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120-602: Imperial Chemical Industries ( ICI ) was a British chemical company. It was, for much of its history, the largest manufacturer in Britain. Its headquarters were at Millbank in London . ICI was a constituent of the FT 30 and later the FTSE 100 indices. ICI was formed in 1926 as a result of the merger of four of Britain's leading chemical companies. From the onset, it was involved in

240-439: A herbicide ), the insecticides pirimiphos-methyl in 1967 and pirimicarb in 1970, brodifacoum (a rodenticide ) was developed in 1974; in the late 1970s, ICI was involved in the early development of synthetic pyrethroid insecticides such as lambda-cyhalothrin . Peter Allen was appointed chairman between 1968 and 1971. He presided over the purchase of Viyella . Profits shrank under his tenure. During his tenure, ICI created

360-538: A military coup in the country . In 1964, ICI acquired British Nylon Spinners (BNS), the company it had jointly set up in 1940 with Courtaulds. ICI surrendered its 37.5 per cent holding in Courtaulds and paid Courtaulds £2 million a year for five years, "to take account of the future development expenditure of Courtaulds in the nylon field." In return, Courtaulds transferred to ICI their 50 per cent holding in BNS. BNS

480-400: A "sniffer test" on returned bottles to avoid cross-contamination of flavors. Different applications of PET require different degrees of polymerization, which can be obtained by modifying the process conditions. The molecular weight of PET is measured by solution viscosity. The preferred method to measure this viscosity is the intrinsic viscosity (IV) of the polymer. Intrinsic viscosity

600-616: A $ 5 trillion global enterprise, and the EU and U.S. chemical companies are the world's largest producers. Sales of the chemical business can be divided into a few broad categories, including basic chemicals (about 35% - 37% of dollar output), life sciences (30%), specialty chemicals (20% - 25%) and consumer products (about 10%). Basic chemicals, or "commodity chemicals" are a broad chemical category including polymers, bulk petrochemicals and intermediates, other derivatives and basic industrials, inorganic chemicals , and fertilizers . Polymers are

720-467: A 2.8 per cent stake in the company as part of its hostile takeover attempt, which ICI's management team chose to oppose. The envisioned acquisition became hotly contested and controversial, partially as it would have been the biggest takeover in British history at that point. In October 1991, Hanson opted to not proceed with the deal. In 1992, the company sold its nylon business to DuPont . During 1993,

840-531: A 54 per cent market share in the paint market. The initial bid was rejected by the ICI board and the majority of shareholders. However, a subsequent bid for £8 billion (€11.82 billion) was accepted by ICI in August 2007, pending approval by regulators . On 2 January 2008, completion of the takeover of ICI plc by AkzoNobel was announced. Shareholders of ICI received either £6.70 in cash or AkzoNobel loan notes to

960-425: A byproduct. Polymerization is through a polycondensation reaction of the monomers (done immediately after esterification/transesterification) with water as the byproduct. Polyester fibres are widely used in the textile industry. The invention of the polyester fibre is attributed to J. R. Whinfield. It was first commercialized in the 1940s by ICI , under the brand 'Terylene'. Subsequently E. I. DuPont launched

1080-487: A different form, without destroying the polymer; or recycled in a process that includes transesterification and the addition of other glycols, polyols, or glycerol to form a new polyol. The polyol from the third method can be used in polyurethane (PU foam) production, or epoxy-based products, including paints. In 2023 a process was announced for using PET as the basis for supercapacitor production. PET, being stoichiometrically carbon and H 2 O , can be turned into

1200-446: A few micrometers ) depending on its crystal structure and particle size. One process for making PET uses bis(2-hydroxyethyl) terephthalate , which can be synthesized by the esterification reaction between terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol with water as a byproduct (this is also known as a condensation reaction), or by transesterification reaction between ethylene glycol and dimethyl terephthalate (DMT) with methanol as

1320-483: A form of carbon containing sheets and nanospheres, with a very high surface area. The process involves holding a mixture of PET, water, nitric acid , and ethanol at a high temperature and pressure for eight hours, followed by centrifugation and drying. Significant investments were announced in 2021 and 2022 for chemical recycling of PET by glycolysis, methanolysis, and enzymatic recycling to recover monomers. Initially these will also use bottles as feedstock but it

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1440-621: A joint venture with Courtaulds . ICI also owned the Sunbeam motorcycle business, which had come with Nobel Industries, and continued to build motorcycles until 1937. During the Second World War , ICI was a major participant in Britain's war economy; its subsidiary ICI Nobel was involved in the production of munitions. The company was involved with the United Kingdom's nuclear weapons programme codenamed Tube Alloys . In

1560-666: A major chemicals firm in the early 20th century in America. Polymers and plastics such as polyethylene , polypropylene , polyvinyl chloride , polyethylene terephthalate , polystyrene and polycarbonate comprise about 80% of the industry's output worldwide. Chemicals are used in many different consumer goods, and are also used in many different sectors. This includes agriculture manufacturing, construction, and service industries. Major industrial customers include rubber and plastic products, textiles , apparel, petroleum refining, pulp and paper , and primary metals. Chemicals are nearly

1680-453: A multilayer structure is used. PET sandwiches an additional polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH) or polyamide (PA) layer to further reduce its oxygen permeability. Non-oriented PET sheet can be thermoformed to make packaging trays and blister packs . Crystallizable PET withstands freezing and oven baking temperatures. Both amorphous PET and BoPET are transparent to the naked eye. Color-conferring dyes can easily be formulated into PET sheet. PET

1800-474: A potential deal was ICI's British pension fund , which had a deficit of almost £700 million and future liabilities of more than £9 billion at the time. Regulatory issues in the UK and other markets where Dulux and Crown Paints brands each have significant market share were also a cause for concern for the boards of ICI and AkzoNobel. In the UK, any combined operation without divestments would have seen AkzoNobel have

1920-409: A severe bottleneck in production. Sulfuric acid began to be used as a more efficient agent as well as lime by the middle of the century, but it was the discovery of bleaching powder by Charles Tennant that spurred the creation of the first great chemical industrial enterprise. His powder was made by reacting chlorine with dry slaked lime and proved to be a cheap and successful product. He opened

