Misplaced Pages

#732267

54-753: It was originally developed by Daniel Hirst in his 1987 thesis as a prosodic equivalent of the International Phonetic Alphabet , and the INTSINT alphabet was subsequently used in Hirst & Di Cristo (eds) 1998 in just over half of the chapters. INTSINT codes the intonation of an utterance by means of an alphabet of 8 discrete symbols constituting a surface phonological representation of the intonation: These tonal symbols are considered phonological in that they represent discrete categories and surface since each tonal symbol corresponds to

108-407: A directly observable property of the speech signal. The tones can be aligned with phonological constituents by means of the following alignment diacritics following the tonal symbol: The relevant phonological constituent with which the tonal segments are aligned can be taken as the sequence of symbols between the following pair of slashes /.../. The following is an example of a transcription using

162-400: A logarithmic scale. The targets T , M and B are defined 'absolutely' without regard to the preceding targets Other targets are defined with respect to the preceding target: A sequence of tonal targets such as: assuming values for a female speaker of key as 240 Hz and range as 1 octave, would be converted to the following F0 targets: An interesting consequence of this model

216-402: A question. In the second line, pitch falls, indicating a statement ‍ — a confirmation of the first line in this case. Finally, in the third line, a complicated rise-fall pattern indicates incredulity. Each pitch/intonation pattern communicates a different meaning. An additional pitch-related variation is pitch range ; speakers are capable of speaking with a wide range of pitch (this

270-532: A sequence [ T D ] for example, the D tone is lowered by the same amount as the H tone in the sequence [ T L H ]. In many phonological accounts, Downstepped tones are analysed as a High tone which is lowered by the presence of a "floating" low tone, so that the surface tone [ D ] can be considered as underlyingly [ L H ]. INTSINT automatic annotation can be performed with SPPAS: SPPAS - Automatic Annotation of Speech Prosodic In linguistics , prosody ( / ˈ p r ɒ s ə d i , ˈ p r ɒ z -/ )

324-600: A simple pen and paper (as used by William Labov in his study of the pronunciation of English in New York department stores), but will not use laboratory techniques such as spectrography or speech synthesis , or methods such as EEG and fMRI that allow phoneticians to directly study the brain's response to sound. Most research in sociolinguistics and dialectology has been based on auditory analysis of data and almost all pronunciation dictionaries are based on impressionistic, auditory analysis of how words are pronounced. It

378-482: A speaker is inviting the listener to make a contribution to the conversation. Prosody is also important in signalling emotions and attitudes. When this is involuntary (as when the voice is affected by anxiety or fear), the prosodic information is not linguistically significant. However, when the speaker varies their speech intentionally, for example to indicate sarcasm, this usually involves the use of prosodic features. The most useful prosodic feature in detecting sarcasm

432-536: A variety of "filled" pause types. Formulaic language pause fillers include "Like", "Er" and "Um", and paralinguistic expressive respiratory pauses include the sigh and gasp . Although related to breathing, pauses may contain contrastive linguistic content, as in the periods between individual words in English advertising voice-over copy sometimes placed to denote high information content, e.g. "Quality. Service. Value". Pausing or its lack contributes to

486-458: A way as to avoid any reference to acoustic parameters. In the auditory analysis of phonetic data such as recordings of speech, it is clearly an advantage to have been trained in analytical listening. Practical phonetic training has since the 19th century been seen an essential foundation for phonetic analysis and for the teaching of pronunciation; it is still a significant part of modern phonetics . The best-known type of auditory training has been in

540-438: A word. Take one popular English word for example: In English, lexical prosody is used for a few different reasons. As we have seen above, lexical prosody was used to change the form of a word from a noun to a verb. Another function of lexical prosody has to do with the grammatical role that a word plays within a sentence. Adjectives and nouns of a sentence are often stressed on the first syllables while verbs are often stressed on

