130-735: The ISS U.S. National Lab , commonly known as the ISS National Lab , is a U.S. government -funded national laboratory established on 30 December 2005 by the 2005 NASA Authorization Act . With principal research facilities located in the United States Orbital Segment (USOS) of the International Space Station (ISS), the Laboratory conducts research in life sciences , physical sciences , technology development and remote sensing for
260-769: A 3D printer , this manufacturing facility can perform station maintenance, build tools, upgrade and install new hardware and repair sections of the ISS in case of an emergency. Its manufacturing capabilities also support a wide range of commercial interests on the ISS. ADvanced Space Experiment Processor (ADSEP) : this thermally controlled facility accommodates experiments in cell technology, model organisms, multiphase fluids, solution chemistry, separation science, microencapsulation, and crystal growth. Bone Densitometer : this facility provides bone density scanning of mice during space flight, which helps researchers study human bone disease. Materials ISS Experiment-Flight Facility (MISSE-FF) :
390-686: A white eyed mutant in 1910 to the academic community. He was in search of a model organism to study genetic heredity and required a species that could randomly acquire genetic mutation that would visibly manifest as morphological changes in the adult animal. His work on Drosophila earned him the 1933 Nobel Prize in Medicine for identifying chromosomes as the vector of inheritance for genes. This and other Drosophila species are widely used in studies of genetics , embryogenesis , chronobiology , speciation , neurobiology , and other areas. However, some species of Drosophila are difficult to culture in
520-564: A broad range of academic, government and commercial users. Of the 270 payloads that the Center for the Advancement of Science in Space (CASIS) has sent to the ISS, 176 have been for commercial companies including Merck & Co. , Novartis , Eli Lilly and Company , Hewlett Packard Enterprise , Honeywell , and Procter & Gamble . The ISS has been an operational science platform since
650-707: A complex set of relationships between state and federal courts. Federal courts can sometimes hear cases arising under state law pursuant to diversity jurisdiction , state courts can decide certain matters involving federal law, and a handful of federal claims are primarily reserved by federal statute to the state courts. Both court systems have exclusive jurisdiction in some areas and concurrent jurisdiction in others. The U.S. Constitution safeguards judicial independence by providing that federal judges shall hold office "during good behavior"; in practice, this usually means they serve until they die, retire, or resign. A judge who commits an offense while in office may be impeached in
780-804: A device that is designed to deploy satellites, or CubeSats , into orbit from the ISS. A CubeSat is a stackable, modular, ground loaded launch case that can accommodate up to 6.5U. The CubeSat deployer system can mechanically and electrically isolate CubeSats from the ISS, cargo resupply vehicles, and ISS crew. Nanoracks External Platform : installed on the outside of the ISS, this is the first external commercial research capability for sensor, material and electronic testing that can be retrieved and returned to Earth . It delivers research results concerning biological testing, sensor target testing, satellite communications components testing, power systems testing, and materials testing. Nanoracks Internal Platform (Nanolab): measuring 10 cm by 10 cm by 10 cm, this
910-817: A facility that provides artificial gravity, temperature, humidity, oxygen and carbon dioxide control when testing in space. It supports research in Drosophila , C. Elegans , cultured cells , plants , aquatic animals , protein crystallization , tissue chips, and functional gravity studies. MUSES (Multi User System for Earth Sensing) : this facility hosts earth-viewing instruments, such as high-resolution digital cameras and hyperspectral imagers, and provides precision pointing. The data gathered from this facility can be used for: Maritime domain awareness , Agricultural Awareness, Food security , Disaster response , Air quality , Oil/Gas Exploration , Fire detection , and Heritage Preservation . Nanoracks CubeSat Deployer :
1040-579: A facility that tests materials, coatings, and components in space. Experiments will show how materials react to ultraviolet radiation (UV), atomic oxygen (AO), ionizing radiation , ultra-high vacuum (UHV), charged particles , thermal cycles , electromagnetic radiation , and micrometeoroids . Industries that benefit from testing include Advanced Materials , Automotive , Aeronautics , Energy , Space (flight hardware, astronaut clothing and protection), Transportation and Micro-meteoroid On-Orbit Debris ( MMOD ). Multi-use Variability-g Platform (MVP) :
1170-613: A few cases. The judicial power extends to cases arising under the Constitution, an Act of Congress ; a U.S. treaty ; cases affecting ambassadors , ministers and consuls of foreign countries in the U.S.; cases and controversies to which the federal government is a party; controversies between states (or their citizens) and foreign nations (or their citizens or subjects); and bankruptcy cases (collectively "federal-question jurisdiction"). The Eleventh Amendment removed from federal jurisdiction cases in which citizens of one state were
1300-464: A hemorrhagic stroke...". This kind of research is being conducted in labs on Earth using incubators, but growing the stem cells takes an extended period of time. This scientist believes that testing in space will accelerate the growth of the cells. Researchers are also using a technology called organs-on-chips or tissues-on-chips to build tiny versions of human systems. These microchip-like devices are embedded with living cells that will react in space as if
1430-573: A high pectin concentration, which is an indicator of how much alcohol will be produced during fermentation. Citrus, morinda , apples, pears, plums, and apricots belong into this category. The larvae of at least one species, D. suzukii , can also feed in fresh fruit and can sometimes be a pest. A few species have switched to being parasites or predators . Many species can be attracted to baits of fermented bananas or mushrooms, but others are not attracted to any kind of baits. Males may congregate at patches of suitable breeding substrate to compete for
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#17327901729041560-477: A matter of putting in a small piece of the natural host to receive the eggs. The Drosophila Species Stock Center located at Cornell University in Ithaca , New York, maintains cultures of hundreds of species for researchers. Drosophila is considered one of the most valuable genetic model organisms; both adults and embryos are experimental models. Drosophila is a prime candidate for genetic research because
1690-480: A molecule in humans that has the ability to grow new bone, works as a treatment for preventing bone loss in mice in space. The findings could lead to the development of treatments in bone restoration, bone loss prevention and bone grafting. The orbital path of the ISS travels over the regions of Earth that contain more than 90 percent of the Earth's population, giving scientists a unique view of our planet. In addition to
