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82-466: Server-side image maps were first supported in Mosaic (web browser) version 1.1. Server-side image maps enable the web browser to send positional information to the server about where the user clicks within an image. This allows the server to make pixel-by-pixel decisions about what content to return in response (possible methods are to use image mask layers, database queries, or configuration files on

164-529: A router is provided with an interface to each network. It forwards network packets back and forth between them. Originally a router was called gateway , but the term was changed to avoid confusion with other types of gateways . In March 1982, the US Department of Defense declared TCP/IP as the standard for all military computer networking. In the same year, NORSAR / NDRE and Peter Kirstein 's research group at University College London adopted

246-539: A vector graphics editor . Examples of these applications are Adobe's Dreamweaver or KImageMapEditor (for KDE ), and the imagemap plugin found in GIMP . The free and open-source office suite LibreOffice also includes a dedicated ImageMap editor. Image maps which do not make their clickable areas obvious risk subjecting the user to mystery meat navigation . Even when they do, where they lead may not be obvious. This can be partially remedied with rollover effects. Because

328-529: A What's New page, and about one new link was being added per day. This was a time when access to the Internet was expanding rapidly outside its previous domain of academia and large industrial research institutions. Yet it was the availability of Mosaic and Mosaic-derived graphical browsers themselves that drove the explosive growth of the Web to over 10,000 sites by August 1995 and millions by 1998. Metcalfe expressed

410-603: A Y value (from left/top of an image) and is separated with a comma. The following example defines a rectangular area ("9,372,66,397"). When a user clicks anywhere inside this area, they are taken to the English Misplaced Pages 's home page. A more recent approach is to overlay links on an image using CSS absolute positioning; however, this only supports rectangular clickable areas. This CSS technique may be suitable for making an image map work properly on iPhones , which can fail to rescale pure HTML image maps correctly. It

492-539: A few programmers. Jay Elinsky and Oleg Vishnepolsky of IBM Research wrote TCP/IP stacks for VM/CMS and OS/2, respectively. In 1984 Donald Gillies at MIT wrote a ntcp multi-connection TCP which runs atop the IP/PacketDriver layer maintained by John Romkey at MIT in 1983–84. Romkey leveraged this TCP in 1986 when FTP Software was founded. Starting in 1985, Phil Karn created a multi-connection TCP application for ham radio systems (KA9Q TCP). The spread of TCP/IP

574-465: A four-layer model, with the layers having names, not numbers, as follows: The protocols of the link layer operate within the scope of the local network connection to which a host is attached. This regime is called the link in TCP/IP parlance and is the lowest component layer of the suite. The link includes all hosts accessible without traversing a router. The size of the link is therefore determined by

656-489: A fundamental reformulation, in which the differences between local network protocols were hidden by using a common internetwork protocol , and, instead of the network being responsible for reliability, as in the existing ARPANET protocols, this function was delegated to the hosts. Cerf credits Louis Pouzin and Hubert Zimmermann , designers of the CYCLADES network, with important influences on this design. The new protocol

738-652: A host-host protocol, the Network Control Program (NCP). In the early 1970s, DARPA started work on several other data transmission technologies, including mobile packet radio, packet satellite service, local area networks, and other data networks in the public and private domains. In 1972, Bob Kahn joined the DARPA Information Processing Technology Office , where he worked on both satellite packet networks and ground-based radio packet networks, and recognized

820-580: A period in the late 1980s and early 1990s, engineers, organizations and nations were polarized over the issue of which standard , the OSI model or the Internet protocol suite, would result in the best and most robust computer networks. The technical standards underlying the Internet protocol suite and its constituent protocols have been delegated to the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). The characteristic architecture of

902-493: A reliable data-link protocol such as the High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC). The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a connectionless datagram protocol. Like IP, it is a best-effort, unreliable protocol. Reliability is addressed through error detection using a checksum algorithm. UDP is typically used for applications such as streaming media (audio, video, Voice over IP , etc.) where on-time arrival

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984-512: A separate browser began to decrease after the 1994 release of Netscape Navigator , the relevance of which was noted in The HTML Sourcebook: The Complete Guide to HTML : "Netscape Communications has designed an all-new WWW browser Netscape, that has significant enhancements over the original Mosaic program." In 1994, SCO released Global Access, a modified version of SCO's Open Desktop Unix , which became

