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101-470: The NHM Vienna is one of the largest museums and non-university research institutions in Austria and an important center of excellence for all matters relating to natural sciences . The museum's 39 exhibition rooms cover 8,460 square meters and present more than 100,000 objects. It is home to 30 million objects available to more than 60 scientists and numerous guest researchers who carry out basic research in

202-504: A break from the past by rejecting Aristotle and his medieval followers outright, calling their approach to natural philosophy superficial. Karl von Scherzer Karl Ritter von Scherzer (sometimes written Carl ; 1 May 1821 in Vienna – 19 February 1903 in Görz ) was an Austrian explorer , diplomat and natural scientist . He began his working life as a printer. After inheriting

303-546: A career in planetary science undergo graduate-level studies in one of the Earth sciences, astronomy, astrophysics, geophysics, or physics. They then focus their research within the discipline of planetary science. Major conferences are held annually, and numerous peer reviewed journals cater to the diverse research interests in planetary science. Some planetary scientists are employed by private research centers and frequently engage in collaborative research initiatives. Constituting

404-462: A fortune, Scherzer was able to travel extensively. He took an active part in the 1848 revolution and was exiled to Italy in 1850. Here Scherzer became friends with German explorer and naturalist Moritz Wagner ; together the men travelled through North and Central America and the West Indies (1852–1855). After returning to Vienna, Scherzer, with the support of Archduke Maximilian , became

505-484: A key part of most scientific discourse. Such integrative fields, for example, include nanoscience , astrobiology , and complex system informatics . Materials science is a relatively new, interdisciplinary field that deals with the study of matter and its properties and the discovery and design of new materials. Originally developed through the field of metallurgy , the study of the properties of materials and solids has now expanded into all materials. The field covers

606-447: A laboratory, using a series of (often well-tested) techniques for manipulating materials, as well as an understanding of the underlying processes. Chemistry is often called " the central science " because of its role in connecting the other natural sciences. Early experiments in chemistry had their roots in the system of alchemy , a set of beliefs combining mysticism with physical experiments. The science of chemistry began to develop with

707-423: A level equal with theology and the debate of religious constructs in a scientific context, showed the persistence with which Catholic leaders resisted the development of natural philosophy even from a theological perspective. Aquinas and Albertus Magnus , another Catholic theologian of the era, sought to distance theology from science in their works. "I don't see what one's interpretation of Aristotle has to do with

808-400: A matter not only for their existence but also for their definition." There was broad agreement among scholars in medieval times that natural science was about bodies in motion. However, there was division about including fields such as medicine, music, and perspective. Philosophers pondered questions including the existence of a vacuum, whether motion could produce heat, the colors of rainbows,

909-403: A member of a scientific expedition traveling via the frigate Novara around the world. From that expedition he brought back enough coca leaves that Albert Niemann subsequently isolated cocaine . After returning in 1859, Scherzer was appointed as a councillor of the board of trade, held an office in the bureau of foreign relations, and was tasked with compiling the commercial statistics of

1010-744: A methodical way. Still, philosophical perspectives, conjectures , and presuppositions , often overlooked, remain necessary in natural science. Systematic data collection, including discovery science , succeeded natural history , which emerged in the 16th century by describing and classifying plants, animals, minerals, and so on. Today, "natural history" suggests observational descriptions aimed at popular audiences. Philosophers of science have suggested several criteria, including Karl Popper 's controversial falsifiability criterion, to help them differentiate scientific endeavors from non-scientific ones. Validity , accuracy , and quality control , such as peer review and reproducibility of findings, are amongst

1111-516: A much larger project – an Imperial Forum – which was never realized in full. Work on the Natural History Museum lasted from 1871 until 1881. On August 10, 1889, Emperor Franz Joseph himself officially opened the museum. Its façade, designed by Gottfried Semper, shows figures and statues representing progress in the field of natural sciences and the power of nature . Below the dome, the imperial dedication in golden letters reads: "To

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1212-440: A red cloth, holds an hourglass (presumably an allusion to Chronos , the god of time). In 39 display halls with an area of 8,700 m the collections give an overview of the diversity of life on Earth . The order of the halls is based on the classification values of the 19th century: humans as the " apex of creation" were originally presented in a large part of the mezzanine with anthropology , ethnology , and prehistory . On

1313-480: A separate field in its own right, most modern workers in the field agree that it has matured to a state that it has its own paradigms and practices. Planetary science or planetology, is the scientific study of planets, which include terrestrial planets like the Earth, and other types of planets, such as gas giants and ice giants . Planetary science also concerns other celestial bodies, such as dwarf planets moons , asteroids , and comets . This largely includes