1820-707: A not-for-profit entity to manage the U.S. National Lab. In August 2011, NASA entered into a 10-year agreement with CASIS in order to fully develop the ISS U.S. segment as a National Laboratory. In July 2017, NASA extended the contract with CASIS to manage the U.S. National Lab through September 2024. Scientific research facilities on the National Lab provide infrastructure and equipment to conduct experiments in microgravity. Facilities typically remain on station for extended periods of time to support repeat and long-term research opportunities. Many facilities are managed by private sector companies. Facility managers support use of
1950-419: A research platform with the capacity to support physical science, advanced biotechnology, and life science research by providing reliable temperature control, controllable experiment hardware, and rapid flight access. Findings impact pharmaceutical, tissue engineering, regenerative medicine, biofuel, and discovery sciences. TangoLab-1 : a fully automated, multipurpose, reconfigurable general research facility on
2080-478: A single elected term." Under the Presentment Clause of Article I, a bill that passes both chambers of Congress shall be presented to the president, who may sign the bill into law or veto the bill by returning it to the chamber where it originated. If the president neither signs nor vetoes a bill "within ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him" it becomes a law without
2210-619: A special election can take place. The House and Senate each have particular exclusive powers. For example, the Senate must approve (give " advice and consent " to) many important presidential appointments, including cabinet officers, federal judges (including nominees to the Supreme Court), department secretaries (heads of federal executive branch departments), U.S. military and naval officers, and ambassadors to foreign countries. All legislative bills for raising revenue must originate in
2340-419: A time, so that they can be laid together on one site. Others that breed in more-abundant but less nutritious substrates, such as leaves, may only lay one egg per day. The eggs have one or more respiratory filaments near the anterior end; the tips of these extend above the surface and allow oxygen to reach the embryo. Larvae feed not on the vegetable matter itself, but on the yeasts and microorganisms present on
2470-515: A trade embargo, declare war upon a foreign government that the President had recognized, or decline to appropriate funds for an embassy in that country." The president may also negotiate and sign treaties, but ratifying treaties requires the consent of two-thirds of the Senate. Article II's Appointments Clause provides that the president "shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of
2600-599: Is a genus of fly , belonging to the family Drosophilidae , whose members are often called "small fruit flies" or pomace flies, vinegar flies, or wine flies, a reference to the characteristic of many species to linger around overripe or rotting fruit. They should not be confused with the Tephritidae , a related family, which are also called fruit flies (sometimes referred to as "true fruit flies"); tephritids feed primarily on unripe or ripe fruit , with many species being regarded as destructive agricultural pests, especially
2730-570: Is a box unit that flies a researcher's project to the ISS. This miniaturized hardware has a circuit board that activates the experiment, turns it off and can be functioned for other activities. NanoLabs are plugged into the facility's platform using a USB port, allowing data and power to flow. Nanoracks PlateReader : a laboratory instrument designed to detect biological, chemical or physical events of samples in microtiter plates. Microplate readers are widely used in research, drug discovery, bioassay validation, quality control and manufacturing processes in
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#17327901729042860-498: Is a connection between the number of time females choose to mate and chromosomal variants of the third chromosome. It is believed that the presence of the inverted polymorphism is why re-mating by females occurs. The stability of these polymorphisms may be related to the sex-ratio meiotic drive. However, for Drosophila subobscura , the main mating system is monandry, not normally seen in Drosophila. The following section
2990-438: Is an attractive behaviour. Females respond via their perception of the behavior portrayed by the male. Male and female Drosophila use a variety of sensory cues to initiate and assess courtship readiness of a potential mate. The cues include the following behaviours: positioning, pheromone secretion, following females, making tapping sounds with legs, singing, wing spreading, creating wing vibrations, genitalia licking, bending
3120-417: Is based on the following Drosophila species: Drosophila serrata , Drosophila pseudoobscura , Drosophila melanogaster , and Drosophila neotestacea . Polyandry is a prominent mating system among Drosophila . Females mating with multiple sex partners has been a beneficial mating strategy for Drosophila . The benefits include both pre and post copulatory mating. Pre-copulatory strategies are
3250-494: Is based on the following Drosophila species: Drosophila melanogaster , Drosophila simulans , and Drosophila mauritiana . Sperm competition is a process that polyandrous Drosophila females use to increase the fitness of their offspring. The female Drosophila has two sperm storage organs, the spermathecae and seminal receptacle, that allows her to choose the sperm that will be used to inseminate her eggs. However, some species of Drosophila have evolved to only use one or
3380-437: Is being tested on the ISS to determine if it retains its durability, flexibility and strength with high levels of radiation. A pharmaceutical company is conducting an experiment on liquid-solid interactions and how pharmaceuticals dissolve in microgravity. The results could lead to more effective medicines that last longer on the shelf. Surgical robots are being tested in space to increase the efficiency of research conducted on
3510-405: Is easily spread and very difficult to treat. One study aims to find treatments for age-related illnesses by observing how microgravity affects T-cells , the type of white blood cells responsible for immune responses. In low gravity, T-cells only activate around half as often or less than the control samples, indicating a reduced ability to fight infection. Because living in microgravity accelerates
3640-645: Is established in Article Two of the United States Constitution , which vests executive power in the president of the United States . The president is both the head of state (performing ceremonial functions) and the head of government (the chief executive). The Constitution directs the president to " take care that the laws be faithfully executed " and requires the president to swear or affirm to "preserve, protect and defend
3770-407: Is explored as a mechanism of controlling viral diseases ( e.g. Dengue fever) by transferring these Wolbachia to disease-vector mosquitoes. The S. poulsonii strain of Drosophila neotestacea protects its host from parasitic wasps and nematodes using toxins that preferentially attack the parasites instead of the host. Since the Drosophila species is one of the most used model organisms, it
3900-402: Is intended to prevent waste and fraud, protect civil liberties and individual rights, ensure executive compliance with the law, gather information for making laws and educating the public, and evaluate executive performance. It applies to cabinet departments, executive agencies, regulatory commissions, and the presidency. Congress's oversight function takes many forms: The executive branch