1066-448: A set of protocols to send its data down the layers. The data is further encapsulated at each level. An early pair of architectural documents, RFC   1122 and 1123 , titled Requirements for Internet Hosts , emphasizes architectural principles over layering. RFC 1122/23 are structured in sections referring to layers, but the documents refer to many other architectural principles, and do not emphasize layering. They loosely defines

1148-858: A tiny fraction of users left by 1997, when the project was discontinued. Microsoft licensed one of the derivative commercial products, Spyglass Mosaic, to create Internet Explorer in 1995. In December 1991, the High Performance Computing Act of 1991 was passed, which provided funding for new projects at the NCSA, where after trying ViolaWWW , David Thompson demonstrated it to the NCSA software design group. This inspired Marc Andreessen and Eric Bina – two programmers working at NCSA – to create Mosaic. Andreessen and Bina began developing Mosaic in December 1992 for Unix's X Window System , calling it xmosaic . Marc Andreessen announced

1230-459: A unique protocol number : for example, Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) and Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) are protocols 1 and 2, respectively. The Internet Protocol is the principal component of the internet layer, and it defines two addressing systems to identify network hosts and to locate them on the network. The original address system of the ARPANET and its successor,

1312-868: A version specifically targeting OpenVMS operating system, is one of the longest-lived efforts to maintain Mosaic. Using the VMS support already built-in in original version (Bjorn S. Nilsson ported Mosaic 1.2 to VMS in the summer of 1993), developers incorporated a substantial part of the HTML engine from mMosaic, another defunct flavor of the browser. As of the most recent version (4.2), released in 2007, VMS Mosaic supported HTML 4.0, OpenSSL , cookies , and various image formats including GIF , JPEG , PNG , BMP , TGA , TIFF and JPEG 2000 image formats. The browser works on VAX , Alpha , and Itanium platforms. Another long-lived version, Mosaic-CK , developed by Cameron Kaiser,

1394-755: Is a framework for organizing the set of communication protocols used in the Internet and similar computer networks according to functional criteria. The foundational protocols in the suite are the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), the User Datagram Protocol (UDP), and the Internet Protocol (IP). Early versions of this networking model were known as the Department of Defense ( DoD ) model because

1476-482: Is message-stream-oriented, not byte-stream-oriented like TCP, and provides multiple streams multiplexed over a single connection. It also provides multihoming support, in which a connection end can be represented by multiple IP addresses (representing multiple physical interfaces), such that if one fails, the connection is not interrupted. It was developed initially for telephony applications (to transport SS7 over IP). Reliability can also be achieved by running IP over

1558-581: Is more important than reliability, or for simple query/response applications like DNS lookups, where the overhead of setting up a reliable connection is disproportionately large. Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) is a datagram protocol that is used over UDP and is designed for real-time data such as streaming media . The applications at any given network address are distinguished by their TCP or UDP port. By convention, certain well-known ports are associated with specific applications. The TCP/IP model's transport or host-to-host layer corresponds roughly to

1640-482: Is not the first web browser for Microsoft Windows; this is Thomas R. Bruce 's little-known Cello . The Unix version of Mosaic was already famous before the Microsoft Windows, Amiga, and Mac versions were released. Other than displaying images embedded in the text (rather than in a separate window), Mosaic's original feature set is similar to the browsers on which it was modeled, such as ViolaWWW. But Mosaic

1722-505: Is possible to create client-side image maps by hand using a text editor, but doing so requires web designers to know how to code HTML as well as how to enumerate the coordinates of the areas they wish to place over the image. As a result, most image maps coded by hand are simple polygons. Because creating image maps in a text editor requires much time and effort, many applications have been designed to allow web designers to create image maps quickly and easily, much as they would create shapes in

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1804-437: Is well on its way to becoming the world's standard interface": When it comes to smashing a paradigm, pleasure is not the most important thing. It is the only thing. If this sounds wrong, consider Mosaic. Mosaic is the celebrated graphical "browser" that allows users to travel through the world of electronic information using a point-and-click interface. Mosaic's charming appearance encourages users to load their own documents onto

1886-666: The Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) image format provides its own mechanisms for adding hyperlinks and other, more sophisticated forms of interactivity to images, traditional image map techniques are generally not necessary when working with vector images in the SVG format. Mosaic (web browser) Early research and development: Merging the networks and creating the Internet: Commercialization, privatization, broader access leads to