1414-400: A significant role in the other natural sciences, as represented by astrophysics , geophysics , chemical physics and biophysics . Likewise chemistry is represented by such fields as biochemistry , physical chemistry , geochemistry and astrochemistry . A particular example of a scientific discipline that draws upon multiple natural sciences is environmental science . This field studies

1515-476: A significant role in the world economy. Physics embodies the study of the fundamental constituents of the universe , the forces and interactions they exert on one another, and the results produced by these interactions. Physics is generally regarded as foundational because all other natural sciences use and obey the field's principles and laws. Physics relies heavily on mathematics as the logical framework for formulating and quantifying principles. The study of

1616-410: A step closer to direct inquiry about cause and effect in nature between 600 and 400 BC. However, an element of magic and mythology remained. Natural phenomena such as earthquakes and eclipses were explained increasingly in the context of nature itself instead of being attributed to angry gods. Thales of Miletus , an early philosopher who lived from 625 to 546 BC, explained earthquakes by theorizing that

1717-714: A systematic way and new objects are added each year. Special temporary exhibitions may be presented as well in individual halls. The first four halls show the systematic mineral exhibit. Hall I contains large mineral samples (in a glass cabinet in the middle of the room), a collection of building materials (samples) and the first part of the systematic mineral exhibit. Hall II continues with sulphides , halogenides , oxides , hydroxides , nitrates , iodates and carbonates ), in Hall III there are carbonates, borates , sulfates , chromates , phosphates , arsenates and vanadates . Phosphates, arsenates and silicates, gemstones and

1818-741: A treatise by the earlier Persian scholar Al-Farabi called On the Sciences into Latin, calling the study of the mechanics of nature Scientia naturalis , or natural science. Gundissalinus also proposed his classification of the natural sciences in his 1150 work On the Division of Philosophy . This was the first detailed classification of the sciences based on Greek and Arab philosophy to reach Western Europe. Gundissalinus defined natural science as "the science considering only things unabstracted and with motion," as opposed to mathematics and sciences that rely on mathematics. Following Al-Farabi, he separated

1919-568: A wide range of topics related to human sciences , earth sciences , and life sciences . The Index Herbariorum code assigned to this museum is W and it is used when citing housed herbarium specimens. The earliest collections of the Natural History Museum Vienna date back more than 250 years. It was the Holy Roman Emperor Francis I , Maria Theresa ’s husband, who in 1750 purchased what

2020-580: Is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena. Objects of interest include planets, moons, stars, nebulae, galaxies, and comets. Astronomy is the study of everything in the universe beyond Earth's atmosphere, including objects we can see with our naked eyes. It is one of the oldest sciences. Astronomers of early civilizations performed methodical observations of the night sky, and astronomical artifacts have been found from much earlier periods. There are two types of astronomy: observational astronomy and theoretical astronomy. Observational astronomy

2121-420: Is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth , including geology , geography , geophysics , geochemistry , climatology , glaciology , hydrology , meteorology , and oceanography . Although mining and precious stones have been human interests throughout the history of civilization, the development of the related sciences of economic geology and mineralogy did not occur until

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2222-399: Is concerned with the characteristics, classification and behaviors of organisms , as well as how species were formed and their interactions with each other and the environment . The biological fields of botany , zoology , and medicine date back to early periods of civilization, while microbiology was introduced in the 17th century with the invention of the microscope. However, it

2323-534: Is crowned with a 65 m dome bearing a huge bronze statue of the Greek sun god Helios , a symbol of the life-giving element without which nature would not exist. The upper and middle levels ( mezzanine and first floor) of the intricately decorated facade display allegorical and mythological figures representing key elements of the universe and its discovery and understanding by man. On the balustrade visitors can see sculptures of researchers and scientists who represent

2424-533: Is focused on acquiring and analyzing data, mainly using basic principles of physics. In contrast, Theoretical astronomy is oriented towards developing computer or analytical models to describe astronomical objects and phenomena. This discipline is the science of celestial objects and phenomena that originate outside the Earth's atmosphere . It is concerned with the evolution, physics , chemistry , meteorology , geology , and motion of celestial objects, as well as

2525-519: Is sub-categorized into more specialized cross-disciplines, such as physical oceanography and marine biology . As the marine ecosystem is vast and diverse, marine biology is further divided into many subfields, including specializations in particular species . There is also a subset of cross-disciplinary fields with strong currents that run counter to specialization by the nature of the problems they address. Put another way: In some fields of integrative application, specialists in more than one field are