4030-594: Is now testing the glue in space to see if it accelerates the formation of new bone. This scientist believes that surgeries on fractured bone could become a lot less complicated if bone glue were used instead of metal plates, screws and rods. Scientists are also analyzing bacterial growth on the ISS and the mutations that may determine the next superbug, or strains of bacteria that have resistance to multiple antibiotic drugs. Observing these mutations will help them develop medicines that will eliminate bacteria such as Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), which
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4160-604: Is one delegate each from Washington, D.C. , Guam , the Virgin Islands , American Samoa , the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands , and a resident commissioner from Puerto Rico . Unlike the U.S. Senate , all members of the U.S. House must be elected and cannot be appointed. In the case of a vacancy, the seat must be filled through a special election, as required under Article 1 of
4290-705: Is seen during courtship and mating . Drosophila species are prey for many generalist predators, such as robber flies . In Hawaii , the introduction of yellowjackets from mainland United States has led to the decline of many of the larger species. The larvae are preyed on by other fly larvae, staphylinid beetles , and ants . Fruit flies use several fast-acting neurotransmitters, similar to those found in humans, which allow neurons to communicate and coordinate behavior. Acetylcholine, glutamate, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), dopamine, serotonin, and histamine are all neurotransmitters that can be found in humans, but Drosophila also have another neurotransmitter, octopamine,
4420-415: Is sometimes used as a metonym for the federal government. The United States government is based on the principles of federalism and republicanism , in which power is shared between the federal government and state governments . The interpretation and execution of these principles, including what powers the federal government should have and how those powers can be exercised, have been debated ever since
4550-588: Is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces . Under the Reception Clause , the president is empowered to "receive Ambassadors and other public Ministers"; the president has broad authority to conduct foreign relations, is generally considered to have the sole power of diplomatic recognition , and is the United States' chief diplomat, although the Congress also has an important role in legislating on foreign affairs, and can, for example, "institute
4680-407: Is very diverse in appearance, behavior, and breeding habitat. The term " Drosophila ", meaning "dew-loving", is a modern scientific Latin adaptation from Greek words δρόσος , drósos , " dew ", and φιλία , philía , "lover". Drosophila species are small flies, typically pale yellow to reddish brown to black, with red eyes. When the eyes (essentially a film of lenses) are removed,
4810-497: The D. melanogaster Spiroplasma poulsonii (named MSRO). The male-killing factor of the D. melanogaster MSRO strain was discovered in 2018, solving a decades-old mystery of the cause of male-killing. This represents the first bacterial factor that affects eukaryotic cells in a sex-specific fashion, and is the first mechanism identified for male-killing phenotypes. Alternatively, they may protect theirs hosts from infection. Drosophila Wolbachia can reduce viral loads upon infection, and
4940-608: The Drosophila DNA damage response, including deficiencies in expression of genes involved in DNA damage repair , accelerates intestinal stem cell ( enterocyte ) aging. Sharpless and Depinho reviewed evidence that stem cells undergo intrinsic aging and speculated that stem cells grow old, in part, as a result of DNA damage. The following section is based on the following Drosophila species: Drosophila simulans and Drosophila melanogaster . Courtship behavior of male Drosophila
5070-465: The Mediterranean fruit fly . One species of Drosophila in particular, Drosophila melanogaster , has been heavily used in research in genetics and is a common model organism in developmental biology . The terms "fruit fly" and " Drosophila " are often used synonymously with D. melanogaster in modern biological literature. The entire genus, however, contains more than 1,500 species and
5200-528: The Parkinson's disease protein LRRK2 . When grown in labs on Earth, the protein's crystals are small and have numerous defects. Scientists believe the effects of microgravity will allow the protein crystals to grow larger and with minimal flaws, which would make the structure easier to analyze. If successful, scientists believe they could develop a drug that would inhibit this protein, either preventing or slowing
5330-614: The U.S. Constitution in the Congress , the president , and the federal courts , respectively. The powers and duties of these branches are further defined by acts of Congress, including the creation of executive departments and courts subordinate to the U.S. Supreme Court . In the federal division of power, the federal government shares sovereignty with each of the 50 states in their respective territories. U.S. law recognizes Indigenous tribes as possessing sovereign powers , while being subject to federal jurisdiction. The full name of
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5460-532: The U.S. Tax Court , are specialized courts handling only certain kinds of cases, known as subject matter jurisdiction . The Bankruptcy Courts are supervised by the district courts, and, as such, are not considered part of the Article III judiciary. As such, their judges do not have lifetime tenure, nor are they Constitutionally exempt from diminution of their remuneration. The Tax Court is an Article I Court, not an Article III Court. The district courts are
5590-564: The United States , a federal republic located primarily in North America , comprising 50 states , five major self-governing territories , several island possessions , and the federal district (national capital) of Washington, D.C. , where the majority of the federal government is based. The U.S. federal government is composed of three distinct branches: legislative , executive , and judicial , whose powers are vested by
5720-505: The United States District Courts , which are the general trial courts for federal law, and for certain controversies between litigants who are not deemed citizens of the same state, known as diversity jurisdiction . There are three levels of federal courts with general jurisdiction, which are courts that handle both criminal and civil suits between individuals. Other courts, such as the bankruptcy courts and
5850-914: The United States Postal Service (USPS), NASA , the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). In addition, there are government-owned corporations , including the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and the National Railroad Passenger Corporation . The Judiciary, under Article III of
5980-713: The White House staff, the National Security Council , the Office of Management and Budget , the Council of Economic Advisers , the Council on Environmental Quality , the Office of the U.S. Trade Representative , the Office of National Drug Control Policy , and the Office of Science and Technology Policy . Outside of the EOP and the executive departments are a number of independent agencies . These include
6110-494: The fru mutation leads back to the typical courtship behavior. A novel class of pheromones was found to be conserved across the subgenus Drosophila in 11 desert dwelling species. These pheromones are triacylglycerides that are secreted exclusively by males from their ejaculatory bulb and transferred to females during mating. The function of the pheromones is to make the females unattractive to subsequent suitors and thus inhibit courtship by other males. The following section