1968-542: The ARPANET that used the same principle, irrespective of other local characteristics, thereby solving Kahn's initial internetworking problem. A popular expression is that TCP/IP, the eventual product of Cerf and Kahn's work, can run over "two tin cans and a string." Years later, as a joke in 1999, the IP over Avian Carriers formal protocol specification was created and successfully tested two years later. 10 years later still, it

2050-581: The About box. Internet Explorer 7 was audited by Microsoft to ensure that it contained no Spyglass Mosaic code, and thus no longer credits Spyglass or Mosaic. After NCSA stopped work on Mosaic, development of the NCSA Mosaic for the X Window System source code was continued by several independent groups. These independent development efforts include mMosaic (multicast Mosaic) which ceased development in early 2004, and Mosaic-CK and VMS Mosaic. VMS Mosaic ,

2132-589: The IETF has never modified this structure. As such a model of networking, the Internet protocol suite predates the OSI model, a more comprehensive reference framework for general networking systems. The end-to-end principle has evolved over time. Its original expression put the maintenance of state and overall intelligence at the edges, and assumed the Internet that connected the edges retained no state and concentrated on speed and simplicity. Real-world needs for firewalls, network address translators, web content caches and

2214-450: The Internet protocol suite and its constituent protocols are maintained by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). The Internet protocol suite predates the OSI model , a more comprehensive reference framework for general networking systems. Early research and development: Merging the networks and creating the Internet: Commercialization, privatization, broader access leads to

2296-410: The Internet protocol suite is its broad division into operating scopes for the protocols that constitute its core functionality. The defining specifications of the suite are RFC 1122 and 1123, which broadly outlines four abstraction layers (as well as related protocols); the link layer, IP layer, transport layer, and application layer, along with support protocols. These have stood the test of time, as

2378-513: The Internet, is Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4). It uses a 32-bit IP address and is therefore capable of identifying approximately four billion hosts. This limitation was eliminated in 1998 by the standardization of Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) which uses 128-bit addresses. IPv6 production implementations emerged in approximately 2006. The transport layer establishes basic data channels that applications use for task-specific data exchange. The layer establishes host-to-host connectivity in

2460-494: The NCSA Mosaic source code. Microsoft licensed Spyglass Mosaic in 1995 for US$ 2 million, modified it, and renamed it Internet Explorer . After a later auditing dispute, Microsoft paid Spyglass $ 8 million. The 1995 user guide The HTML Sourcebook: The Complete Guide to HTML , specifically states, in a section called Coming Attractions , that Internet Explorer "will be based on the Mosaic program". Versions of Internet Explorer before version 7 stated "Based on NCSA Mosaic" in

2542-450: The Net, including color photos, sound bites, video clips, and hypertext "links" to other documents. By following the links – click, and the linked document appears – you can travel through the online world along paths of whim and intuition. Mosaic is not the most direct way to find online information. Nor is it the most powerful. It is merely the most pleasurable way, and in the 18 months since it

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2624-598: The OSI model. Application layer protocols are often associated with particular client–server applications, and common services have well-known port numbers reserved by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA). For example, the HyperText Transfer Protocol uses server port 80 and Telnet uses server port 23. Clients connecting to a service usually use ephemeral ports , i.e., port numbers assigned only for

2706-533: The University of Southern California's Information Sciences Institute , who edited the Request for Comments (RFCs), the technical and strategic document series that has both documented and catalyzed Internet development. Postel stated, "We are screwing up in our design of Internet protocols by violating the principle of layering." Encapsulation of different mechanisms was intended to create an environment where

2788-460: The Web might be better than sex. In the third generation, Andreessen and Bina left NCSA to found Netscape... Netscape Navigator was later developed by Netscape , which employed many of the original Mosaic authors; however, it intentionally shared no code with Mosaic. Netscape Navigator's code descendant is Mozilla Firefox . Spyglass, Inc. licensed the technology and trademarks from NCSA for producing its own web browser but never used any of

2870-469: The applications are usually aware of key qualities of the transport layer connection such as the endpoint IP addresses and port numbers, application layer protocols generally treat the transport layer (and lower) protocols as black boxes which provide a stable network connection across which to communicate. The transport layer and lower-level layers are unconcerned with the specifics of application layer protocols. Routers and switches do not typically examine