2626-576: The Ayurvedic tradition saw health and illness as a combination of three humors: wind , bile and phlegm . A healthy life resulted from a balance among these humors. In Ayurvedic thought, the body consisted of five elements: earth, water, fire, wind, and space. Ayurvedic surgeons performed complex surgeries and developed a detailed understanding of human anatomy. Pre-Socratic philosophers in Ancient Greek culture brought natural philosophy

2727-693: The Mesopotamian and Ancient Egyptian cultures, which produced the first known written evidence of natural philosophy , the precursor of natural science. While the writings show an interest in astronomy, mathematics, and other aspects of the physical world, the ultimate aim of inquiry about nature's workings was, in all cases, religious or mythological, not scientific. A tradition of scientific inquiry also emerged in Ancient China , where Taoist alchemists and philosophers experimented with elixirs to extend life and cure ailments. They focused on

2828-580: The Schönbrunn zoo in 1752 and the botanical garden in 1753, also organized the first scientific overseas expedition. In 1755 he commissioned Nicolaus Joseph Jacquin to travel to the Caribbean , the Antilles , Venezuela , and Colombia . Jacquin returned from this expedition with many live animals and plants for the zoo and the botanical garden, as well as 67 cases full of other items of interest from

2929-707: The Solar System , but recently has started to expand to exoplanets , particularly terrestrial exoplanets . It explores various objects, spanning from micrometeoroids to gas giants, to establish their composition, movements, genesis, interrelation, and past. Planetary science is an interdisciplinary domain, having originated from astronomy and Earth science , and currently encompassing a multitude of areas, such as planetary geology , cosmochemistry , atmospheric science , physics , oceanography , hydrology , theoretical planetology , glaciology , and exoplanetology. Related fields encompass space physics , which delves into

3030-501: The archduchess on her journey to Rio de Janeiro . Those taking part in the expedition, carried out under the scientific direction of the head of the history collection, included the researchers Johann Mikan and Johann Emmanuel, as well as the taxidermist Johann Natterer and the landscape painter Thomas Ender . The expedition lasted 18 years and aimed to collect all plants, animals, and minerals of scientific interest and bring them back to Vienna. The most ambitious Austrian expedition

3131-522: The cell or organic molecule . Modern biology is divided into subdisciplines by the type of organism and by the scale being studied. Molecular biology is the study of the fundamental chemistry of life, while cellular biology is the examination of the cell; the basic building block of all life. At a higher level, anatomy and physiology look at the internal structures, and their functions, of an organism, while ecology looks at how various organisms interrelate. Earth science (also known as geoscience)

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3232-420: The formal sciences , such as mathematics and logic , converting information about nature into measurements that can be explained as clear statements of the " laws of nature ". Modern natural science succeeded more classical approaches to natural philosophy . Galileo , Kepler , Descartes , Bacon , and Newton debated the benefits of using approaches which were more mathematical and more experimental in

3333-624: The formation and development of the universe . Astronomy includes examining, studying, and modeling stars, planets, and comets. Most of the information used by astronomers is gathered by remote observation. However, some laboratory reproduction of celestial phenomena has been performed (such as the molecular chemistry of the interstellar medium ). There is considerable overlap with physics and in some areas of earth science . There are also interdisciplinary fields such as astrophysics , planetary sciences , and cosmology , along with allied disciplines such as space physics and astrochemistry . While

3434-522: The yin and yang , or contrasting elements in nature; the yin was associated with femininity and coldness, while yang was associated with masculinity and warmth. The five phases – fire, earth, metal, wood, and water – described a cycle of transformations in nature. The water turned into wood, which turned into the fire when it burned. The ashes left by fire were earth. Using these principles, Chinese philosophers and doctors explored human anatomy, characterizing organs as predominantly yin or yang, and understood

3535-454: The 16th century, and he is considered to be the father of biology for his pioneering work in that science . He also presented philosophies about physics, nature, and astronomy using inductive reasoning in his works Physics and Meteorology . While Aristotle considered natural philosophy more seriously than his predecessors, he approached it as a theoretical branch of science. Still, inspired by his work, Ancient Roman philosophers of