6240-593: The militia , exercise exclusive legislation in the District of Columbia , regulate interstate commerce , and to make laws necessary to properly execute powers. Over the two centuries since the United States was formed, many disputes have arisen over the limits on the powers of the federal government. These disputes have often been the subject of lawsuits that have ultimately been decided by the United States Supreme Court . Congressional oversight
6370-484: The 50 states is determined by state populations, and it is updated after each decennial U.S. Census. Each member serves a two-year term. In order to be elected as a representative, an individual must be at least 25 years of age, must have been a U.S. citizen for at least seven years, and must live in the state that they represent. In addition to the 435 voting members, there are six non-voting members, consisting of five delegates and one resident commissioner . There
6500-467: The Bone Densitometer, allows astronauts to study osteoporosis by examining the "bone density of model organisms in space by measuring energy levels absorbed by bones via the device". Federal government of the United States [REDACTED] [REDACTED] The federal government of the United States ( U.S. federal government or U.S. government ) is the common government of
6630-886: The Cabinet who are appointed by the president. These are the White House Chief of Staff, Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency, Director of the Office of Management & Budget, United States Trade Representative, U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations, Chairman of the Council of Economic Advisers, and Administrator of the Small Business Administration. The heads of the 15 departments are chosen by
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#17327901729046760-510: The Congress. The United States Congress , under Article I of the Constitution, is the legislative branch of the federal government. It is bicameral , comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate . The U.S. House of Representatives is made up of 435 voting members, each of whom represents a congressional district in a state from where they were elected. Apportionment of seats among
6890-714: The Constitution of the United States." Legal scholars William P. Marshall and Saikrishna B. Prakash write of the Clause: "the President may neither breach federal law nor order their subordinates to do so, for defiance cannot be considered faithful execution. The Constitution also incorporates the English bars on dispensing or suspending the law, with some supposing that the Clause itself prohibits both." Many presidential actions are undertaken via executive orders , presidential proclamations , and presidential memoranda . The president
7020-705: The Constitution, explains and applies the laws. This branch does this by hearing and eventually making decisions on various legal cases. Article III section I of the Constitution establishes the Supreme Court of the United States and authorizes the United States Congress to establish inferior courts as their need shall arise. Section I also establishes a lifetime tenure for all federal judges and states that their compensation may not be diminished during their time in office. Article II section II establishes that all federal judges are to be appointed by
7150-615: The Constitution; all other powers are reserved to the states and the people. The Constitution also includes the Necessary and Proper Clause , which grants Congress the power to "make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers". Members of the House and Senate are elected by first-past-the-post voting in every state except Louisiana and Georgia , which have runoffs , and Maine and Alaska , which use ranked-choice voting . Congress has
7280-582: The House and 19 in the Senate, plus 4 joint permanent committees with members from both houses overseeing the Library of Congress , printing, taxation, and the economy. In addition, each house may name special, or select, committees to study specific problems. Today, much of the congressional workload is borne by the subcommittees, of which there are around 150. The Constitution grants numerous powers to Congress. Enumerated in Article I, Section 8, these include
7410-425: The House of Representatives. The approval of both chambers is required to pass all legislation, which then may only become law by being signed by the president (or, if the president vetoes the bill, both houses of Congress then re-pass the bill, but by a two-thirds majority of each chamber, in which case the bill becomes law without the president's signature). The powers of Congress are limited to those enumerated in
7540-469: The House plus its two senators). The District of Columbia has a number of electoral votes "equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives in Congress to which the District would be entitled if it were a State, but in no event more than the least populous State". A President may also be seated by succession . As originally drafted, there was no limit to the time a President could serve, however
7670-454: The ISS because it's easier to maintain uniform temperatures in liquids in microgravity because of the absence of convection driving the mixing of fluids with different temperature and density. Without convection, the movement of fluids of different density and temperature occurs because of diffusion which is slower than convection. This makes the process of growing crystals more precise. U.S. Lab researchers are growing protein crystals of
7800-635: The ISS. TangoLab-2 : a fully automated, multipurpose, reconfigurable general research facility on the ISS. The primary difference between TangoLab-1 and TangoLab-2 is an upgraded fan system which allows for a greater heat rejection capability. This enables research with greater power draw and lower temperature requirements. All living organisms on Earth are continually influenced by gravitational forces on both macro and molecular levels. The microgravity conditions in space induce changes in DNA regulation, expression of genes and cell structure and function. Understanding
7930-401: The ISS. The robots will be able to perform small dexterous tasks, which will both expand the type of research that can be performed in space, as well as give the flight crew more time to focus on other experiments. Two companies are conducting experiments in space in order to improve consumer products. One company is testing a more efficient showerhead that uses an "oscillating chip" to break up
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#17327901729048060-435: The ISS. Using a special imager that was attached to the spaceship, scientists collected data that helped them detect and classify algal blooms. The loss of buoyancy in space allows scientists to conduct fundamental research in fluid dynamics, combustion, and material sciences. Gaining more understanding of these concepts facilitates advances in the fields of transportation, power generation, manufacturing, and medicine; while at
8190-459: The Moon and sending drones to explore other planets. Researchers are studying innovative methods to increase cotton sustainability ranging from improving the plants to use less water to getting real time data from Earth-observation to farmers in order to make informed decisions that conserve water and aid in the management of field crops. The first X-ray machine installed on the space station, called
8320-568: The Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States " while providing that "Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments." These appointments delegate "by legal authority a portion of