2952-482: The corporate politics to get a stream of TCP/IP products for various IBM systems, including MVS , VM , and OS/2 . At the same time, several smaller companies, such as FTP Software and the Wollongong Group , began offering TCP/IP stacks for DOS and Microsoft Windows . The first VM/CMS TCP/IP stack came from the University of Wisconsin. Some of the early TCP/IP stacks were written single-handedly by

3034-692: The creation of the first dynamic web pages . From 1994 to 1997, the National Science Foundation supported the further development of Mosaic. Marc Andreessen, the leader of the team that developed Mosaic, left NCSA and, with James H. Clark , one of the founders of Silicon Graphics, Inc. (SGI), and four other former students and staff of the University of Illinois , started Mosaic Communications Corporation. Mosaic Communications eventually became Netscape Communications Corporation , producing Netscape Navigator . Mosaic's popularity as

3116-414: The duration of the transaction at random or from a specific range configured in the application. At the application layer, the TCP/IP model distinguishes between user protocols and support protocols . Support protocols provide services to a system of network infrastructure. User protocols are used for actual user applications. For example, FTP is a user protocol and DNS is a support protocol. Although

3198-521: The encapsulated traffic, rather they just provide a conduit for it. However, some firewall and bandwidth throttling applications use deep packet inspection to interpret application data. An example is the Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP). It is also sometimes necessary for Applications affected by NAT to consider the application payload. The Internet protocol suite evolved through research and development funded over

3280-464: The first Interop conference focused on network interoperability by broader adoption of TCP/IP. The conference was founded by Dan Lynch, an early Internet activist. From the beginning, large corporations, such as IBM and DEC, attended the meeting. IBM, AT&T and DEC were the first major corporations to adopt TCP/IP, this despite having competing proprietary protocols . In IBM, from 1984, Barry Appelman 's group did TCP/IP development. They navigated

3362-569: The first browser that could submit forms to a server. Mosaic led to the Internet boom of the 1990s. Other browsers existed during this period, such as Erwise , ViolaWWW , MidasWWW , and tkWWW , but did not have the same effect as Mosaic on public use of the Internet. In the October 1994 issue of Wired magazine, Gary Wolfe notes in the article titled "The (Second Phase of the) Revolution Has Begun: Don't look now, but Prodigy , AOL , and CompuServe are all suddenly obsolete – and Mosaic

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3444-441: The first commercial product to incorporate Mosaic. However, by 1998, the Mosaic user base had almost completely evaporated as users moved to other web browsers. The licensing terms for NCSA Mosaic were generous for a proprietary software program. In general, non-commercial use was free of charge for all versions (with certain limitations). Additionally, the X Window System/Unix version publicly provided source code (source code for

3526-558: The first graphical web browser, it was preceded by WorldWideWeb , the lesser-known Erwise , and ViolaWWW . Mosaic was developed at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign beginning in late 1992, released in January 1993, with official development and support until January 1997. Mosaic lost market share to Netscape Navigator in late 1994, and had only

3608-595: The form of end-to-end message transfer services that are independent of the underlying network and independent of the structure of user data and the logistics of exchanging information. Connectivity at the transport layer can be categorized as either connection-oriented , implemented in TCP, or connectionless , implemented in UDP. The protocols in this layer may provide error control , segmentation , flow control , congestion control , and application addressing ( port numbers ). For

3690-424: The fourth layer in the OSI model, also called the transport layer. QUIC is rapidly emerging as an alternative transport protocol. Whilst it is technically carried via UDP packets it seeks to offer enhanced transport connectivity relative to TCP. HTTP/3 works exclusively via QUIC. The application layer includes the protocols used by most applications for providing user services or exchanging application data over

3772-410: The involvement of service discovery or directory services . Because IP provides only a best-effort delivery , some transport-layer protocols offer reliability. TCP is a connection-oriented protocol that addresses numerous reliability issues in providing a reliable byte stream : The newer Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) is also a reliable, connection-oriented transport mechanism. It

3854-486: The layers for a particular application forms a protocol stack . From lowest to highest, the layers are the link layer , containing communication methods for data that remains within a single network segment (link); the internet layer , providing internetworking between independent networks; the transport layer , handling host-to-host communication; and the application layer , providing process-to-process data exchange for applications. The technical standards underlying