3636-549: The 18th century. The study of the earth, particularly paleontology , blossomed in the 19th century. The growth of other disciplines, such as geophysics , in the 20th century led to the development of the theory of plate tectonics in the 1960s, which has had a similar effect on the Earth sciences as the theory of evolution had on biology. Earth sciences today are closely linked to petroleum and mineral resources , climate research, and to environmental assessment and remediation . Although sometimes considered in conjunction with

3737-502: The 19th century was the Austro-Hungarian North Pole expedition (1872–1874) led by Julius von Payer and Carl Weyprecht . On August 30, 1873, the participants on board discovered Franz Joseph Land . With the main ship, the 220-ton Admiral Tegetthoff, at risk of breaking up under the pressure of the ice, the members of the expedition were forced to leave the ship. On May 20, 1874, they began their long retreat to

3838-566: The Middle Ages brought with it further advances in natural philosophy. European inventions such as the horseshoe , horse collar and crop rotation allowed for rapid population growth, eventually giving way to urbanization and the foundation of schools connected to monasteries and cathedrals in modern-day France and England . Aided by the schools, an approach to Christian theology developed that sought to answer questions about nature and other subjects using logic. This approach, however,

3939-671: The Museum. From 1876, Superintendents: From 1919, Chairmen of the Museum Council: From 1924, First Directors: From 1994: Directors General From June 2020: The Natural History Museum and the Museum of Fine Arts were commissioned by Emperor Franz Joseph I (1830–1916) and designed by the architects Gottfried Semper (1803–1879) and Carl Hasenauer (1833–1894). The two museums have identical exteriors and face each other. They were originally designed to be part of

4040-544: The Natural History Museum Vienna is a unique artistic presentation. The exhibitions on mezzanine level: Halls 1–4: Mineralogy & Petrography Hall 5: Meteorites Halls 6–10: Paleontology Halls 11–13: Prehistory Halls 14–15: Anthropology The large public displays in halls I–V show aesthetic and scientifically valuable minerals , ores , gemstones , rocks (including decorative and building stones) as well as meteorites and impactites (including tektites ) collected over more than 500 years. All objects are arranged in

4141-479: The West. Christopher Columbus 's discovery of a new world changed perceptions about the physical makeup of the world, while observations by Copernicus , Tyco Brahe and Galileo brought a more accurate picture of the solar system as heliocentric and proved many of Aristotle's theories about the heavenly bodies false. Several 17th-century philosophers, including Thomas Hobbes , John Locke and Francis Bacon , made

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4242-542: The Wissenschaftlicher Club (Science Club) and founder of the Mineralogy collection of the department. By 1886, Rudolf Köchlin became scientific assistant and, later, maintained an inventory of the collection and even kept a diary. Hochstetter died on July 18, 1884, and did not live to see the completion of the building for whose founding he had been so actively engaged. His successor as superintendent

4343-542: The chemistry, physics, and engineering applications of materials, including metals, ceramics, artificial polymers, and many others. The field's core deals with relating the structure of materials with their properties. Materials science is at the forefront of research in science and engineering. It is an essential part of forensic engineering (the investigation of materials, products, structures, or components that fail or do not operate or function as intended, causing personal injury or damage to property) and failure analysis ,

4444-405: The collection it contained were popular: from August 13, 1889, to the end of December 1889 the museum counted 175,000 visitors, of which most (134,000) visited the museum during the 19 Sundays over this time span alone. During 1889, the "Mineralogisch-Petrographische Abteilung" (Department of Mineralogy-Petrography) was under the directorship of Aristides Brezina . In 1889, the museum purchased

4545-622: The collection of Friedrich Freiherr von Distler , acquired in 1932). Kommerzialrat Isidor Weinberger was a patron at the start of the 20th century. He was one of the sponsors of mineralogy, and donated the large specimen of amethyst sample from the Serra do Mar in Brazil , weighing about 450 kilograms (990 lb). Particularly valuable are the more than 500 meteorite thin sections, formerly owned by Aristides Brezina, custodian and former director, which Weinberger had purchased and later presented to

4646-524: The collection of William Earl Hidden from Newark, New Jersey ( USA ) for a sum of ƒ 15,000 with the aid of an advance from the "All-highest Family Fund" of the Imperial Household. This loan had to be repaid in a series of complicated transactions, effected within a timeframe of ten years (i.e. through the sale of mineral doublets, meteorite sections, and precious-metal redemptions). These redemptions also included samples of silver and gold from