8450-493: The Twenty-second Amendment, ratified in 1951, originally limits any president to serving two four-year terms (8 years); the amendment specifically "caps the service of a president at 10 years" by providing that "if a person succeeds to the office of president without election and serves less than two years, he may run for two full terms; otherwise, a person succeeding to office of president can serve no more than
8580-404: The U.S. Constitution. In contrast, the Senate is made up of two senators from each state, regardless of population. There are currently 100 senators (2 from each of the 50 states), who each serve six-year terms. Approximately one-third of the Senate stands for election every two years. If a vacancy occurs, the state governor appoints a replacement to complete the term or to hold the office until
8710-479: The adoption of the Constitution. Some make a case for expansive federal powers while others argue for a more limited role for the central government in relation to individuals, the states, or other recognized entities. Since the American Civil War , the powers of the federal government have generally expanded greatly, although there have been periods since that time of legislative branch dominance (e.g.,
8840-546: The analog of norepinephrine. Acetylcholine is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter and GABA is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter utilized in the drosophila central nervous system. In Drosophila, the effects of many neurotransmitters can vary depending on the receptors and signaling pathways involved, allowing them to act as excitatory or inhibitory signals under different contexts. This versatility enables complex neural processing and behavioral flexibility. Glutamate can serve as an excitatory neurotransmitter, specifically at
8970-501: The behaviours associated with mate choice and the genetic contributions, such as production of gametes, that are exhibited by both male and female Drosophila regarding mate choice. Post copulatory strategies include sperm competition, mating frequency, and sex-ratio meiotic drive. These lists are not inclusive. Polyandry among the Drosophila pseudoobscura in North America vary in their number of mating partners. There
9100-434: The brain is revealed. Drosophila brain structure and function develop and age significantly from larval to adult stage. Developing brain structures make these flies a prime candidate for neuro-genetic research. Many species, including the noted Hawaiian picture-wings, have distinct black patterns on the wings. The plumose (feathery) arista , bristling of the head and thorax, and wing venation are characters used to diagnose
9230-402: The case from state court to federal court. The United States Courts of Appeals are appellate courts that hear appeals of cases decided by the district courts, and some direct appeals from administrative agencies, and some interlocutory appeals. The U.S. Supreme Court hears appeals from the decisions of the courts of appeals or state supreme courts, and in addition has original jurisdiction over
9360-404: The chambers to consider urgent matters. The vice president is the second-highest official in rank of the federal government. The vice president's duties and powers are established in the legislative branch of the federal government under Article 1, Section 3, Clauses 4 and 5 as the president of the Senate ; this means that they are the designated presiding officer of the Senate. In that capacity,
9490-504: The components of the SNARE complex are known to be somewhat substitutable: Although the loss of SNAP-25 - a component of neuronal SNAREs - is lethal, SNAP-24 can fully replace it. For another example, an R-SNARE not normally found in synapses can substitute for synaptobrevin . The Spätzle protein is a ligand of Toll . In addition to melanin 's more commonly known roles in the endoskeleton and in neurochemistry , melanization
9620-468: The decades immediately following the Civil War) or when states' rights proponents have succeeded in limiting federal power through legislative action, executive prerogative or by a constitutional interpretation by the courts. One of the theoretical pillars of the U.S. Constitution is the idea of " checks and balances " among the powers and responsibilities of the three branches of American government:
9750-475: The decaying breeding substrate. Development time varies widely between species (between 7 and more than 60 days) and depends on the environmental factors such as temperature , breeding substrate, and crowding. Fruit flies lay eggs in response to environmental cycles. Eggs laid at a time (e.g., night) during which likelihood of survival is greater than in eggs laid at other times (e.g., day) yield more larvae than eggs that were laid at those times. Ceteris paribus ,
9880-444: The drug on the ISS could help the company improve the administration and effectiveness of the drug by turning an hours long intravenous infusion into a simple injection. Another scientist is testing a new glue that fixes fractured bone and stabilizes the seal between metal hardware and bones. The researcher found that when the bone was glued back together on Earth, the materials eventually converted to new bone over time. The researcher
10010-418: The executive branch when becoming president upon the death, resignation, or removal of the president, which has happened nine times in U.S. history. Lastly, in the case of a Twenty-fifth Amendment succession event, the vice president would become acting president, assuming all of the powers and duties of president, except being designated as president. Accordingly, by circumstances, the Constitution designates
10140-519: The executive, the legislative, and the judiciary. For example, while the legislative branch ( Congress ) has the power to create law, the executive branch under the president can veto any legislation—an act which, in turn, can be overridden by Congress. The president nominates judges to the nation's highest judiciary authority, the Supreme Court (as well as to lower federal courts), but those nominees must be approved by Congress. The Supreme Court, in turn, can invalidate unconstitutional laws passed by
10270-561: The family. Most are small, about 2–4 millimetres (0.079–0.157 in) long, but some, especially many of the Hawaiian species, are larger than a house fly . Environmental challenge by natural toxins helped to prepare Drosophila e to detox DDT , by shaping the glutathione S -transferase mechanism that metabolizes both. The Drosophila genome is subject to a high degree of selection, especially unusually widespread negative selection compared to other taxa . A majority of
10400-421: The females, or form leks , conducting courtship in an area separate from breeding sites. Several Drosophila species, including Drosophila melanogaster , D. immigrans , and D. simulans , are closely associated with humans, and are often referred to as domestic species. These and other species ( D. subobscura , and from a related genus Zaprionus indianus ) have been accidentally introduced around
10530-531: The findings can be applied to deduce genetic trends in humans. Research conducted on Drosophila help determine the ground rules for transmission of genes in many organisms. Drosophila is a useful in vivo tool to analyze Alzheimer's disease. Rhomboid proteases were first detected in Drosophila but then found to be highly conserved across eukaryotes , mitochondria , and bacteria . Melanin's ability to protect DNA against ionizing radiation has been most extensively demonstrated in Drosophila , including in