3936-407: The like have forced changes in this principle. The robustness principle states: "In general, an implementation must be conservative in its sending behavior, and liberal in its receiving behavior. That is, it must be careful to send well-formed datagrams, but must accept any datagram that it can interpret (e.g., not object to technical errors where the meaning is still clear)." "The second part of

4018-755: The modern Internet: Examples of Internet services: NCSA Mosaic was among the first widely available web browsers , instrumental in popularizing the World Wide Web and the general Internet by integrating multimedia such as text and graphics. Mosaic was the first browser to display images inline with text (instead of a separate window). Named for supporting multiple Internet protocols , including Hypertext Transfer Protocol , File Transfer Protocol , Network News Transfer Protocol , and Gopher , its intuitive interface, reliability, personal computer support, and simple installation all contributed to Mosaic's initial popularity. Mistakenly described as

4100-599: The modern Internet: Examples of Internet services: Initially referred to as the DOD Internet Architecture Model , the Internet protocol suite has its roots in research and development sponsored by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency ( DARPA ) in the late 1960s. After DARPA initiated the pioneering ARPANET in 1969, Steve Crocker established a "Networking Working Group" which developed

4182-523: The network addressing methods used in the Internet Protocol to link-layer addresses, such as media access control (MAC) addresses. All other aspects below that level, however, are implicitly assumed to exist and are not explicitly defined in the TCP/IP model. The link layer in the TCP/IP model has corresponding functions in Layer 2 of the OSI model. Internetworking requires sending data from

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4264-982: The network connections established by the lower-level protocols. This may include some basic network support services such as routing protocols and host configuration. Examples of application layer protocols include the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), the File Transfer Protocol (FTP), the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), and the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP). Data coded according to application layer protocols are encapsulated into transport layer protocol units (such as TCP streams or UDP datagrams), which in turn use lower layer protocols to effect actual data transfer. The TCP/IP model does not consider

4346-488: The network included the recognition that it should provide only the functions of efficiently transmitting and routing traffic between end nodes and that all other intelligence should be located at the edge of the network, in the end nodes. This end-to-end principle was pioneered by Louis Pouzin in the CYCLADES network, based on the ideas of Donald Davies . Using this design, it became possible to connect other networks to

4428-404: The networking hardware design. In principle, TCP/IP is designed to be hardware independent and may be implemented on top of virtually any link-layer technology. This includes not only hardware implementations but also virtual link layers such as virtual private networks and networking tunnels . The link layer is used to move packets between the internet layer interfaces of two different hosts on

4510-400: The other versions was available after agreements were signed). Despite persistent rumors to the contrary, however, Mosaic was never released as open source software during its brief reign as a major browser; there were always constraints on permissible uses without payment. As of 1993 , license holders included these: Robert Reid notes that Andreessen's team hoped: ... to rectify many of

4592-529: The pivotal role of Mosaic this way: In the Web's first generation, Tim Berners-Lee launched the Uniform Resource Locator (URL), Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), and HTML standards with prototype Unix-based servers and browsers. A few people noticed that the Web might be better than Gopher. In the second generation, Marc Andreessen and Eric Bina developed NCSA Mosaic at the University of Illinois. Several million then suddenly noticed that

4674-409: The principle is almost as important: software on other hosts may contain deficiencies that make it unwise to exploit legal but obscure protocol features." Encapsulation is used to provide abstraction of protocols and services. Encapsulation is usually aligned with the division of the protocol suite into layers of general functionality. In general, an application (the highest level of the model) uses

4756-518: The project's first release, the "alpha/beta version 0.5," on January 23, 1993. Version 1.0 was released on April 21, 1993. Ports to Microsoft Windows and Macintosh were released in September. A port of Mosaic to the Amiga was available by October 1993. NCSA Mosaic for Unix (X Window System) version 2.0 was released on November 10, 1993 and was notable for adding support for forms , thus enabling

4838-546: The protocol that is still in use in the Internet, alongside its current successor, Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6). In 1975, a two-network IP communications test was performed between Stanford and University College London. In November 1977, a three-network IP test was conducted between sites in the US, the UK, and Norway . Several other IP prototypes were developed at multiple research centers between 1978 and 1983. A computer called

