emperor Valens and Pope Celestine I, in the Six Ages of the World, the Huns living in the Scythia multiplied, they got together and appointed captains from among themselves: Béla, Keve
13400-499: The other world!", as it is a common belief within the Scythians, that whoever they killed in their lives will serve them in the other world. After when Saint Stephen had been deemed worthy, and won the crown of the royal majesty by divine order, he waged a famous and profitable war against his maternal uncle named Gyula, who at that time ruled the entire Transylvanian country with his own power. Then, He sent his army against Kean,
13534-569: The outset of his reign, Alexios faced a formidable attack from the Normans under Guiscard and his son Bohemund of Taranto , who captured Dyrrhachium and Corfu and laid siege to Larissa in Thessaly . Guiscard's death in 1085 temporarily eased the Norman problem. The following year, the Seljuq sultan died, and the sultanate was split due to internal rivalries. By his own efforts, Alexios defeated
13668-521: The patriarch Nicholas , the powerful Simeon I of Bulgaria , and other influential figures jockeyed for power. In 920, the admiral Romanos I used his fleet to secure power, crowning himself and demoting Constantine to the position of junior co-emperor. His reign, which brought peace with Bulgaria and successes in the east under the general John Kourkouas , was ended in 944 by the machinations of his sons, whom Constantine soon usurped in turn. Constantine's ineffectual sole rule has often been construed as
13802-475: The period. In three places researchers also found Turkish writing which make various comments regarding Hungary. Because of this, the researchers concluded that sometime between the 15th and 17th century the manuscript was owned by a Hungarian who knew Turkish very well. The chronicle may have been present in Vienna during the infamous Ottoman siege of the 16th century as from at least the 17th century, it belonged to
13936-410: The pope and Western Christian kingdoms, and he successfully handled the passage of the crusaders through his empire. In the East, Manuel suffered a major defeat in 1176 at the Battle of Myriokephalon against the Turks. These losses were quickly recovered, and in the following year Manuel's forces inflicted a defeat upon a force of "picked Turks". The Byzantine commander John Vatatzes , who destroyed
14070-492: The ports of southern Italy, he sent an expedition to Italy in 1155, but disputes within the coalition led to the eventual failure of the campaign. Despite this military setback, Manuel's armies successfully invaded the southern parts of the Kingdom of Hungary in 1167, defeating the Hungarians at the Battle of Sirmium . By 1168, nearly the whole of the eastern Adriatic coast lay in Manuel's hands. Manuel made several alliances with
14204-763: The royal archives in Vienna . Sebastian Tengnagel mentions it in the manuscript catalog of the court library from 1608 to 1636, which is why it is sometimes referred to as the Vienna Illuminated Chronicle . As a result of the Venice Cultural Convention, the chronicle was returned to Hungary in 1934. The manuscript is now kept in the National Széchényi Library in Budapest , Hungary . The 147 pictures of
14338-437: The serfs with a simple spirit: "What if the crow swore to the hawk that it would not caw again if the hawk let it go?" But they answered thus: "Even if the crow were to swear, the hawk wouldn't let him go, but the crow couldn't swear either, because he's a foolish animal." The prince's words were reported to the king that night. The prince went to Bakony to hunt, but immediately left them and ran to Passau again to ask for help from
14472-399: The side of the highway, an ornate stone idol was erected there, that place, that region was named Keveháza. In the battle, the Huns thoroughly recognized both the spirit and the armed equipment of the Romans, so having organized their army, they headed towards Tulln, where their enemies gathered. They say that Detre and Macrinus went before them as far as Zeiselmauer, they fought from dawn until
14606-505: The son of Csele of the Zemény clan, and Kadocsa, Attila, Keve, Buda the sons of Bendegúz of the Kadar clan, and then they decided to push into the western regions. Ten times one hundred thousand warriors were chosen from the one hundred and eight tribes, that is, ten thousand from each tribe, leaving the rest of the Huns in Scythia to protect their seat and country from the enemy. They also chose
14740-548: The throne. Alexios was highly incompetent in the office, and with his mother Maria of Antioch 's Frankish background, his regency was unpopular. Eventually, Andronikos I Komnenos , a grandson of Alexios I, overthrew Alexios II in a violent coup d'état . After eliminating his potential rivals, he had himself crowned as co-emperor in September 1183. He eliminated Alexios II and took his 12-year-old wife Agnes of France for himself. Andronikos began his reign well; in particular,
14874-663: The two knights originated from Hainburg of " Alemannia " , therefore the Duchy of Swabia . Presumably Mark of Kalt's version is closer to the truth, as there was a certain knight Wolfger von Erlach in the first half of the 12th century in Hainburg. Héder was donated lands and villages in the island plain of Szigetköz in Győr County by King Géza II, while Wolfer became owner of Németújvár (today Güssing in Austria ) where he founded