2040-481: A significant amount of PET microparticles may be precipitated in sewage treatment plants. PET microfibers generated by apparel wear, washing or machine drying can become airborne, and be dispersed into fields, where they are ingested by livestock or plants and end up in the human food supply. SAPEA have declared that such particles 'do not pose a widespread risk'. PET is known to degrade when exposed to sunlight and oxygen. As of 2016, scarce information exists regarding

2160-630: A site separate from the production plant(s). The scale of chemical manufacturing tends to be organized from largest in volume ( petrochemicals and commodity chemicals ), to specialty chemicals , and the smallest, fine chemicals . The petrochemical and commodity chemical manufacturing units are on the whole single product continuous processing plants. Not all petrochemical or commodity chemical materials are made in one single location, but groups of related materials often are to induce industrial symbiosis as well as material, energy and utility efficiency and other economies of scale . Those chemicals made on

2280-569: A stabilizer and a bluing agent such as cobalt salt is added to mask any yellowing. In the dimethyl terephthalate (DMT) process, DMT and excess ethylene glycol (MEG) are transesterified in the melt at 150–200 °C with a basic catalyst . Methanol (CH 3 OH) is removed by distillation to drive the reaction forward. Excess MEG is distilled off at higher temperature with the aid of vacuum. The second transesterification step proceeds at 270–280 °C, with continuous distillation of MEG as well. The reactions can be summarized as follows: In

2400-471: A substantial degree, for example about 75% in Switzerland. The term rPET is commonly used to describe the recycled material, though it is also referred to as R-PET or post-consumer PET (POSTC-PET). The prime uses for recycled PET are polyester fiber, strapping, and non-food containers. Because of the recyclability of PET and the relative abundance of post-consumer waste in the form of bottles, PET

2520-579: A wide variety of solid, liquid, and gaseous materials. Most of these products serve to manufacture other items, although a smaller number go directly to consumers. Solvents , pesticides , lye , washing soda , and portland cement provide a few examples of products used by consumers. The industry includes manufacturers of inorganic - and organic -industrial chemicals, ceramic products, petrochemicals, agrochemicals, polymers and rubber (elastomers), oleochemicals (oils, fats, and waxes), explosives, fragrances and flavors. Examples of these products are shown in

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2640-427: Is isophthalic acid , replacing some of the 1,4-( para- ) linked terephthalate units. The 1,2-( ortho- ) or 1,3-( meta -) linkage produces an angle in the chain, which also disturbs crystallinity. Such copolymers are advantageous for certain molding applications, such as thermoforming , which is used for example to make tray or blister packaging from co-PET film, or amorphous PET sheet (A-PET/PETA) or PETG sheet. On

2760-481: Is a dimensionless measurement found by extrapolating the relative viscosity (measured in (dℓ/g)) to zero concentration. Shown below are the IV ranges for common applications: PET is often copolymerized with other diols or diacids to optimize the properties for particular applications. For example, cyclohexanedimethanol (CHDM) can be added to the polymer backbone in place of ethylene glycol . Since this building block

2880-423: Is a list of the top 25 chemical companies by chemical sales in 2015. (Note: Chemical sales represent only a portion of total sales for some companies.) Top chemical companies by chemical sales in 2015. [REDACTED] London , United Kingdom From the perspective of chemical engineers, the chemical industry involves the use of chemical processes such as chemical reactions and refining methods to produce

3000-440: Is also rapidly gaining market share as a carpet fiber. PET, like many plastics, is also an excellent candidate for thermal disposal ( incineration ), as it is composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with only trace amounts of catalyst elements (but no sulfur). In general, PET can either be chemically recycled into its original raw materials (PTA, DMT, and EG), destroying the polymer structure completely; mechanically recycled into

3120-442: Is also technically possible to make PTA from readily available bio-based furfural . There are two basic molding methods for PET bottles, one-step and two-step. In two-step molding, two separate machines are used. The first machine injection molds the preform, which resembles a test tube, with the bottle-cap threads already molded into place. The body of the tube is significantly thicker, as it will be inflated into its final shape in

3240-440: Is commonly recycled , and has the digit 1 (♳) as its resin identification code (RIC). The National Association for PET Container Resources (NAPCOR) defines PET as: "Polyethylene terephthalate items referenced are derived from terephthalic acid (or dimethyl terephthalate ) and mono ethylene glycol , wherein the sum of terephthalic acid (or dimethyl terephthalate) and mono ethylene glycol reacted constitutes at least 90 percent of

3360-686: Is expected that fibres will also be recycled this way in future. PET is also a desirable fuel for waste-to-energy plants , as it has a high calorific value which helps to reduce the use of primary resources for energy generation. At least one species of bacterium in the genus Nocardia can degrade PET with an esterase enzyme. Esterases are enzymes able to cleave the ester bond between two oxygens that links subunits of PET. The initial degradation of PET can also be achieved esterases expressed by Bacillus , as well as Nocardia . Japanese scientists have isolated another bacterium, Ideonella sakaiensis , that possesses two enzymes which can break down

3480-543: Is much larger (six additional carbon atoms) than the ethylene glycol unit it replaces, it does not fit in with the neighboring chains the way an ethylene glycol unit would. This interferes with crystallization and lowers the polymer's melting temperature. In general, such PET is known as PETG or PET-G (polyethylene terephthalate glycol-modified). It is a clear amorphous thermoplastic that can be injection-molded, sheet-extruded or extruded as filament for 3D printing . PETG can be colored during processing. Another common modifier

3600-657: Is one of the largest conglomerates in Bangladesh with a multinational heritage operating across the country. The company operates through three reporting divisions: Pharmaceuticals, Consumer Brands and Agribusiness. ICI maintained offices in Colombo importing and supplying chemicals for manufacturers in Ceylon. In 1964, following import restrictions that allowed only locally owned subsidiaries of multinational companies to gain import licenses, Chemical Industries (Colombo) Limited