4920-504: The protocol. The migration of the ARPANET from NCP to TCP/IP was officially completed on flag day January 1, 1983, when the new protocols were permanently activated. In 1985, the Internet Advisory Board (later Internet Architecture Board ) held a three-day TCP/IP workshop for the computer industry, attended by 250 vendor representatives, promoting the protocol and leading to its increasing commercial use. In 1985,

5002-415: The purpose of providing process-specific transmission channels for applications, the layer establishes the concept of the network port . This is a numbered logical construct allocated specifically for each of the communication channels an application needs. For many types of services, these port numbers have been standardized so that client computers may address specific services of a server computer without

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5084-513: The research and development were funded by the United States Department of Defense through DARPA . The Internet protocol suite provides end-to-end data communication specifying how data should be packetized, addressed, transmitted, routed , and received. This functionality is organized into four abstraction layers , which classify all related protocols according to each protocol's scope of networking. An implementation of

5166-435: The responsibility of sending packets across potentially multiple networks. With this functionality, the internet layer makes possible internetworking, the interworking of different IP networks, and it essentially establishes the Internet. The internet layer does not distinguish between the various transport layer protocols. IP carries data for a variety of different upper layer protocols . These protocols are each identified by

5248-756: The resulting URL (for example, /imagemapper?3,9 ). If the browser does not support ismap then the query string must not be added to the anchor URL and the server should respond appropriately (for example, by returning a text-only navigation page). Client-side image maps were introduced in HTML 3.2 , and do not require any special logic to be executed on the server (they are fully client-side). They also do not require any JavaScript . A client-side imagemap in HTML consists of two parts: The <area> elements can be rectangles ( shape="rect" ), polygons ( shape="poly" ) or circles ( shape="circle" ). Shape-Values are coordinate-pairs. Every pair has an X and

5330-443: The same link. The processes of transmitting and receiving packets on the link can be controlled in the device driver for the network card , as well as in firmware or by specialized chipsets . These perform functions, such as framing, to prepare the internet layer packets for transmission, and finally transmit the frames to the physical layer and over a transmission medium . The TCP/IP model includes specifications for translating

5412-476: The scene. Starting with next to nothing, the rates of the web growth (quoted in the press) hovering around tens of thousands of percent over ridiculously short periods of time were no real surprise. Ultimately, web browsers such as Mosaic became the killer applications of the 1990s. Web browsers were the first to bring a graphical interface to search tools the Internet's burgeoning wealth of distributed information services. A mid-1994 guide lists Mosaic alongside

5494-413: The server). The HTML code for this type of server-side image map requires the <img> tag to be inside an anchor tag <a>...</a> and the <img> must include the ismap attribute. When the user clicks inside the image the browser will append the X and Y coordinates (relative to the upper-left corner of the image) to the anchor URL as a query string and will access

5576-441: The shortcomings of the very primitive prototypes then floating around the Internet. Most significantly, their work transformed the appeal of the Web from niche uses in the technical area to mass-market appeal. In particular, these University of Illinois students made two key changes to the Web browser, which hyper-boosted its appeal: they added graphics to what was otherwise boring text-based software, and, most importantly, they ported

5658-463: The software from so-called Unix computers that are popular only in technical and academic circles, to the [Microsoft] Windows operating system, which is used on more than 80 percent of the computers in the world, especially personal and commercial computers. Mosaic is based on the libwww library and thus supported a wide variety of Internet protocols included in the library: Archie , FTP , gopher , HTTP , NNTP , telnet , WAIS . Mosaic

5740-435: The source network to the destination network. This process is called routing and is supported by host addressing and identification using the hierarchical IP addressing system. The internet layer provides an unreliable datagram transmission facility between hosts located on potentially different IP networks by forwarding datagrams to an appropriate next-hop router for further relaying to its destination. The internet layer has

5822-461: The specifics of formatting and presenting data and does not define additional layers between the application and transport layers as in the OSI model (presentation and session layers). According to the TCP/IP model, such functions are the realm of libraries and application programming interfaces . The application layer in the TCP/IP model is often compared to a combination of the fifth (session), sixth (presentation), and seventh (application) layers of

5904-442: The traditional, text-oriented information search tools of the time, Archie and Veronica , Gopher , and WAIS but Mosaic quickly subsumed and displaced them all. Joseph Hardin, the director of the NCSA group within which Mosaic was developed, said downloads were up to 50,000 a month in mid-1994. In November 1992, there were twenty-six websites in the world and each one attracted attention. In its release year of 1993, Mosaic had