4747-552: The collections. To this end he had minerals from many different regions sent to Vienna, where they were added to the collection. Under the leadership of Ignaz von Born the cabinet of natural history quickly developed into a center of practical research. To mark the marriage of his daughter Leopoldine to the heir to the Portuguese throne, Dom Pedro , Emperor Francis II sponsored a scientific expedition to her new home country of Brazil in 1817. Two Austrian frigates accompanied

4848-512: The conclusion that something is impossible. While an impossibility assertion in natural science can never be proved, it could be refuted by the observation of a single counterexample. Such a counterexample would require that the assumptions underlying the theory that implied the impossibility be re-examined. This field encompasses a diverse set of disciplines that examine phenomena related to living organisms. The scale of study can range from sub-component biophysics up to complex ecologies . Biology

4949-561: The construction of the new Museum of Nature started in the fall of 1871, and construction was completed more than ten years later. On April 29, 1876, Emperor Franz Joseph I signed the document certifying the Natural History Court Museum, and Ferdinand von Hochstetter was appointed as the managing director of the museum. Hochstetter proposed a new organization for the museum and its collections. Four departments having far-reaching autonomy were created as successors to

5050-774: The continuing progress of human knowledge. These fundamental ideas are also the basis for the sculptures and paintings in the Dome Hall and the grand staircase; the highlight here is Hans Canon 's ceiling fresco, The Circle of Life . The internal structure of the building is dictated by the systematic organization of the exhibition and the individual departments. The mezzanine covers inanimate nature (Department of Mineralogy , Halls 1–5), sediments and traces of life early in Earth's history (Department of Geology & Paleontology , Halls 6–10), early human history (Department of Prehistory , Halls 11–13) and human development (Department of Anthropology , Halls 14–15). The first floor presents

5151-494: The development of thermodynamics , and the quantum mechanical model of atomic and subatomic physics. The field of physics is vast and can include such diverse studies as quantum mechanics and theoretical physics , applied physics and optics . Modern physics is becoming increasingly specialized, where researchers tend to focus on a particular area rather than being "universalists" like Isaac Newton , Albert Einstein , and Lev Landau , who worked in multiple areas. Astronomy

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5252-495: The display halls, with display cases of dark, carved wood, are mostly originals from the opening days of the museum, from the plans of Ferdinand von Hochstetter . This historical presentation of the collections is almost unique in the world today. The mezzanine is decorated with more than 100 oil paintings, illustrations which complement the objects displayed in the halls. Some halls are additionally decorated with figures. This interplay between decoration and display objects gives

5353-575: The early 13th century, although the practice was frowned upon by the Catholic church. A 1210 decree from the Synod of Paris ordered that "no lectures are to be held in Paris either publicly or privately using Aristotle's books on natural philosophy or the commentaries, and we forbid all this under pain of ex-communication." In the late Middle Ages, Spanish philosopher Dominicus Gundissalinus translated

5454-501: The early 1st century AD, including Lucretius , Seneca and Pliny the Elder , wrote treatises that dealt with the rules of the natural world in varying degrees of depth. Many Ancient Roman Neoplatonists of the 3rd to the 6th centuries also adapted Aristotle's teachings on the physical world to a philosophy that emphasized spiritualism. Early medieval philosophers including Macrobius , Calcidius and Martianus Capella also examined

5555-447: The earth sciences, due to the independent development of its concepts, techniques, and practices and also the fact of it having a wide range of sub-disciplines under its wing, atmospheric science is also considered a separate branch of natural science. This field studies the characteristics of different layers of the atmosphere from ground level to the edge of the space. The timescale of the study also varies from day to century. Sometimes,

5656-407: The encouragement of this interest was a concern of the young sovereign, Franz Josef I : The newly built museum was inscribed: "Dem Reiche der Natur und seiner Erforschung —Kaiser FRANZ JOSEF I" ("To the realm of nature and its exploration —Emperor FRANZ JOSEPH I"). The new Imperial-Royal Natural History Court Museum thus documented the benevolent sentiment of the Imperial Household. Excavations for

5757-400: The field also includes the study of climatic patterns on planets other than Earth. The serious study of oceans began in the early- to mid-20th century. As a field of natural science, it is relatively young, but stand-alone programs offer specializations in the subject. Though some controversies remain as to the categorization of the field under earth sciences, interdisciplinary sciences, or as

5858-446: The first floor the visitor was to be guided from the "most simple" through to the "most consummate evolutionary animals". For this reason, the apes , as representatives of the primates , are found at the end of the tour. This systematic concept of the collections has been preserved to the present even though today evolution is no longer seen as development toward perfection, but as development toward diversity . The furnishings of