3720-645: Is permeable to oxygen and carbon dioxide and this imposes shelf life limitations of contents packaged in PET. In the early 2000s, the global PET packaging market grew at a compound annual growth rate of 9% to €17 billion in 2006. Biaxially oriented PET (BOPET) film (including brands like "Mylar") can be aluminized by evaporating a thin film of metal onto it to reduce its permeability, and to make it reflective and opaque ( MPET ). These properties are useful in many applications, including flexible food packaging and thermal insulation (such as space blankets ). BOPET

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3840-405: Is produced largely from purified terephthalic acid (PTA), as well as to a lesser extent from (mono-)ethylene glycol (MEG) and dimethyl terephthalate (DMT). As of 2022, ethylene glycol is made from ethene found in natural gas , while terephthalic acid comes from p-xylene made from crude oil . Typically an antimony or titanium compound is used as a catalyst, a phosphite is added as

3960-990: Is quite important, because if nothing masks the aroma, even extremely low concentrations (10–20 parts per billion in the water) of acetaldehyde can produce an off-taste. Commentary published in Environmental Health Perspectives in April 2010 suggested that PET might yield endocrine disruptors under conditions of common use and recommended research on this topic. Proposed mechanisms include leaching of phthalates as well as leaching of antimony . An article published in Journal of Environmental Monitoring in April 2012 concludes that antimony concentration in deionized water stored in PET bottles stays within EU's acceptable limit even if stored briefly at temperatures up to 60 °C (140 °F), while bottled contents (water or soft drinks) may occasionally exceed

4080-412: Is still of concern. The Swiss Federal Office of Public Health investigated the amount of antimony migration, comparing waters bottled in PET and glass: The antimony concentrations of the water in PET bottles were higher, but still well below the allowed maximum concentration. The Swiss Federal Office of Public Health concluded that small amounts of antimony migrate from the PET into bottled water, but that

4200-491: Is strong and impact-resistant. PET is hygroscopic and absorbs water. About 60% crystallization is the upper limit for commercial products, with the exception of polyester fibers. Transparent products can be produced by rapidly cooling molten polymer below the glass transition temperature (T g ) to form a non-crystalline amorphous solid . Like glass, amorphous PET forms when its molecules are not given enough time to arrange themselves in an orderly, crystalline fashion as

4320-538: Is the reduction in space, product handling and energy, and far higher visual quality than can be achieved by the two-step system. PET is subject to degradation during processing. If the moisture level is too high, hydrolysis will reduce the molecular weight by chain scission , resulting in brittleness. If the residence time and/or melt temperature (temperature at melting) are too high, then thermal degradation or thermooxidative degradation will occur resulting in discoloration and reduced molecular weight, as well as

4440-445: Is used in the backsheet of photovoltaic modules . Most backsheets consist of a layer of BOPET laminated to a fluoropolymer or a layer of UV stabilized BOPET. PET is also used as a substrate in thin film solar cells. PET can be compounded with glass fibre and crystallization accelerators, to make thermoplastic resins. These can be injection moulded into parts such as housings, covers, electrical appliance components and elements of

4560-437: Is why BOPET film and bottles are both crystalline, to a degree, and transparent. PET has an affinity for hydrophobic flavors, and drinks sometimes need to be formulated with a higher flavor dosage, compared to those going into glass, to offset the flavor taken up by the container. While heavy gauge PET bottles returned for re-use, as in some EU countries, the propensity of PET to absorb flavors makes it necessary to conduct

4680-604: The French Academy of Sciences offered a prize of 2400 livres for a method to produce alkali from sea salt ( sodium chloride ). The Leblanc process was patented in 1791 by Nicolas Leblanc who then built a Leblanc plant at Saint-Denis . He was denied his prize money because of the French Revolution . In Britain, the Leblanc process became popular. William Losh built the first soda works in Britain at

4800-566: The Losh, Wilson and Bell works on the River Tyne in 1816, but it remained on a small scale due to large tariffs on salt production until 1824. When these tariffs were repealed, the British soda industry was able to rapidly expand. James Muspratt 's chemical works in Liverpool and Charles Tennant's complex near Glasgow became the largest chemical production centres anywhere. By the 1870s,

4920-559: The St Rollox Chemical Works , north of Glasgow , and production went from just 52 tons in 1799 to almost 10,000 tons just five years later. Soda ash was used since ancient times in the production of glass , textile , soap , and paper , and the source of the potash had traditionally been wood ashes in Western Europe . By the 18th century, this source was becoming uneconomical due to deforestation, and

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5040-408: The speciality chemicals businesses of Unilever in exchange for $ 8 billion. This step was part of a strategy to move away from cyclical bulk chemicals and to progress up the value chain to become a higher growth, higher margin business. Later that same year, it went on to buy Rutz & Huber , a Swiss paints business. Having taken on some £4 billion of debt to finance these acquisitions,

5160-568: The terephthalic acid process, MEG and PTA are esterified directly at moderate pressure (2.7–5.5 bar) and high temperature (220–260 °C). Water is eliminated in the reaction, and it is also continuously removed by distillation : Bio-PET is the bio-based counterpart of PET. Essentially in Bio-PET, the MEG is manufactured from ethylene derived from sugar cane ethanol . A better process based on oxidation of ethanol has been proposed, and it

5280-791: The $ 546 billion global specialty chemical market was 33% Paints, Coating and Surface Treatments, 27% Advanced Polymer, 14% Adhesives and Sealants, 13% additives, and 13% pigments and inks. Speciality chemicals are sold as effect or performance chemicals. Sometimes they are mixtures of formulations, unlike " fine chemicals ," which are almost always single-molecule products. Consumer products include direct product sales of chemicals such as soaps , detergents , and cosmetics . Typical growth rates are 0.8 to 1.0 times GDP. Consumers rarely come into contact with basic chemicals. Polymers and specialty chemicals are materials that they encounter everywhere daily. Examples are plastics, cleaning materials, cosmetics, paints & coatings, electronics, automobiles and