5986-489: The upper layers could access only what was needed from the lower layers. A monolithic design would be inflexible and lead to scalability issues. In version 4 , written in 1978, Postel split the Transmission Control Program into two distinct protocols, the Internet Protocol as connectionless layer and the Transmission Control Protocol as a reliable connection-oriented service . The design of

6068-512: The value of being able to communicate across both. In the spring of 1973, Vinton Cerf joined Kahn with the goal of designing the next protocol generation for the ARPANET to enable internetworking . They drew on the experience from the ARPANET research community, the International Network Working Group , which Cerf chaired, and researchers at Xerox PARC . By the summer of 1973, Kahn and Cerf had worked out

6150-416: The work of Berners-Lee and the hypertext theorists before him, is generally recognized as the beginning of the web as it is now known. Mosaic, the first web browser to win over the Net masses, was released in 1993 and made freely accessible to the public. The adjective phenomenal, so often overused in this industry, is genuinely applicable to the... 'explosion' in the growth of the web after Mosaic appeared on

6232-524: Was adapted for IPv6. DARPA contracted with BBN Technologies , Stanford University , and the University College London to develop operational versions of the protocol on several hardware platforms. During development of the protocol the version number of the packet routing layer progressed from version 1 to version 4, the latter of which was installed in the ARPANET in 1983. It became known as Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) as

6314-544: Was fueled further in June 1989, when the University of California, Berkeley agreed to place the TCP/IP code developed for BSD UNIX into the public domain. Various corporate vendors, including IBM, included this code in commercial TCP/IP software releases. For Windows 3.1, the dominant PC operating system among consumers in the first half of the 1990s, Peter Tattam's release of the Trumpet Winsock TCP/IP stack

6396-860: Was implemented as the Transmission Control Program in 1974 by Cerf, Yogen Dalal and Carl Sunshine. Initially, the Transmission Control Program (the Internet Protocol did not then exist as a separate protocol) provided only a reliable byte stream service to its users, not datagrams . Several versions were developed through the Internet Experiment Note series. As experience with the protocol grew, collaborators recommended division of functionality into layers of distinct protocols, allowing users direct access to datagram service. Advocates included Bob Metcalfe and Yogen Dalal at Xerox PARC; Danny Cohen , who needed it for his packet voice work; and Jonathan Postel of

6478-805: Was key to bringing the Internet to home users. Trumpet Winsock allowed TCP/IP operations over a serial connection ( SLIP or PPP ). The typical home PC of the time had an external Hayes-compatible modem connected via an RS-232 port with an 8250 or 16550 UART which required this type of stack. Later, Microsoft would release their own TCP/IP add-on stack for Windows for Workgroups 3.11 and a native stack in Windows 95. These events helped cement TCP/IP's dominance over other protocols on Microsoft-based networks, which included IBM's Systems Network Architecture (SNA), and on other platforms such as Digital Equipment Corporation 's DECnet , Open Systems Interconnection (OSI), and Xerox Network Systems (XNS). Nonetheless, for

6560-539: Was last released (version 2.7ck9) on July 11, 2010; a maintenance release with minor compatibility fixes (version 2.7ck10) was released on January 9, 2015, followed by another one (2.7ck11) in October 2015. The stated goal of the project is " Lynx with graphics" and runs on Mac OS X, Power MachTen , Linux and other compatible Unix-like OSs . The X, Windows, and Mac versions of Mosaic all had separate development teams and code bases. Internet protocols The Internet protocol suite , commonly known as TCP/IP ,

6642-407: Was released, Mosaic has incited a rush of excitement and commercial energy unprecedented in the history of the Net. Reid also refers to Matthew K. Gray's website, Internet Statistics: Growth and Usage of the Web and the Internet , which indicates a dramatic leap in web use around the time of Mosaic's introduction. David Hudson concurs with Reid: Marc Andreessen's realization of Mosaic, based on

6724-400: Was the first browser written and supported by a team of full-time programmers, was reliable and easy enough for novices to install, and the inline graphics proved immensely appealing. Mosaic is said to have made the Internet accessible to the ordinary person. Mosaic was the first browser to explore the concept of collaborative annotation in 1993 but never passed the test state. Mosaic was

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