5959-513: The former "Ambrasian Collection" of Archduke Ferdinand II , a loss and impairment to the collection. In the same year of 1889, several items from the former private collection of Crown Prince Rudolf , whose death was reported as suicide, were passed on to the department, although apparently this had been against his will: the Crown Prince had left his natural history collection to Viennese teaching institutions. In accordance with these terms,

6060-505: The geologic and paleontological collection and his mineral collection were to be passed to the "K.k. Hochschule für Bodenkultur" (Imperial-Royal University for Agriculture). Instead, the glass imitations of precious stones and some other mineralogical items were entrusted to the Imperial Natural History Court Museum. Koechlin became an assistant in 1892 and was promoted to assistant custodian in 1896. In

6161-404: The grand staircase depicts "The Cycle of Life." Hans Canon (1829–1885) had the freedom to choose his subject and painted a dramatic allegory of the rise and decline of humanity. In addition, humankind serving as the central theme of this painting further fulfills Hochstetter ’s concept. The cycle of growing and passing away in human existence is presented in a circular composition. It reflects

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6262-420: The huge diversity of the animal world ( Zoological Departments, Halls 22–39) as well as the fascinating realm of the Earth's smallest organisms ("Microtheater", Hall 21). The exhibits themselves are displayed in a systematic order according to how closely they are related to each other or their chronological position in the history of Planet Earth or human beings. The 100 square-metre ceiling painting above

6363-410: The idea of the fight for existence, which dominated scientific thought at that time. At the same time the animal world was brought into this cycle as well: on one side "mankind made the Earth its servant" (it catches a catfish with its trident); on the other side, however, nature wins the upper hand (a vulture guards its prey). Nevertheless, mankind stands in the center of these events: a man, wrapped in

6464-888: The impact of the Sun on the bodies in the Solar System, and astrobiology . Planetary science comprises interconnected observational and theoretical branches. Observational research entails a combination of space exploration , primarily through robotic spacecraft missions utilizing remote sensing, and comparative experimental work conducted in Earth-based laboratories. The theoretical aspect involves extensive mathematical modelling and computer simulation . Typically, planetary scientists are situated within astronomy and physics or Earth sciences departments in universities or research centers. However, there are also dedicated planetary science institutes worldwide. Generally, individuals pursuing

6565-436: The interactions of physical, chemical, geological, and biological components of the environment , with particular regard to the effect of human activities and the impact on biodiversity and sustainability . This science also draws upon expertise from other fields, such as economics, law, and social sciences. A comparable discipline is oceanography , as it draws upon a similar breadth of scientific disciplines. Oceanography

6666-556: The latter being the key to understanding, for example, the cause of various aviation accidents. Many of the most pressing scientific problems that are faced today are due to the limitations of the materials that are available, and, as a result, breakthroughs in this field are likely to have a significant impact on the future of technology. The basis of materials science involves studying the structure of materials and relating them to their properties . Understanding this structure-property correlation, material scientists can then go on to study

6767-454: The most respected criteria in today's global scientific community. In natural science, impossibility assertions come to be widely accepted as overwhelmingly probable rather than considered proven to the point of being unchallengeable. The basis for this strong acceptance is a combination of extensive evidence of something not occurring, combined with an underlying theory, very successful in making predictions, whose assumptions lead logically to

6868-413: The motion of the earth, whether elemental chemicals exist, and where in the atmosphere rain is formed. In the centuries up through the end of the Middle Ages, natural science was often mingled with philosophies about magic and the occult. Natural philosophy appeared in various forms, from treatises to encyclopedias to commentaries on Aristotle. The interaction between natural philosophy and Christianity

6969-557: The natural world. After the Emperor's death, Maria Theresa gave the natural science collection to the state and opened it up to the general public. Thus she created the first museum in line with the principles and visions of the Enlightenment . It was Maria Theresa who brought the mineralogist Ignaz von Born to Vienna. Born, who had developed a new method of extracting precious metals, was tasked with classifying and expanding

7070-564: The older Cabinets; the Imperial-Royal Mineralogical Court Cabinet was divided in an Imperial-Royal Mineralogical-Petrographical Department and an Imperial-Royal Geologic-Paleontologic Department. The petrologist and meteorite specialist Aristides Brezina became director of the former and was supported by scientific colleagues: Friedrich Berwerth , with Felix Karrer and Rudolf Koechlin providing voluntary unpaid services. Felix Karrer became Secretary of