594-674: Is a reduction in the mean fundamental frequency relative to other speech for humor, neutrality, or sincerity. While prosodic cues are important in indicating sarcasm, context clues and shared knowledge are also important. Emotional prosody was considered by Charles Darwin in The Descent of Man to predate the evolution of human language : "Even monkeys express strong feelings in different tones – anger and impatience by low, – fear and pain by high notes." Native speakers listening to actors reading emotionally neutral text while projecting emotions correctly recognized happiness 62% of

SECTION 10

#1732775919733

648-492: Is concerned with both segmental (chiefly vowels and consonants ) and prosodic (such as stress , tone , rhythm and intonation ) aspects of speech. While it is possible to study the auditory perception of these phenomena without context, in continuous speech all these variables are processed in parallel with significant variability and complex interactions between them. For example, it has been observed that vowels, which are usually described as different from each other in

702-474: Is described to be a natural component of language. The defining features of prosody that display the nuanced emotions of an individual differ across languages and cultures. Some writers (e.g., O'Connor and Arnold) have described intonation entirely in terms of pitch, while others (e.g., Crystal) propose that "intonation" is a combination of several prosodic variables. English intonation is often said to be based on three aspects: The choice of pitch movement and

756-540: Is important to distinguish between the personal characteristics that belong to an individual's voice (for example, their habitual pitch range, intonation patterns, etc.) and the independently variable prosodic features that are used contrastively to communicate meaning (for example, the use of changes in pitch to indicate the difference between statements and questions). Personal characteristics that belong to an individual are not linguistically significant while prosodic features are. Prosody has been found across all languages and

810-685: Is necessary for listeners to be able to identify the affective tone of the utterance. At lengths below this, there was not enough information for listeners to process the emotional context of the utterance. Unique prosodic features have been noted in infant-directed speech (IDS) - also known as baby talk , child-directed speech (CDS), or "motherese". Adults, especially caregivers, speaking to young children tend to imitate childlike speech by using higher and more variable pitch, as well as an exaggerated stress. These prosodic characteristics are thought to assist children in acquiring phonemes, segmenting words, and recognizing phrasal boundaries. And though there

864-426: Is no evidence to indicate that infant-directed speech is necessary for language acquisition, these specific prosodic features have been observed in many different languages. An aprosodia is an acquired or developmental impairment in comprehending or generating the emotion conveyed in spoken language. Aprosody is often accompanied by the inability to properly utilize variations in speech, particularly with deficits in

918-432: Is possible to claim an advantage for auditory analysis over instrumental: Kenneth L. Pike stated "Auditory analysis is essential to phonetic study since the ear can register all those features of sound waves, and only those features, which are above the threshold of audibility ... whereas analysis by instruments must always be checked against auditory reaction". Herbert Pilch attempted to define auditory phonetics in such

972-427: Is sometimes referred to as the accentual function of prosody. A well-known example is the ambiguous sentence "I never said she stole my money", where there are seven meaning changes depending on which of the seven words is vocally highlighted. Prosody helps convey many other pragmatic functions, including expressing attitudes (approval, uncertainty, dissatisfaction, and so on), flagging turn-taking intentions (to hold

1026-404: Is that it automatically introduces an asymptotic lowering of sequences such as H L H ... such as has often been described both for languages with lexical tone and for languages where tone is only introduced by the intonation system, without the need to introduce a specific downdrift or declination component. The particular values used for calculating the value of D and U were chosen so that in

1080-420: Is that the former is more closely associated with traditional non-instrumental approaches to phonology and other aspects of linguistics , while the latter is closer to experimental, laboratory-based study. Consequently, the term auditory phonetics is often used to refer to the study of speech without the use of instrumental analysis: the researcher may make use of technology such as recording equipment, or even

1134-405: Is the basis of the metric pattern, we have poetry; when pitch is the pattern basis, we have rhythmic prose" (Weeks 11). Stress retraction is a popular example of phrasal prosody in everyday life. For example: Contrastive stress is another everyday English example of phrasal prosody that helps us determine what parts of the sentence are important. Take these sentences for example: Emphasizing that