15008-412: The type of death you wish." Then Lehel replied: "Bring me my horn, which I will blow, then I will reply." The horn was handed to him, and during the preparation to blow it, he stepped forward of the emperor, and hit the forehead of the emperor so strongly that the horn is broken and the emperor died instantly from this one strike. Then Lehel said to him: "You will walk before me and you will be my servant in
15142-442: The unpopular Irene was overthrown by Nikephoros I ; he reformed the empire's administration but died in battle against the Bulgars in 811. Military defeats and societal disorder, especially the resurgence of iconoclasm, characterised the next eighteen years. Stability was somewhat restored during the reign of Theophilos ( r. 829–842 ), who exploited economic growth to complete construction programs, including rebuilding
15276-519: The walls and towers. Seeing this, all the citizens left the city and fled to an island in the sea, near Aquileia, and determined to stay there forever, and it is called Venice to this day. Előd, Hungarian Chieftain Álmos, Hungarian Chieftain In the year of 677 after the incarnation of the Lord, 104 years after the death of King Attila of Hungary, in the time of Emperor Constantine III and Pope Zachary - as it
15410-463: The west, the warlord Odoacer deposed Romulus Augustulus in 476, killed his titular successor Julius Nepos in 480, and the office of western emperor was formally abolished. Through a combination of luck, cultural factors, and political decisions, the Eastern empire never suffered from rebellious barbarian vassals and was never ruled by barbarian warlords—the problems which ensured the downfall of
15544-489: The western parts of the empire became increasingly Latinised , while the eastern parts largely retained their preexisting Hellenistic culture . This created a dichotomy between the Greek East and Latin West . These cultural spheres continued to diverge after Constantine I ( r. 324–337 ) moved the capital to Constantinople and legalised Christianity . Under Theodosius I ( r. 379–395 ), Christianity became
15678-422: The zenith of Byzantine learning , but while several works were compiled, they were largely intended to legitimise and glorify the emperor's Macedonian dynasty . His son and successor died young; under two soldier-emperors, Nikephoros II ( r. 963–969 ) and John I Tzimiskes ( r. 969–976 ), the Roman army claimed numerous military successes, including the conquest of Cilicia and Antioch , and
15812-536: Was Denis II, whose branch is the direct ascendant of the Hédervári family. Between 1150 and 1158, Héder held the dignity of Judge royal , the second-highest secular position after the Palatine. In this capacity, he persuaded Raphael, the abbot of Pannonhalma to borrow 40 silver denari to the king, who planned to visit Henry II, Duke of Austria with his court and a large number of escorts. Raphael had to sell
15946-604: Was besieged in August 1068 and fell in April 1071 . About 1053, Constantine IX disbanded what the historian John Skylitzes calls the "Iberian Army", which consisted of 50,000 men, and it was turned into a contemporary Drungary of the Watch . Two other knowledgeable contemporaries, the former officials Michael Attaleiates and Kekaumenos , agree with Skylitzes that by demobilising these soldiers, Constantine did catastrophic harm to
16080-596: Was called the King of the Hungarians, the Dread of the World, the Scourge of God: Attila, by the grace of God, the son of Bendegúz, the great-grandson of Magor, who was raised in Engadi, King of the Huns, Medes, Goths and Danes, the Dread of the World, the Scourge of God… Seeing this, King Attila called his soldiers together and said: "Look this, my fellows! This stork has already felt what the future will bring: we will destroy
16214-560: Was captured. Alp Arslan treated him with respect and imposed no harsh terms on the Byzantines. In Constantinople a coup put in power Michael Doukas , who soon faced the opposition of Nikephoros Bryennios and Nikephoros III Botaneiates . By 1081, the Seljuks had expanded their rule over virtually the entire Anatolian plateau from Armenia in the east to Bithynia in the west, and had established their capital at Nicaea , just 90 kilometres (56 miles) from Constantinople. The Komnenian dynasty attained full power under Alexios I in 1081. From
16348-561: Was given credit for his predecessor's achievements. Basil I ( r. 867–886 ) continued Michael's policies. His armies campaigned with mixed results in Italy but defeated the Paulicians of Tephrike . His successor Leo VI ( r. 886–912 ) compiled and propagated a huge number of written works. These included the Basilika , a Greek translation of Justinian I's law-code which included over 100 new laws of Leo's devising;