7171-409: The origins of natural science as far back as pre-literate human societies, where understanding the natural world was necessary for survival. People observed and built up knowledge about the behavior of animals and the usefulness of plants as food and medicine, which was passed down from generation to generation. These primitive understandings gave way to more formalized inquiry around 3500 to 3000 BC in

7272-603: The physical world, largely from a cosmological and cosmographical perspective, putting forth theories on the arrangement of celestial bodies and the heavens, which were posited as being composed of aether . Aristotle's works on natural philosophy continued to be translated and studied amid the rise of the Byzantine Empire and Abbasid Caliphate . In the Byzantine Empire, John Philoponus , an Alexandrian Aristotelian commentator and Christian theologian,

7373-508: The physical world; Plato criticized pre-Socratic thinkers as materialists and anti-religionists. Aristotle , however, a student of Plato who lived from 384 to 322 BC, paid closer attention to the natural world in his philosophy. In his History of Animals , he described the inner workings of 110 species, including the stingray , catfish and bee . He investigated chick embryos by breaking open eggs and observing them at various stages of development. Aristotle's works were influential through

7474-569: The precious stones collection. The original rhinestone copy of the Florentine Diamond is kept in Hall IV. Natural science Natural science is one of the branches of science concerned with the description, understanding and prediction of natural phenomena , based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation . Mechanisms such as peer review and reproducibility of findings are used to try to ensure

7575-630: The principles of the universe has a long history and largely derives from direct observation and experimentation. The formulation of theories about the governing laws of the universe has been central to the study of physics from very early on, with philosophy gradually yielding to systematic, quantitative experimental testing and observation as the source of verification. Key historical developments in physics include Isaac Newton 's theory of universal gravitation and classical mechanics , an understanding of electricity and its relation to magnetism , Einstein 's theories of special and general relativity ,

7676-533: The realm of nature and its exploration". The historicism style of art and architecture was very popular in 19th century Austria . The Natural History Museum Vienna incorporates stylistic elements from many past periods, in particular the Renaissance . Work began on the building in 1871 and the facade was finished in 1881. It is around 170 meters long and 70 meters wide, comprising two courtyards that are each surrounded by working and exhibition rooms. The roof

7777-556: The relationship between the pulse, the heart, and the flow of blood in the body centuries before it became accepted in the West. Little evidence survives of how Ancient Indian cultures around the Indus River understood nature, but some of their perspectives may be reflected in the Vedas , a set of sacred Hindu texts. They reveal a conception of the universe as ever-expanding and constantly being recycled and reformed. Surgeons in

7878-426: The relative performance of a material in a particular application. The major determinants of the structure of a material and, thus, of its properties are its constituent chemical elements and how it has been processed into its final form. These characteristics, taken together and related through the laws of thermodynamics and kinetics , govern a material's microstructure and thus its properties. Some scholars trace

7979-551: The rock collection are exhibited in Hall IV. The collection of gems and precious stones can also be found in this hall. This collection is one of the most comprehensive and valuable of its kind to be found on the European continent. One cabinet contains significant specimens of jewelry material, whereby the raw material and the half-finished stones are placed alongside the finished cut and polished stones together with pieces of original jewelry. Two side cabinets contain larger samples of

8080-423: The same year, Friedrich Berwerth was put in charge of the department, taking over from Aristides Brezina, who retired on August 30. Voluntary, unpaid assistance, from 1896 to the end of the monarchy was provided by Felix Karrer, alternately by Anton Pelinka , Hermann Graber , Friedrich Wachter and Karl Hlawatsch . In one last transaction before the collapse of the monarchy, the museum managed to purchase, during

8181-504: The science that deals with bodies in motion. Roger Bacon , an English friar and philosopher, wrote that natural science dealt with "a principle of motion and rest, as in the parts of the elements of fire, air, earth, and water, and in all inanimate things made from them." These sciences also covered plants, animals and celestial bodies. Later in the 13th century, a Catholic priest and theologian Thomas Aquinas defined natural science as dealing with "mobile beings" and "things which depend on

8282-456: The sciences into eight parts, including: physics, cosmology, meteorology, minerals science, and plant and animal science. Later, philosophers made their own classifications of the natural sciences. Robert Kilwardby wrote On the Order of the Sciences in the 13th century that classed medicine as a mechanical science, along with agriculture, hunting, and theater, while defining natural science as

8383-475: The scientific study of matter at the atomic and molecular scale, chemistry deals primarily with collections of atoms, such as gases , molecules, crystals , and metals . The composition, statistical properties, transformations, and reactions of these materials are studied. Chemistry also involves understanding the properties and interactions of individual atoms and molecules for use in larger-scale applications. Most chemical processes can be studied directly in