SECTION 20

#1732775919733

1188-483: Is the major factor, the resulting prominence is often called accent rather than stress. There is considerable variation from language to language concerning the role of stress in identifying words or in interpreting grammar and syntax. Although rhythm is not a prosodic variable in the way that pitch or loudness are, it is usual to treat a language's characteristic rhythm as a part of its prosodic phonology. It has often been asserted that languages exhibit regularity in

1242-428: Is the study of elements of speech that are not individual phonetic segments (vowels and consonants) but which are properties of syllables and larger units of speech, including linguistic functions such as intonation , stress , and rhythm . Such elements are known as suprasegmentals . Prosody reflects the nuanced emotional features of the speaker or of their utterances: their obvious or underlying emotional state,

1296-474: Is typically associated with the following: Some of these cues are more powerful or prominent than others. Alan Cruttenden, for example, writes "Perceptual experiments have clearly shown that, in English at any rate, the three features (pitch, length and loudness) form a scale of importance in bringing syllables into prominence, pitch being the most efficacious, and loudness the least so". When pitch prominence

1350-454: Is used by listeners to guide decisions about the emotional affect of the situation. Whether a person decodes the prosody as positive, negative, or neutral plays a role in the way a person decodes a facial expression accompanying an utterance. As the facial expression becomes closer to neutral, the prosodic interpretation influences the interpretation of the facial expression. A study by Marc D. Pell revealed that 600 ms of prosodic information

1404-616: Is usually associated with excitement), while at other times with a narrow range. English makes use of changes in key ; shifting one's intonation into the higher or lower part of one's pitch range is believed to be meaningful in certain contexts. Stress functions as the means of making a syllable prominent. Stress may be studied in relation to individual words (named "word stress" or lexical stress ) or in relation to larger units of speech (traditionally referred to as "sentence stress" but more appropriately named " prosodic stress "). Stressed syllables are made prominent by several variables. Stress

1458-460: The IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet) of a possible reading of the sentence "It's time to go : This corresponds to a Mid tone aligned with the middle of the syllable "It's" then a Top tone aligned with the middle of the unit "time to" and then a Downstepped tone aligned early in the syllable "go" and a Bottom tone aligned with the end of the same syllable. The phonetic interpretation of

1512-436: The isochrony article, this claim has not been supported by scientific evidence. Voiced or unvoiced, the pause is a form of interruption to articulatory continuity such as an open or terminal juncture . Conversation analysis commonly notes pause length. Distinguishing auditory hesitation from silent pauses is one challenge. Contrasting junctures within and without word chunks can aid in identifying pauses. There are

1566-418: The left hemisphere, which contains Wernicke's area ). Damage to the right inferior frontal gyrus causes a diminished ability to convey emotion or emphasis by voice or gesture, and damage to right superior temporal gyrus causes problems comprehending emotion or emphasis in the voice or gestures of others. The right Brodmann area 22 aids in the interpretation of prosody, and damage causes sensory aprosodia, with

1620-493: The INTSINT tonal segments can be carried out using two speaker dependent (or even utterance dependent) parameters. In the current algorithm (Hirst 2004, 2005) the tonal segments can be converted to target points, like those generated by the Momel algorithm, using the following equivalences. P(i) in the following formulae refers to the current Pitch target, P(i-1) to the preceding pitch target. Pitch targets are normally calculated on

1674-566: The STAIRS is how the man went up. Emphasizing that it was a MAN who went up the stairs. It's important to note that the right hemisphere of the brain dominates one's perception of prosody. In contrast to left hemisphere damage where patterns of aphasias are present, patterns of aprosodias are present with damage to the left hemisphere. In patients with right hemisphere lesions, they are characterized as monotonous and as lacking variety in their tone and expression. They're also seen to struggle with

INTSINT - Misplaced Pages Continue

1728-448: The ability to accurately modulate pitch, loudness, intonation, and rhythm of word formation. This is seen sometimes in autistic individuals. The three main types of aprosodia are: Lexical prosody refers to the specific amplitudes, pitches, or lengths of vowels that are applied to specific syllables in words based on what the speaker wants to emphasize. The different stressors placed on individual syllables can change entire meanings of