5400-710: The 1862 London International Exhibition, anticipated many of the modern aesthetic and utility uses of plastics. The industrial production of soap from vegetable oils was started by William Lever and his brother James in 1885 in Lancashire based on a modern chemical process invented by William Hough Watson that used glycerin and vegetable oils . By the 1920s, chemical firms consolidated into large conglomerates ; IG Farben in Germany, Rhône-Poulenc in France and Imperial Chemical Industries in Britain. Dupont became

5520-484: The 1940s and 1950s, the company established its pharmaceutical business and developed a number of key products, including Paludrine (1940s, an anti- malarial drug), halothane (1951, an inhalational anaesthetic agent), propofol (1977, an intravenous anaesthetic agent), Inderal (1965, a beta-blocker ), tamoxifen (1978, a frequently used drug for breast cancer), and PEEK (1979, a high performance thermoplastic ). ICI formed ICI Pharmaceuticals in 1957. During

5640-475: The 1950s, ICI developed a material as Crimplene , a thick polyester yarn that was used to make a fabric of the same name. The resulting cloth is heavy and wrinkle-resistant, and retains its shape well. The California-based fashion designer Edith Flagg was the first to import this fabric from Britain to the United States. During the first two years, ICI gave Flagg a large advertising budget to popularise

5760-623: The Beatrice Chemical Division; during the following year, it also bought Glidden Coatings & Resins, a leading paints business. By the early 1990s, plans were carried out to demerge the company, as a result of increasing competition and internal complexity that caused heavy retrenchment and slowing innovation. In 1991, ICI sold the agricultural and merchandising operations of BritAg and Scottish Agricultural Industries to Norsk Hydro . It also divested its soda ash products arm to Brunner Mond , ending an association with

5880-525: The British soda output of 200,000 tons annually exceeded that of all other nations in the world combined. These huge factories began to produce a greater diversity of chemicals as the Industrial Revolution matured. Originally, large quantities of alkaline waste were vented into the environment from the production of soda, provoking one of the first pieces of environmental legislation to be passed in 1863. This provided for close inspection of

6000-422: The EU limit after less than a year of storage at room temperature. Antimony (Sb) is a metalloid element that is used as a catalyst in the form of compounds such as antimony trioxide (Sb 2 O 3 ) or antimony triacetate in the production of PET. After manufacturing, a detectable amount of antimony can be found on the surface of the product. This residue can be removed with washing. Antimony also remains in

6120-531: The European Chemical industry saw its sales increase from 295 billion Euros to 539 billion Euros, a picture of constant growth. Despite this, the European industry's share of the world chemical market has fallen from 36% to 20%. This has resulted from the huge increase in production and sales in emerging markets like India and China. The data suggest that 95% of this impact is from China alone. In 2012

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6240-788: The Food and Drug Administration. Pesticides, also called "crop protection chemicals", are about 10% of this category and include herbicides , insecticides , and fungicides . Specialty chemicals are a category of relatively high-valued, rapidly growing chemicals with diverse end product markets. Typical growth rates are one to three times GDP with prices over a dollar per pound. They are generally characterized by their innovative aspects. Products are sold for what they can do rather than for what chemicals they contain. Products include electronic chemicals, industrial gases , adhesives and sealants as well as coatings, industrial and institutional cleaning chemicals, and catalysts. In 2012, excluding fine chemicals,

6360-458: The Leblanc method, and its use spread. In the same year, Ludwig Mond visited Solvay to acquire the rights to use his process, and he and John Brunner formed Brunner, Mond & Co. , and built a Solvay plant at Winnington , England. Mond was instrumental in making the Solvay process a commercial success. He made several refinements between 1873 and 1880 that removed byproducts that could inhibit

6480-401: The PET into smaller pieces digestible by the bacteria. A colony of I. sakaiensis can disintegrate a plastic film in about six weeks. French researchers report developing an improved PET hydrolase that can depolymerize (break apart) at least 90 percent of PET in 10 hours, breaking it down into individual monomers . Also, an enzyme based on a natural PET-ase was designed with the help of

6600-462: The Table below. Related industries include petroleum , glass , paint , ink , sealant , adhesive , pharmaceuticals and food processing . Chemical processes such as chemical reactions operate in chemical plants to form new substances in various types of reaction vessels. In many cases, the reactions take place in special corrosion-resistant equipment at elevated temperatures and pressures with

6720-505: The U.S. there are 170 major chemical companies. They operate internationally with more than 2,800 facilities outside the U.S. and 1,700 foreign subsidiaries or affiliates operating. The U.S. chemical output is $ 750 billion a year. The U.S. industry records large trade surpluses and employs more than a million people in the United States alone. The chemical industry is also the second largest consumer of energy in manufacturing and spends over $ 5 billion annually on pollution abatement. In Europe,

6840-414: The UK were found to contain up to 44.7 μg/L of antimony, well above the EU limits for tap water of 5 μg/L. Clothing sheds microfibres in use, during washing and machine drying. Plastic litter slowly forms small particles. Microplastics which are present on the bottom of the river or seabed can be ingested by small marine life, thus entering the food chain. As PET has a higher density than water,

6960-407: The birth of the heavy chemical industry (production of chemicals in large quantities for a variety of uses) coincided with the beginnings of the Industrial Revolution . One of the first chemicals to be produced in large amounts through industrial processes was sulfuric acid . In 1736 pharmacist Joshua Ward developed a process for its production that involved heating sulfur with saltpeter, allowing

7080-405: The brand 'Dacron'. As of 2022, there are many brands around the world, mostly Asian. Polyester fibres are used in fashion apparel often blended with cotton, as heat insulation layers in thermal wear, sportswear and workwear and automotive upholstery. Plastic bottles made from PET are widely used for soft drinks , both still and sparkling . For beverages that are degraded by oxygen, such as beer,

7200-440: The chemical, plastics, and rubber sectors are among the largest industrial sectors. Together they generate about 3.2 million jobs in more than 60,000 companies. Since 2000 the chemical sector alone has represented 2/3 of the entire manufacturing trade surplus of the EU. In 2012, the chemical sector accounted for 12% of the EU manufacturing industry's added value. Europe remains the world's biggest chemical trading region with 43% of