16482-581: Was his fourth son, Manuel I Komnenos , who campaigned aggressively against his neighbours both in the west and east. In Palestine, Manuel allied with the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem and sent a large fleet to participate in a combined invasion of Fatimid Egypt . Manuel reinforced his position as overlord of the Crusader states, with his hegemony over Antioch and Jerusalem secured by agreement with Raynald , Prince of Antioch, and Amalric of Jerusalem . In an effort to restore Byzantine control over
16616-546: Was invaded annually, Anatolia avoided permanent Arab occupation. The outbreak of the First Fitna in 656 gave Byzantium breathing space, which it used wisely: some order was restored in the Balkans by Constans II ( r. 641–668 ), who began the administrative reorganisation known as the " theme system ", in which troops were allocated to defend specific provinces. With the help of the recently rediscovered Greek fire , Constantine IV ( r. 668–685 ) repelled
16750-596: Was later given to Serbian despot Đurađ Branković as a gift from the French king Charles VII . The chronicle was then copied in 1462. Between 1458 and 1490, it was kept in Hungary, in the court of King Matthias Corvinus . It was later lost, possibly spending some time in the possession of the Ottomans . There is evidence to suggest that in the second half of the 15th century the chronicle was again in Hungary, as it contains several handwritten Hungarian and Latin entries from
16884-564: Was marked by the theological dispute over Nestorianism , which was eventually deemed heretical , and by the formulation of the Codex Theodosianus law code. It also saw the arrival of Attila 's Huns , who ravaged the Balkans and exacted a massive tribute from the empire; Attila however switched his attention to the rapidly-deteriorating western empire , and his people fractured after his death in 453. After Leo I ( r. 457–474 ) failed in his 468 attempt to reconquer
17018-463: Was more talented than Wolfer or lived a very long time ". Héder was already mentioned as ispán in 1146. The Héder clan became one of the most influential kindreds by the 13th century. Héder's only known son was Denis I, who owned portions in Almás , together with his cousins from Wolfer's branch. Héder's namesake grandson ( fl. 1210–1223) served as ispán of Győr County in 1223. His another grandchild
17152-406: Was not esteemed by the "soldier-emperors" who ruled from the frontiers or by the empire's population who, having been granted citizenship , considered themselves "Roman". Constantine extensively reformed the empire's military and civil administration and instituted the gold solidus as a stable currency. He favoured Christianity , which he had converted to in 312. Constantine's dynasty fought
17286-506: Was occupied by conflicts against two prominent generals, Bardas Skleros and Bardas Phokas , which ended in 989 with the former's death and the latter's submission. Between 1021 and 1022, following years of tensions, Basil II led a series of victorious campaigns against the Kingdom of Georgia , resulting in the annexation of several Georgian provinces to the empire. Basil's successors also annexed Bagratid Armenia in 1045. Importantly, both Georgia and Armenia were significantly weakened by
17420-450: Was only used to describe the inhabitants of that city; it did not refer to the empire, which they called Romanía —"Romanland". After the empire's fall, early modern scholars referred to the empire by many names, including the "Empire of Constantinople", the "Empire of the Greeks", the "Eastern Empire", the "Late Empire", the "Low Empire", and the "Roman Empire". The increasing use of "Byzantine" and "Byzantine Empire" likely started with
17554-494: Was overthrown in 695 after attempting to exact too much from his subjects; over the next twenty-two years, six more rebellions followed in an era of political instability . The reconstituted caliphate sought to break Byzantium by taking Constantinople, but the newly crowned Leo III managed to repel the 717–718 siege , the first major setback of the Muslim conquests. Leo and his son Constantine V ( r. 741–775 ), two of
17688-407: Was replaced by the skilled military leader Ampud . Illuminated Chronicle The Chronicon Pictum or Illuminated Chronicle ( Latin for "Illustrated Chronicle", Hungarian : Képes Krónika , Slovak : Obrázková kronika , German : Ungarische Bilderchronik , also referred to as Chronica Hungarorum , Chronicon Hungarie Pictum, Chronica Picta or Chronica de Gestis Hungarorum )
17822-519: Was soon at war on many fronts. The Lombards , fearing the aggressive Avars , conquered much of northern Italy by 572. The Sasanian wars restarted that year, and continued until the emperor Maurice finally emerged victorious in 591; by that time, the Avars and Slavs had repeatedly invaded the Balkans , causing great instability. Maurice campaigned extensively in the region during the 590s, but although he managed to re-establish Byzantine control up to
17956-699: Was the norm. For this reason, he has been called the Byzantine Marcus Aurelius . During his twenty-five-year reign, John made alliances with the Holy Roman Empire in the West and decisively defeated the Pechenegs at the Battle of Beroia . He thwarted Hungarian and Serbian threats during the 1120s, and in 1130 he allied himself with Lothair III , the German Emperor against the Norman King Roger II of Sicily . In
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