1782-688: The articulation of adjacent word syllables, thereby changing the potential open junctures between words into closed junctures. Prosody has had a number of perceptually significant functions in English and other languages, contributing to the recognition and comprehension of speech. It is believed that prosody assists listeners in parsing continuous speech and in the recognition of words, providing cues to syntactic structure, grammatical boundaries and sentence type. Boundaries between intonation units are often associated with grammatical or syntactic boundaries; these are marked by such prosodic features as pauses and slowing of tempo, as well as "pitch reset" where

1836-477: The average person to decode conversational implicature of emotional prosody has been found to be slightly less accurate than traditional facial expression discrimination ability; however, specific ability to decode varies by emotion. These emotional have been determined to be ubiquitous across cultures, as they are utilized and understood across cultures. Various emotions, and their general experimental identification rates, are as follows: The prosody of an utterance

1890-597: The brain. It is said to compose one of the three main branches of phonetics along with acoustic and articulatory phonetics , though with overlapping methods and questions. There is no direct connection between auditory sensations and the physical properties of sound that give rise to them. While the physical (acoustic) properties are objectively measurable, auditory sensations are subjective and can only be studied by asking listeners to report on their perceptions. The table below shows some correspondences between physical properties and auditory sensations. Auditory phonetics

1944-412: The floor, to yield the turn, to invite a backchannel like uh-huh, and so on), and marking topic structure (starting a new topic, closing a topic, interpolating a parenthetical remark, and so on), among others. For example, David Brazil and his associates studied how intonation can indicate whether information is new or already established; whether a speaker is dominant or not in a conversation; and when

1998-420: The form of utterance (statement, question, or command), the presence of irony or sarcasm , certain emphasis on words or morphemes, contrast , focus , and so on. Prosody displays elements of language that are not encoded by grammar , punctuation or choice of vocabulary . In the study of prosodic aspects of speech, it is usual to distinguish between auditory measures ( subjective impressions produced in

2052-450: The frequencies of their formants , also have intrinsic values of fundamental frequency (and presumably therefore of pitch) that are different according to the height of the vowel. Thus open vowels typically have lower fundamental frequency than close vowels in a given context, and vowel recognition is likely to interact with the perception of prosody. If there is a distinction to be made between auditory phonetics and speech perception, it

2106-408: The highlighting of particular words to create different intonation patterns can be seen in the following English conversation: The exchange above is an example of using intonation to highlight particular words and to employ rising and falling of pitch to change meaning. If read out loud, the pitch of the voice moves in different directions on the word "cat." In the first line, pitch goes up, indicating

2160-402: The identification and discrimination of semantically neutral sentences with varying tones of happiness, sadness, anger, and indifference, exemplifying the importance of prosody in language comprehension and production. Producing these nonverbal elements requires intact motor areas of the face, mouth, tongue, and throat. This area is associated with Brodmann areas 44 and 45 ( Broca's area ) of

2214-416: The left frontal lobe . Damage to areas 44/45, specifically on the right hemisphere, produces motor aprosodia, with the nonverbal elements of speech being disturbed (facial expression, tone, rhythm of voice). Understanding these nonverbal elements requires an intact and properly functioning right-hemisphere perisylvian area , particularly Brodmann area 22 (not to be confused with the corresponding area in

INTSINT - Misplaced Pages Continue

2268-526: The linguistic functions of intonation and stress, as well as other prosodic features such as rhythm and tempo. Additional prosodic variables have been studied, including voice quality and pausing. The behavior of the prosodic variables can be studied either as contours across the prosodic unit or by the behavior of boundaries. Prosodic features are suprasegmental, since they are properties of units of speech that are defined over groups of sounds rather than single segments. When talking about prosodic features, it

2322-557: The mind of the listener) and objective measures (physical properties of the sound wave and physiological characteristics of articulation that may be measured objectively). Auditory (subjective) and objective ( acoustic and articulatory) measures of prosody do not correspond in a linear way. Most studies of prosody have been based on auditory analysis using auditory scales. Auditorily, the major prosodic variables are: Acoustically, these prosodic variables correspond closely to: Different combinations of these variables are exploited in