7320-489: The clustering and integration mentioned above, some 50% of the United Kingdom's petrochemical and commodity chemicals are produced by the Northeast of England Process Industry Cluster on Teesside . Specialty chemical and fine chemical manufacturing are mostly made in discrete batch processes. These manufacturers are often found in similar locations but in many cases, they are to be found in multi-sector business parks. In

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7440-415: The company de-merged its pharmaceutical bio-science businesses: pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals , specialities, seeds and biological products were all transferred into a new and independent company called Zeneca . Zeneca subsequently merged with Astra AB to form AstraZeneca . In 1994, Charles Miller Smith was appointed CEO of ICI, one of the few times that an external figure had been appointed to lead

7560-417: The company was incorporated on 24 January 1973 as ICI Bangladesh Manufacturers Limited and also as Public Limited Company. The company divested its investment in Bangladesh and was renamed as Advanced Chemical Industries Limited (ACI Limited) on 5 May 1992. The company sold its insect control, air care and toilet care brands to SC Johnson & Son in 2015. Currently Advanced Chemical Industries (ACI) Limited

7680-632: The company was soon compelled to sell off its commodity chemicals businesses: Having sold much of its historically profitable commodities businesses, and many of the new speciality businesses which it had failed to integrate, the company consisted mainly of the Dulux paints business, which quickly found itself the subject of a takeover by AkzoNobel. In June 2007, the Dutch firm AkzoNobel (owner of Crown Berger paints) bid £7.2 billion (€10.66 billion or $ 14.5 billion) for ICI. An area of concern about

7800-490: The company, but fell out of favour following an unsuccessful takeover bid of rival firm Courtaulds . Between 1968 and 1971, Peter Allen was chairman of ICI, during which time Viyella was purchased, the subsidiary Cleveland Potash Ltd was created, and profits dipped. Major moves in the 1970s included the acquisition of the American competitor Atlas Chemical Industries Inc. and the divestment of Imperial Metal Industries . By

7920-884: The consumer. Annually the American Chemistry Council tabulates the US production volume of the top 100 chemicals. In 2000, the aggregate production volume of the top 100 chemicals totaled 502 million tons, up from 397 million tons in 1990. Inorganic chemicals tend to be the largest volume but much smaller in dollar revenue due to their low prices. The top 11 of the 100 chemicals in 2000 were sulfuric acid (44 million tons), nitrogen (34), ethylene (28), oxygen (27), lime (22), ammonia (17), propylene (16), polyethylene (15), chlorine (13), phosphoric acid (13) and diammonium phosphates (12). The largest chemical producers today are global companies with international operations and plants in numerous countries. Below

8040-779: The data from the European Chemical Industry Council shows that five European countries account for 71% of the EU's chemicals sales. These are Germany, France, the United Kingdom, Italy and the Netherlands. The chemical industry has seen growth in China, India, Korea, the Middle East, South East Asia, Nigeria and Brazil. The growth is driven by changes in feedstock availability and price, labor and energy costs, differential rates of economic growth and environmental pressures. Just as companies emerge as

8160-546: The dollar output of the chemistry business) include differentiated chemical and biological substances, pharmaceuticals , diagnostics, animal health products , vitamins , and pesticides . While much smaller in volume than other chemical sectors, their products tend to have high prices - over ten dollars per pound - growth rates of 1.5 to 6 times GDP , and research and development spending at 15 to 25% of sales. Life science products are usually produced with high specifications and are closely scrutinized by government agencies such as

8280-502: The fabric across America. During 1960, Paul Chambers became the first chairman appointed from outside the company. Chambers employed the consultancy firm McKinsey to help with reorganising the company. Export sales doubled during his eight-year tenure export, however, Chambers' reputation was severely damaged by a failed takeover bid for Courtaulds in 1961–1962. On 1 August 1962, ICI's operations in Burma were nationalised following

8400-624: The factories and imposed heavy fines on those exceeding the limits on pollution. Methods were devised to make useful byproducts from the alkali. The Solvay process was developed by the Belgian industrial chemist Ernest Solvay in 1861. In 1864, Solvay and his brother Alfred constructed a plant in Charleroi Belgium. In 1874, they expanded into a larger plant in Nancy , France. The new process proved more economical and less polluting than

8520-516: The firefighting efforts. Six firefighters retired for medical reasons as a result of the fire. This incident was a major event in the history of the New Zealand Fire Service and subject to a formal investigation, led by future Chief Justice Sian Elias . The fire was a trigger for major reforms of the service; direct consequences included improved protective clothing for firefighters, a standard safety protocol for major incidents,

8640-413: The firm in what would have been the biggest takeover in British history. That same year, ICI sold its agricultural and merchandising operations of BritAg and Scottish Agricultural Industries to Norsk Hydro ; it sold its nylon business to DuPont one year later. In 1993, the firm also de-merged its pharmaceutical bio-science businesses as Zeneca . During 1997, ICI's Australian subsidiary, ICI Australia ,

8760-448: The firm, Miller-Smith having previously been a director at Unilever . Shortly afterwards, the company acquired a number of former Unilever businesses in an attempt to move away from its historical reliance on commodity chemicals. During 1995, ICI acquired the American paint companies Devoe Paints , Fuller-O'Brien Paints and Grow Group . In 1997, ICI acquired National Starch & Chemical, Quest International , Unichema, and Crosfield,

8880-415: The firm. Amid Callard's tenure, company profits almost doubled between 1972 and 1974 while ICI became Britain's largest exporter. In 1971, the company acquired Atlas Chemical Industries Inc., a major American competitor. In 1977, Imperial Metal Industries was divested as an independent quoted company. Between 1982 and 1987, the company was headed by the charismatic John Harvey-Jones . In 1985, ICI acquired

9000-433: The first synthetic perfumes. German industry quickly began to dominate the field of synthetic dyes. The three major firms BASF , Bayer , and Hoechst produced several hundred different dyes. By 1913, German industries produced almost 90% of the world's supply of dyestuffs and sold approximately 80% of their production abroad. In the United States, Herbert Henry Dow's use of electrochemistry to produce chemicals from brine