10660-417: The flies were more cold resistant and also had the highest concentration of Wolbachia. The microbiome in the gut can also be transplanted among organisms. It was found that Drosophila melanogaster became more cold-tolerant when the gut microbiota from Drosophila melanogaster that were reared at low temperatures. This depicted that the gut microbiome is correlated to physiological processes. Moreover,
10790-523: The following three stages: insemination, sperm storage, and fertilizable sperm. Among the preceding species there are variations at each stage that play a role in the natural selection process. This sperm competition has been found to be a driving force in the establishment of reproductive isolation during speciation. Parthenogenesis does not occur in D. melanogaster , but in the gyn-f9 mutant, gynogenesis occurs at low frequency. The natural populations of D. mangebeirai are entirely female, making it
10920-424: The formation of three-dimensional tissues coupled with the differentiation of stem-cells into different cell types that better mimic the functions of tissues and organ systems. One scientist is experimenting with human stem cells in space to improve treatments for stroke victims. The goal is to "expand the population of stem cells that will induce regeneration of neurons and blood vessels in patients who have suffered
11050-608: The formative study by Hopwood et al. 1985. Like other animals, Drosophila is associated with various bacteria in its gut. The fly gut microbiota or microbiome seems to have a central influence on Drosophila fitness and life history characteristics. The microbiota in the gut of Drosophila represents an active current research field. Drosophila species also harbour vertically transmitted endosymbionts, such as Wolbachia and Spiroplasma . These endosymbionts can act as reproductive manipulators, such as cytoplasmic incompatibility induced by Wolbachia or male-killing induced by
11180-433: The full organ was there. Scientists believe these chips will eventually replace traditional dish cultures and animal testing for studying disease and testing new drugs. The latest tissues-on-chip experiment on the ISS involves growing functional bone tissue. Microgravity also allows scientists to grow more higher-quality protein crystals that could help improve drug design. Scientists choose to conduct this type of research on
11310-467: The genome is under selection of some sort, and a supermajority of this is occurring in non-coding DNA . Effective population size has been credibly suggested to positively correlate with the effect size of both negative and positive selection . Recombination is likely to be a significant source of diversity . There is evidence that crossover is positively correlated with polymorphism in D. populations. Drosophila species are found all around
11440-460: The habit of laying eggs at this 'advantageous' time would yield more surviving offspring, and more grandchildren, than the habit of laying eggs during other times. This differential reproductive success would cause D. melanogaster to adapt to environmental cycles, because this behavior has a major reproductive advantage. Their median lifespan is 35–45 days. DNA damage accumulates in Drosophila intestinal stem cells with age. Deficiencies in
11570-536: The harsh microgravity environment. The results will provide valuable information for future space stations and next-generation satellites. A 3D printer on the ISS is scheduled to produce "parts for satellites and other spacecraft, medical research components, an exercise device for Autodesk, wrenches... and parts for high school projects". Researchers believe that manufacturing large structures in space, as opposed to sending them from Earth, will broaden space development and exploration, even as far as producing habitats on
11700-508: The impact of gravitational force on living systems and their biochemical processes advances research in the fields of biology , genetics , health care , medicine , microbiology , plant and crop sciences , nanotechnology , and pharmaceutical and regenerative medicine . It has been shown that stem cells , the master cells that produce all organ and tissue cell types, may grow faster in microgravity as compared to cells grown conventionally in gravity. The conditions in space also allow for
11830-618: The installation of the Destiny module in February 2001. The 2005 NASA Authorization Act designated the U.S. segment of ISS as a National Lab in order to "...help improve life on Earth, foster relationships among NASA, other Federal agencies, and the private sector, and advance STEM education through utilization of unique ISS Capabilities in microgravity". In the NASA Authorization Act of 2010 , Congress directed NASA to choose
11960-404: The laboratory, often because they breed on a single specific host in the wild. For some, it can be done with particular recipes for rearing media, or by introducing chemicals such as sterols that are found in the natural host; for others, it is (so far) impossible. In some cases, the larvae can develop on normal Drosophila lab medium, but the female will not lay eggs; for these it is often simply
12090-486: The law and creating precedent for future law and decisions. The United States Constitution does not specifically mention the power of judicial review , which is the power to declare a law unconstitutional. There have been instances in the past where such declarations have been ignored by the other two branches. Below the U.S. Supreme Court are the United States Courts of Appeals , and below them in turn are
12220-434: The longest. D. melanogaster sperm cells are a more modest 1.8 mm long, although this is still about 35 times longer than a human sperm. Several species in the D. melanogaster species group are known to mate by traumatic insemination . Drosophila species vary widely in their reproductive capacity. Those such as D. melanogaster that breed in large, relatively rare resources have ovaries that mature 10–20 eggs at
12350-505: The male and female. Recent experiments explore the role of fruitless ( fru ) and doublesex ( dsx ), a group of sex-behaviour linked genes. The fruitless ( fru ) gene in Drosophila helps regulate the network for male courtship behavior; when a mutation to this gene occurs altered same sex sexual behavior in males is observed. Male Drosophila with the fru mutation direct their courtship towards other males as opposed to typical courtship, which would be directed towards females. Loss of
12480-495: The microbiome plays a role in aggression, immunity, egg-laying preferences, locomotion and metabolism . As for aggression, it plays a role to a certain degree during courtship. It was observed that germ-free flies were not as competitive compared to the wild-type males. Microbiome of the Drosophila species is also known to promote aggression by octopamine OA signalling. The microbiome has been shown to impact these fruit flies' social interactions, specifically aggressive behaviour that
12610-437: The neuromuscular junction in fruit flies. This differs from vertebrates, where acetylcholine is used at these junctions. In Drosophila, histamine primarily functions as a neurotransmitter in the visual system. It is released by photoreceptor cells to transmit visual information from the eye to the brain, making it essential for vision. As with many Eukaryotes, this genus is known to express SNAREs , and as with several others
12740-702: The office of vice president. Article II, Section 2 of the Constitution sets forth the creation of a presidential Cabinet. The role of the Cabinet is to advise the president and carry out the programs and laws of the federal government. The Cabinet is composed of the vice president and the leaders of 15 executive departments. Those executive departments are the Departments of State, Treasury, Defense, Justice, Interior, Agriculture, Commerce, Labor, Health and Human Services, Housing and Urban Development, Transportation, Energy, Education, Veterans Affairs, and Homeland Security. Additionally, there are seven other members of