2376-438: The patient unable to comprehend changes in voice and body language . Auditory phonetics Auditory phonetics is the branch of phonetics concerned with the hearing of speech sounds and with speech perception . It thus entails the study of the relationships between speech stimuli and a listener's responses to such stimuli as mediated by mechanisms of the peripheral and central auditory systems, including certain areas of

2430-449: The perception of word groups, or chunks. Examples include the phrase , phraseme , constituent or interjection . Chunks commonly highlight lexical items or fixed expression idioms . Chunking prosody is present on any complete utterance and may correspond to a syntactic category , but not necessarily. The well-known English chunk "Know what I mean?" in common usage sounds like a single word ("No-wada-MEEN?") due to blurring or rushing

2484-469: The recognition of emotion may be quite low, of the order of 50%, hampering the complex interrelationship function of speech advocated by some authors. However, even if emotional expression through prosody cannot always be consciously recognized, tone of voice may continue to have subconscious effects in conversation. This sort of expression stems not from linguistic or semantic effects, and can thus be isolated from traditional linguistic content. Aptitude of

2538-427: The second syllable. For example: Here, adults will emphasize the first syllable, "IN", as "increase" functions as an adjective. Here, adults will emphasize the second syllable, "CREASE", as "increase" functions as a verb. Another way that lexical prosody is used in the English language is in compound nouns such as "wishbone, mailbox, and blackbird" where the first compound is emphasized. Some suffixes can also affect

2592-496: The sentence into chunks ) and changes in intonation will reduce or remove the ambiguity. Moving the intonational boundary in cases such as the above example will tend to change the interpretation of the sentence. This result has been found in studies performed in both English and Bulgarian. Research in English word recognition has demonstrated an important role for prosody. Intonation and stress work together to highlight important words or syllables for contrast and focus . This

2646-426: The speaker's pitch level returns to the level typical of the onset of a new intonation unit. In this way potential ambiguities may be resolved. For example, the sentence "They invited Bob and Bill and Al got rejected" is ambiguous when written, although addition of a written comma after either "Bob" or "Bill" will remove the sentence's ambiguity. But when the sentence is read aloud, prosodic cues like pauses (dividing

2700-468: The system of cardinal vowels ; there is disagreement about the relative importance of auditory and articulatory factors underlying the system, but the importance of auditory training for those who are to use it is indisputable. Training in the auditory analysis of prosodic factors such as pitch and rhythm is also important. Not all research on prosody has been based on auditory techniques: some pioneering work on prosodic features using laboratory instruments

2754-477: The time, anger 95%, surprise 91%, sadness 81%, and neutral tone 76%. When a database of this speech was processed by computer, segmental features allowed better than 90% recognition of happiness and anger, while suprasegmental prosodic features allowed only 44%–49% recognition. The reverse was true for surprise, which was recognized only 69% of the time by segmental features and 96% of the time by suprasegmental prosody. In typical conversation (no actor voice involved),

SECTION 50

#1732775919733

2808-441: The timing of successive units of speech, a regularity referred to as isochrony , and that every language may be assigned one of three rhythmical types: stress-timed (where the durations of the intervals between stressed syllables is relatively constant), syllable-timed (where the durations of successive syllables are relatively constant) and mora-timed (where the durations of successive morae are relatively constant). As explained in

2862-447: The ways in which different words are stressed. Take "active" for example. Without the suffix, the lexical emphasis is on "AC". However, when we add the suffix -ity, the stress shifts to "TIV". Phrasal prosody refers to the rhythm and tempo of phrases, often in an artistic setting such as music or poetry, but not always. The rhythm of the English language has four different elements: stress, time, pause, and pitch. Furthermore, "When stress

2916-456: Was carried out in the 20th century (e.g. Elizabeth Uldall 's work using synthesized intonation contours, Dennis Fry 's work on stress perception or Daniel Jones 's early work on analyzing pitch contours by means of manually operating the pickup arm of a gramophone to listen repeatedly to individual syllables, checking where necessary against a tuning fork),. However, the great majority of work on prosody has been based on auditory analysis until

#732267