9120-430: The formation of acetaldehyde , and the formation "gel" or "fish-eye" formations through cross-linking . Mitigation measures include copolymerisation with other monomers like CHDM or isophthalic acid , which lower the melting point and thus the melt temperature of the resin, as well as the addition of polymer stabilisers such as phosphites . Acetaldehyde , which can form by degradation of PET after mishandling of

9240-504: The gradual formation acetaldehyde over the object's lifespan. This proceeds via a Type II Norrish reaction . When acetaldehyde is produced, some of it remains dissolved in the walls of a container and then diffuses into the product stored inside, altering the taste and aroma. This is not such a problem for non-consumables (such as shampoo), for fruit juices (which already contain acetaldehyde), or for strong-tasting drinks like soft drinks. For bottled water, however, low acetaldehyde content

9360-478: The health risk of the resulting low concentrations is negligible (1% of the " tolerable daily intake " determined by the WHO ). A later (2006) but more widely publicized study found similar amounts of antimony in water in PET bottles. The WHO has published a risk assessment for antimony in drinking water. Fruit juice concentrates (for which no guidelines are established), however, that were produced and bottled in PET in

9480-674: The ignition system. PET is stoichiometrically a mixture of carbon and H 2 O , and therefore has been used in an experiment involving laser-driven shock compression which created nanodiamonds and superionic water . This could be a possible way of producing nanodiamonds commercially. PET was patented in 1941 by John Rex Whinfield , James Tennant Dickson and their employer the Calico Printers' Association of Manchester , England. E. I. DuPont de Nemours in Delaware, United States, first produced Dacron (PET fiber) in 1950 and used

9600-528: The introduction of dedicated fireground safety officers, and changes to occupational health regulations. Leslie, Esther (2023). The Rise and Fall of Imperial Chemical Industries: Synthetics, Sensism and the Environment . London: Palgrave. ISBN 3031374312 Chemical industry Various professionals are involved in the chemical industry including chemical engineers, chemists and lab technicians. Although chemicals were made and used throughout history,

9720-688: The largest of scales are made in a few manufacturing locations around the world, for example in Texas and Louisiana along the Gulf Coast of the United States , on Teesside ( United Kingdom ), and in Rotterdam in the Netherlands . The large-scale manufacturing locations often have clusters of manufacturing units that share utilities and large-scale infrastructure such as power stations , port facilities , and road and rail terminals. To demonstrate

9840-697: The largest revenue segment and includes all categories of plastics and human-made fibers. The major markets for plastics are packaging , followed by home construction, containers, appliances, pipe, transportation, toys, and games. Principal raw materials for polymers are bulk petrochemicals like ethylene, propylene and benzene. Petrochemicals and intermediate chemicals are primarily made from liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), natural gas and crude oil fractions. Large volume products include ethylene , propylene , benzene , toluene , xylenes , methanol , vinyl chloride monomer (VCM), styrene , butadiene , and ethylene oxide . These basic or commodity chemicals are

9960-414: The late 1980s, ICI which had continued to acquire entities such as the Beatrice Chemical Division and Glidden Coatings & Resins, increasing competition and rising internal complexity were driving ICI towards major restructuring plans, including a demerger . Considerable changes at ICI came about during the 1990s, particularly in the aftermath of an unsuccessful acquisition attempt in 1991 by Hanson of

10080-439: The life-time of the synthetic polymers in the environment. While most thermoplastics can, in principle, be recycled, PET bottle recycling is more practical than many other plastic applications because of the high value of the resin and the almost exclusive use of PET for widely used water and carbonated soft drink bottling. PET bottles lend themselves well to recycling (see below). In many countries PET bottles are recycled to

10200-450: The main producers of the chemical industry, we can also look on a more global scale at how industrialized countries rank, with regard to the billions of dollars worth of production a country or region could export. Though the business of chemistry is worldwide in scope, the bulk of the world's $ 3.7 trillion chemical output is accounted for by only a handful of industrialized nations. The United States alone produced $ 689 billion, 18.6 percent of

10320-483: The manufacture of superphosphate of lime . Processes for the vulcanization of rubber were patented by Charles Goodyear in the United States and Thomas Hancock in England in the 1840s. The first synthetic dye was discovered by William Henry Perkin in London . He partly transformed aniline into a crude mixture which, when extracted with alcohol, produced a substance with an intense purple colour. He also developed

10440-604: The mass of monomer reacted to form the polymer, and must exhibit a melting peak temperature between 225 °C and 255 °C, as identified during the second thermal scan in procedure 10.1 in ASTM D3418, when heating the sample at a rate of 10 °C/minute." Depending on its processing and thermal history, polyethylene terephthalate may exist both as an amorphous (transparent) and as a semi-crystalline polymer . The semicrystalline material might appear transparent (particle size less than 500  nm ) or opaque and white (particle size up to

10560-443: The material itself and can, thus, migrate out into food and drinks. Exposing PET to boiling or microwaving can increase the levels of antimony significantly, possibly above US EPA maximum contamination levels. The drinking water limit assessed by WHO is 20 parts per billion (WHO, 2003), and the drinking water limit in the United States is 6 parts per billion. Although antimony trioxide is of low toxicity when taken orally, its presence

10680-441: The material, is a colorless, volatile substance with a fruity smell. Although it forms naturally in some fruit, it can cause an off-taste in bottled water. As well as high temperatures (PET decomposes above 300 °C or 570 °F) and long barrel residence times, high pressures and high extruder speeds (which cause shear raising the temperature), can also contribute to the production of acetaldehyde. Photo-oxidation can also cause

10800-606: The materials used in home construction. These specialty products are marketed by chemical companies to the downstream manufacturing industries as pesticides , specialty polymers , electronic chemicals, surfactants , construction chemicals, Industrial Cleaners, flavours and fragrances , specialty coatings, printing inks, water-soluble polymers, food additives , paper chemicals , oil field chemicals, plastic adhesives, adhesives and sealants , cosmetic chemicals , water management chemicals , catalysts , and textile chemicals. Chemical companies rarely supply these products directly to