12870-466: The on-station equipment for investigations from organizations other than the hardware's developer and owner, validating a business model for in-orbit commercial services at lower costs. The National Lab now has 14 commercially operated laboratory facilities managed by eight companies, including two newly installed facilities in FY18 and one new facility manager. Additive Manufacturing Facility : by utilizing
13000-412: The only obligate parthenogenetic species of Drosophila. Parthenogenesis is facultative in parthenogenetica and mercatorum . D. melanogaster is a popular experimental animal because it is easily cultured en masse out of the wild, has a short generation time, and mutant animals are readily obtainable. In 1906, Thomas Hunt Morgan began his work on D. melanogaster and reported his first finding of
13130-423: The other. Females have little control when it comes to cryptic female choice . Female Drosophila through cryptic choice, one of several post-copulatory mechanisms, which allows for the detection and expelling of sperm that reduces inbreeding possibilities. Manier et al. 2013 has categorized the post copulatory sexual selection of Drosophila melanogaster , Drosophila simulans , and Drosophila mauritiana into
13260-563: The pharmaceutical and biotechnological industry. It also has temperature control capability, making long-term incubation of samples possible, such as measuring microbial growth or monitoring gene expression. Space Automated Bioproduct Lab (SABL) : can be used for experiments in the life, physical and material sciences with a focus on supporting research of biological systems and processes. Microorganisms, small organisms, animal cells, tissue cultures, and small plants are studied in this lab. Space Technology and Advanced Research Systems (STaARS) :
13390-488: The plaintiffs and the government of another state was the defendant. It did not disturb federal jurisdiction in cases in which a state government is a plaintiff and a citizen of another state the defendant. The power of the federal courts extends both to civil actions for damages and other redress, and to criminal cases arising under federal law. The interplay of the Supremacy Clause and Article III has resulted in
13520-497: The power to adjourn Congress whenever the House and Senate cannot agree when to adjourn; no president has ever used this power. The president also has the constitutional power to, "on extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them"; this power has been used "to consider nominations, war, and emergency legislation." This Section invests the President with the discretion to convene Congress on "extraordinary occasions"; this special session power that has been used to call
13650-478: The power to re-organize or even abolish federal courts lower than the Supreme Court. The U.S. Supreme Court decides cases and controversies , which include matters pertaining to the federal government, disputes between states, and interpretation of the United States Constitution, and, in general, can declare legislation or executive action made at any level of the government as unconstitutional , nullifying
13780-437: The power to remove the president, federal judges, and other federal officers from office. The House of Representatives and Senate have separate roles in this process. The House must first vote to impeach the official. Then, a trial is held in the Senate to decide whether the official should be removed from office. As of 2023 , three presidents have been impeached: Andrew Johnson , Bill Clinton , and Donald Trump (twice). None of
13910-420: The powers to levy and collect taxes ; to coin money and regulate its value; provide for punishment for counterfeiting; establish post offices and roads, issue patents, create federal courts inferior to the Supreme Court , combat piracies and felonies , declare war , raise and support armies , provide and maintain a navy , make rules for the regulation of land and naval forces, provide for, arm and discipline
14040-502: The president and approved with the "advice and consent" of the U.S. Senate. Once confirmed, these "Cabinet secretaries" serve at the pleasure of the president. In addition to the executive departments, a number of staff organizations are grouped into the Executive Office of the President (EOP), which was created in 1939 by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The EOP is overseen by the White House Chief of Staff. The EOP includes
14170-485: The president and confirmed by the United States Senate. The Judiciary Act of 1789 subdivided the nation jurisdictionally into judicial districts and created federal courts for each district. The three tiered structure of this act established the basic structure of the national judiciary: the Supreme Court, 13 courts of appeals, 94 district courts, and two courts of special jurisdiction. Congress retains
14300-474: The president has major agenda-setting powers to influence lawmaking and policymaking, and typically has a major role as the leader of their political party . The president and vice president are normally elected as running mates by the Electoral College ; each state has a number of electoral votes equal to the size of its Congressional delegation ( i.e. , its number of Representatives in
14430-525: The president's signature, "unless the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return in which Case it shall not be a Law" (called a pocket veto ). A presidential veto may be overridden by a two-thirds vote in both houses of Congress; this occurs relatively infrequently. The president may be impeached by a majority in the House and removed from office by a two-thirds majority in the Senate for " treason , bribery , or other high crimes and misdemeanors ". The president may not dissolve Congress , but has
14560-448: The progression of this disease. This type of research could also be useful for cystic fibrosis and Huntington's disease because scientists have not been able to grow crystals of the active proteins on Earth with good enough quality to image. Protein crystallization could also have an impact on the delivery method of a cancer drug that is currently on the market. The hope is that the lack of gravity-induced variability while formulating
14690-686: The relationship between human and fruit fly genes is very close. Human and fruit fly genes are so similar, that disease-producing genes in humans can be linked to those in flies. The fly has approximately 15,500 genes on its four chromosomes, whereas humans have about 22,000 genes among their 23 chromosomes. Thus the density of genes per chromosome in Drosophila is higher than the human genome. Low and manageable number of chromosomes make Drosophila species easier to study. These flies also carry genetic information and pass down traits throughout generations, much like their human counterparts. The traits can then be studied through different Drosophila lineages and
14820-498: The republic is the "United States of America". No other name appears in the Constitution , and this is the name that appears on money, in treaties, and in legal cases to which the nation is a party. The terms "Government of the United States of America" or "United States Government" are often used in official documents to represent the federal government as distinct from the states collectively. In casual conversation or writing,
14950-411: The same time evolving standards for safety and efficiency in multiple disciplines. One of the biggest challenges in space travel is the effect that radiation has on both manmade and natural materials. That's why scientists are seeing if a new gel-like material, designed to be used to make lifelike synthetic muscles for artificial limbs used by humans and robots, could survive a trip to Mars. This material
15080-686: The same type of problems that old age does, this researcher is interested in determining the earliest point at which T-cells become different in space. Using a machine to analyze genes, one researcher is testing whether astronauts experience genetic changes in their DNA that would cause them to have weakened immune systems when in space. The findings in this experiment are important because it will determine if astronauts would be able to conduct experiments in space for extended periods of time. For example, scientists are using microgravity's unique ability to accelerate bone deterioration to study rodent bone loss in space. The experiment involves studying how NELL-1 ,
15210-549: The same way as the president or other officials of the federal government. U.S. judges are appointed by the president, subject to confirmation by the Senate. Another Constitutional provision prohibits Congress from reducing the pay of any present Article III judge. However, Congress is able to set a lower salary for all future judges who take office after such a pay reduction is passed by Congress. Drosophila Oinopota Kirby & Spence, 1815 Drosophila ( / d r ə ˈ s ɒ f ɪ l ə , d r ɒ -, d r oʊ -/ )
15340-594: The sovereign powers of the federal government." The Constitution grants the president the "Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States , except in Cases of Impeachment"; this clemency power includes the power to issue absolute or conditional pardons, and to issue commute sentences , to remit fines, and to issue general amnesties . The presidential clemency power extends only to federal crimes, and not to state crimes. The president has informal powers beyond their formal powers. For example,
15470-405: The stomach, attempt to copulate, and the copulatory act itself. The songs of Drosophila melanogaster and Drosophila simulans have been studied extensively. These luring songs are sinusoidal in nature and varies within and between species. The courtship behavior of Drosophila melanogaster has also been assessed for sex-related genes, which have been implicated in courtship behavior in both
15600-553: The term "Federal Government" is often used, and the term "U.S. Government" is sometimes used. The terms "Federal" and "National" in government agency or program names generally indicate affiliation with the federal government; for instance, the Federal Bureau of Investigation , National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , and National Park Service . Because the seat of government is in Washington, D.C. , "Washington"
15730-434: The three were removed from office following trial in the Senate. Article I, Section 2, paragraph 2 of the U.S. Constitution gives each chamber the power to "determine the rules of its proceedings". From this provision were created congressional committees , which do the work of drafting legislation and conducting congressional investigations into national matters. The 118th Congress (2023–2025) has 20 standing committees in
15860-529: The trial courts wherein cases that are considered under the Judicial Code (Title 28, United States Code) consistent with the jurisdictional precepts of federal question jurisdiction , diversity jurisdiction, and pendent jurisdiction can be filed and decided. The district courts can also hear cases under removal jurisdiction , wherein a case brought in a state court meets the requirements for diversity jurisdiction, and one party litigant chooses to "remove"
15990-518: The vice president as routinely in the legislative branch, or succeeding to the executive branch as president, or possibly being in both as acting president pursuant to the Twenty-fifth Amendment . Because of circumstances, the overlapping nature of the duties and powers attributed to the office, the title of the office and other matters, such has generated a spirited scholarly dispute regarding attaching an exclusive branch designation to
16120-522: The vice president has the authority ( ex officio , for they are not an elected member of the Senate) to cast a tie-breaking vote . Pursuant to the Twelfth Amendment , the vice president presides over the joint session of Congress when it convenes to count the vote of the Electoral College . As first in the U.S. presidential line of succession , the vice president's duties and powers move to
16250-536: The view, the ISS also provides better spatial resolution and variable lighting conditions as compared with other satellites used for Earth observation . These new technologies are advancing studies in agriculture , water quality , natural resources , atmospheric monitoring and maritime tracking. A Lightning Imaging Sensor was attached to the ISS on one of its missions to monitor lightning flashes on Earth. The data gathered will help scientists predict weather changes, climate changes and atmospheric changes. Another sensor
16380-531: The water and release it faster so that we use less water in the shower. Another is studying how a compound called silica forms in microgravity so it can produce more fuel-efficient tires. The U.S. Laboratory serves as a testing facility for new developments in remote sensing technology, as well as innovations in computing, electronics, and hardware prototyping. It also has microgravity-enabled material production and manufacturing facilities. The Lab also tests robotics and advanced materials to see if they can withstand
16510-489: The world by human activities such as fruit transports. Males of this genus are known to have the longest sperm cells of any studied organism on Earth, including one species, Drosophila bifurca , that has sperm cells that are 58 mm (2.3 in) long. The cells mostly consist of a long, thread-like tail, and are delivered to the females in tangled coils. The other members of the genus Drosophila also make relatively few giant sperm cells, with that of D. bifurca being
16640-788: The world, with more species in the tropical regions. Drosophila made their way to the Hawaiian Islands and radiated into over 800 species. They can be found in deserts , tropical rainforest , cities , swamps , and alpine zones . Some northern species hibernate . The northern species D. montana is the best cold-adapted, and is primarily found at high altitudes. Most species breed in various kinds of decaying plant and fungal material, including fruit , bark , slime fluxes , flowers , and mushrooms . Drosophila species that are fruit-breeding are attracted to various products of fermentation, especially ethanol and methanol . Fruits exploited by Drosophila species include those with
16770-476: Was attached to the spaceship to monitor changes in the ozone layer . A camera was installed on the ISS for a two-year period to monitor meteor showers from space. This investigation helped scientists better understand the behavior of asteroids and comets and how they have affected our planet. The results from the study could also help protect us from potential collisions. Red tide , a harmful algal bloom that releases toxins into our oceans, has been studied on
16900-480: Was vastly used in genetics. However, the effect abiotic factors , such as temperature, has on the microbiome on Drosophila species has recently been of great interest. Certain variations in temperature have an impact on the microbiome. It was observed that higher temperatures (31 °C) lead to an increase of Acetobacter populations in the gut microbiome of Drosophila melanogaster as compared to lower temperatures (13 °C). In low temperatures (13 °C),
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