10920-473: The melt is cooled. While at room temperature the molecules are frozen in place, if enough heat energy is put back into them afterward by heating the material above T g , they can begin to move again, allowing crystals to nucleate and grow. This procedure is known as solid-state crystallization. Amorphous PET also crystallizes and becomes opaque when exposed to solvents , such as chloroform or toluene . A more crystalline product can be produced by allowing

11040-416: The molten polymer to cool slowly. Rather than forming one large single crystal, this material has a number of spherulites (crystallized areas) each containing many small crystallites (grains). Light tends to scatter as it crosses the boundaries between crystallites and the amorphous regions between them, causing the resulting solid to be translucent. Orientation also renders polymers more transparent. This

11160-558: The new company produced chemicals , explosives, fertilisers , insecticides , dyestuffs , non-ferrous metals, and paints. In its first year, turnover was £27 million. During the 1920s and 1930s, the company played a key role in the development of new chemical products, including the dyestuff phthalocyanine (1929), the acrylic plastic Perspex (1932), Dulux paints (1932, co-developed with DuPont), polyethylene (1937), and polyethylene terephthalate fibre known as Terylene (1941). In 1940, ICI started British Nylon Spinners as

11280-619: The other hand, crystallization is important in other applications where mechanical and dimensional stability are important, such as seat belts. For PET bottles, the use of small amounts of isophthalic acid, CHDM, diethylene glycol (DEG) or other comonomers can be useful: if only small amounts of comonomers are used, crystallization is slowed but not prevented entirely. As a result, bottles are obtainable via stretch blow molding ("SBM"), which are both clear and crystalline enough to be an adequate barrier to aromas and even gases, such as carbon dioxide in carbonated beverages. Polyethylene terephthalate

11400-437: The product line. The late 19th century saw an explosion in both the quantity of production and the variety of chemicals that were manufactured. Large chemical industries arose in Germany and later in the United States. Production of artificial manufactured fertilizer for agriculture was pioneered by Sir John Lawes at his purpose-built Rothamsted Research facility. In the 1840s he established large works near London for

11520-578: The product will meet required specifications . More organizations within the industry are implementing chemical compliance software to maintain quality products and manufacturing standards. The products are packaged and delivered by many methods, including pipelines, tank-cars, and tank-trucks (for both solids and liquids), cylinders, drums, bottles, and boxes. Chemical companies often have a research-and-development laboratory for developing and testing products and processes. These facilities may include pilot plants and such research facilities may be located at

11640-691: The production of sodium carbonate in the process. The manufacture of chemical products from fossil fuels began at scale in the early 19th century. The coal tar and ammoniacal liquor residues of coal gas manufacture for gas lighting began to be processed in 1822 at the Bonnington Chemical Works in Edinburgh to make naphtha , pitch oil (later called creosote ), pitch , lampblack ( carbon black ) and sal ammoniac ( ammonium chloride ). Ammonium sulphate fertiliser, asphalt road surfacing , coke oil and coke were later added to

11760-403: The production of various chemicals, explosives, fertilisers , insecticides , dyestuffs , non-ferrous metals, and paints; the firm soon become involved in plastics and a variety of speciality products, including food ingredients, polymers , electronic materials, fragrances and flavourings. During the Second World War , ICI's subsidiary ICI Nobel produced munitions for Britain's war effort;

11880-400: The revenue output) make up the oldest of the chemical categories. Products include salt , chlorine , caustic soda , soda ash , acids (such as nitric acid , phosphoric acid , and sulfuric acid ), titanium dioxide , and hydrogen peroxide . Fertilizers are the smallest category (about 6 percent) and include phosphates , ammonia , and potash chemicals. Life sciences (about 30% of

12000-572: The second step using stretch blow molding . In the second step, the preforms are heated rapidly and then inflated against a two-part mold to form them into the final shape of the bottle. Preforms (uninflated bottles) are now also used as robust and unique containers themselves; besides novelty candy, some Red Cross chapters distribute them as part of the Vial of Life program to homeowners to store medical history for emergency responders. The two-step process lends itself to third party production remote from

12120-475: The starting materials used to manufacture many polymers and other more complex organic chemicals particularly those that are made for use in the specialty chemicals category. Other derivatives and basic industrials include synthetic rubber , surfactants , dyes and pigments , turpentine , resins , carbon black , explosives , and rubber products and contribute about 20 percent of the basic chemicals' external sales. Inorganic chemicals (about 12% of

12240-546: The sulfur to oxidize and combine with water. It was the first practical production of sulphuric acid on a large scale. John Roebuck and Samuel Garbett were the first to establish a large-scale factory in Prestonpans, Scotland , in 1749, which used leaden condensing chambers for the manufacture of sulfuric acid. In the early 18th century, cloth was bleached by treating it with stale urine or sour milk and exposing it to sunlight for long periods of time, which created

12360-487: The total world chemical output in 2008. Polyethylene terephthalate Polyethylene terephthalate (or poly(ethylene terephthalate) , PET , PETE , or the obsolete PETP or PET-P ), is the most common thermoplastic polymer resin of the polyester family and is used in fibres for clothing, containers for liquids and foods, and thermoforming for manufacturing, and in combination with glass fibre for engineering resins . In 2016, annual production of PET

12480-399: The trade that had existed since the company's inception, one that had been inherited from the original Brunner, Mond & Co. Ltd. During mid 1991, ICI was subject to an attempted acquisition Hanson ; by this point, ICI was commonly being viewed by investors as having been in decline and thus its valuation was depressed, making it more vulnerable to such takeover attempt. Hanson had acquired

12600-792: The trademark Mylar (boPET film) in June 1951 and received registration of it in 1952. It is still the best-known name used for polyester film. The current owner of the trademark is DuPont Teijin Films. In the Soviet Union, PET was first manufactured in the laboratories of the Institute of High-Molecular Compounds of the USSR Academy of Sciences in 1949, and its name "Lavsan" is an acronym thereof ( ла боратории Института в ысокомолекулярных с оединений А кадемии н аук СССР). The PET bottle

12720-458: The use of catalysts . The products of these reactions are separated using a variety of techniques including distillation especially fractional distillation , precipitation , crystallization , adsorption , filtration , sublimation , and drying . The processes and products or products are usually tested during and after manufacture by dedicated instruments and on-site quality control laboratories to ensure safe operation and to assure that

12840-472: The user site. The preforms can be transported and stored by the thousand in a much smaller space than would finished containers, for the second stage to be carried out on the user site on a 'just in time' basis. In one-step machines, the entire process from raw material to finished container is conducted within one machine, making it especially suitable for molding non-standard shapes (custom molding), including jars, flat oval, flask shapes, etc. Its greatest merit

12960-477: The value of £6.70 per one nominal ICI share. The adhesives business of ICI was transferred to Henkel as a result of the deal, while AkzoNobel agreed to sell its Crown Paints subsidiary to satisfy the concerns of the European Commissioner for Competition . The areas of concern regarding ICI's British pension scheme were addressed by ICI and AkzoNobel. ICI operated a number of chemical sites around

13080-469: The wholly owned subsidiary Cleveland Potash Ltd , for the construction of Boulby Mine in Redcar and Cleveland, North Yorkshire. The first shaft was dug in 1968, with full production from 1976. ICI jointly owned the mine with Anglo American, and then with De Beers, before complete ownership was transferred to Israel Chemicals Ltd in 2002. Between 1971 and 1975, Jack Callard held the position of chairman at

13200-399: The wider company was also involved with Britain's nuclear weapons programme codenamed Tube Alloys . Throughout the 1940s and 1950s, ICI greatly expanded its activities in the pharmaceutic sector; cumulating in the formation of a dedicated subsidiary, ICI Pharmaceuticals , in 1957. During 1960, ICI's first outsider to serve as chairman, Paul Chambers , was appointed. Chambers reorganised

13320-547: The wine industry in the provinces of Mendoza and San Juan. This operation held 10% world market share for tartaric acid. It was sold in 2008 and currently operates as Derivados Vínicos S.A. (DERVINSA). The subsidiary ICI Australia Ltd established the Dry Creek Saltfields at Dry Creek north of Adelaide , South Australia , in 1940, with an associated soda ash plant at nearby Osborne . In 1989, these operations were sold to Penrice Soda Products . An ICI plant

13440-430: The world's exports and 37% of the world's imports, although the latest data shows that Asia is catching up with 34% of the exports and 37% of imports. Even so, Europe still has a trading surplus with all regions of the world except Japan and China where in 2011 there was a chemical trade balance. Europe's trade surplus with the rest of the world today amounts to 41.7 billion Euros. Over the 20 years between 1991 and 2011,

13560-725: The world. In the UK, the main plants were as follows: An ICI subsidiary called Duperial operated in Argentine from 1928 to 1995, when it was renamed ICI. Established in the city of San Lorenzo, Santa Fe , it operates an integrated production site with commercial offices in Buenos Aires . Since 2009 it has made sulphuric acid with ISO certification under the company name Akzo Nobel Functional Chemicals S.A. It also had an operation at Palmira, Mendoza , for its Wine Chemicals Division, that manufactured tartaric acid , wine alcohol and grapeseed oil from natural raw material coming from

13680-547: Was 56 million tons. The biggest application is in fibres (in excess of 60%), with bottle production accounting for about 30% of global demand. In the context of textile applications, PET is referred to by its common name, polyester , whereas the acronym PET is generally used in relation to packaging. Polyester makes up about 18% of world polymer production and is the fourth-most-produced polymer after polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). PET consists of repeating (C 10 H 8 O 4 ) units. PET

13800-440: Was a commercial success that helped to promote the country's chemical industry. The petrochemical industry can be traced back to the oil works of Scottish chemist James Young , and Canadian Abraham Pineo Gesner . The first plastic was invented by Alexander Parkes , an English metallurgist . In 1856, he patented Parkesine , a celluloid based on nitrocellulose treated with a variety of solvents. This material, exhibited at

13920-529: Was absorbed into ICI's existing polyester operation, ICI Fibres. The acquisition included BNS production plants in Pontypool , Gloucester and Doncaster , together with research and development in Pontypool. Early pesticide development under ICI Plant Protection Division, with its plant at Yalding , Kent, research station at Jealott's Hill and HQ at Fernhurst Research Station included paraquat (1962,

14040-657: Was built at Botany Bay in New South Wales in the 1940s and was part of the Orica demerger in 1997. This plant once manufactured paints, plastics and industrial chemicals such as solvents . It had been detirmined to be the source of the Botany Bay Groundwater Plume contamination of a local aquifer . In 1968 a subsidiary of Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) was established in then- East Pakistan . After Bangladesh gained independence in 1971,

14160-745: Was formed as an ICI subsidiary with 49% ICI ownership and remaining held public. The subsidiary ICI New Zealand provided substantial quantities of chemical products – including swimming pool chemicals, commercial healthcare products, herbicides and pesticides for use within New Zealand and the neighbouring Pacific Islands . A fire at the ICI New Zealand store in Mount Wellington , Auckland , on 21 December 1984, killed an ICI employee and caused major health concerns. Over 200 firefighters were exposed to toxic smoke and effluents during

14280-551: Was invented in 1973 by Nathaniel Wyeth and patented by DuPont. PET in its most stable state is a colorless, semi-crystalline resin . However it is intrinsically slow to crystallize compared to other semicrystalline polymers . Depending on processing conditions it can be formed into either non-crystalline ( amorphous ) or crystalline articles. Its amenability to drawing in manufacturing makes PET useful in fibre and film applications. Like most aromatic polymers , it has better barrier properties than aliphatic polymers . It

14400-782: Was sold in exchange for £1 billion. During 2008, ICI was acquired by AkzoNobel for £8 billion; shortly thereafter, portions of ICI were sold off to Henkel while its remaining operations were integrated within AkzoNodel's existing organisation. The company was founded in December 1926 from the merger of four companies: Brunner Mond , Nobel Explosives , the United Alkali Company , and British Dyestuffs Corporation . ICI established its head office at Millbank in London in 1928. Competing with DuPont and IG Farben ,

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