8484-419: The south, transporting their equipment and provisions on sleds and boats. Despite many sacrifices and great danger, the scientists returned to Vienna with both their invaluable travel journals and observations of the landscape, as well as a number of natural history items of interest welded into metal cases. The Imperial Natural History Museum or Imperial-Royal Natural History Court Museum of Austria-Hungary

8585-415: The study of celestial features and phenomena can be traced back to antiquity, the scientific methodology of this field began to develop in the middle of the 17th century. A key factor was Galileo 's introduction of the telescope to examine the night sky in more detail. The mathematical treatment of astronomy began with Newton 's development of celestial mechanics and the laws of gravitation . However, it

8686-491: The teaching of the faith," he wrote in 1271. By the 16th and 17th centuries, natural philosophy evolved beyond commentary on Aristotle as more early Greek philosophy was uncovered and translated. The invention of the printing press in the 15th century, the invention of the microscope and telescope, and the Protestant Reformation fundamentally altered the social context in which scientific inquiry evolved in

8787-520: The time of the Abbasid Caliphate from the 9th century onward, when Muslim scholars expanded upon Greek and Indian natural philosophy. The words alcohol , algebra and zenith all have Arabic roots. Aristotle's works and other Greek natural philosophy did not reach the West until about the middle of the 12th century, when works were translated from Greek and Arabic into Latin . The development of European civilization later in

8888-421: The two-year journey, including the geologist Ferdinand von Hochstetter , ethnologist Karl von Scherzer and zoologist Georg Ritter von Frauenfeld . The entire journey was documented in hundreds of sketches and paintings by the landscape artist Josef Selleny. The scientists returned home with a vast haul of minerals, animals, plants and items of ethnological interest. The last significant research expedition of

8989-457: The validity of scientific advances. Natural science can be divided into two main branches: life science and physical science . Life science is alternatively known as biology , and physical science is subdivided into branches: physics , chemistry , earth science , and astronomy . These branches of natural science may be further divided into more specialized branches (also known as fields). As empirical sciences, natural sciences use tools from

9090-447: The work of Robert Boyle , the discoverer of gases , and Antoine Lavoisier , who developed the theory of the conservation of mass . The discovery of the chemical elements and atomic theory began to systematize this science, and researchers developed a fundamental understanding of states of matter , ions , chemical bonds and chemical reactions . The success of this science led to a complementary chemical industry that now plays

9191-457: The world floated on water and that water was the fundamental element in nature. In the 5th century BC, Leucippus was an early exponent of atomism , the idea that the world is made up of fundamental indivisible particles. Pythagoras applied Greek innovations in mathematics to astronomy and suggested that the earth was spherical . Later Socratic and Platonic thought focused on ethics, morals, and art and did not attempt an investigation of

9292-485: The years 1906–1907, the magnificent collection of Staatsrath Freiherr von Braun (totalling more than 2,500 items, doublets not included). There followed the far less important collections of August von Loehr and Rudolf von Görgey , although those were not entirely taken into inventory until after the Second World War, the delay being due to war and subsequent poor economic conditions (the same had happened to

9393-404: Was Franz Ritter von Hauer , a geologist and paleontologist . In the presence of the Emperor, the new "K.k. Naturhistorisches Hofmuseum" (Imperial-Royal Natural History Court Museum) was inaugurated on August 10, 1889. Initially, it was open to visitors four days per week—free on Thursdays, Saturdays and Sundays, on Tuesdays for an admission price of one florin . The museum building and

9494-469: Was at the time the world's largest collection of natural history objects from the Florentine scholar and scientist Jean de Baillou. This was the first step on the road to creating the Natural History Museum Vienna. Baillou's collection comprised 30,000 objects, including rare fossils , snails , mussels , and corals , as well as valuable minerals and precious stones . Emperor Francis, who founded

9595-721: Was carried out by the SMS Novara , a frigate which sailed the world between 1857 and 1859. The scientific responsibility for this expedition was shared by the Academy of Sciences and the Geography Society. The man behind the project was Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian , Commander in Chief of the Austrian Navy. Among the advisors was the naturalist and researcher Alexander von Humboldt . Many scientists took part in

9696-440: Was complex during this period; some early theologians, including Tatian and Eusebius , considered natural philosophy an outcropping of pagan Greek science and were suspicious of it. Although some later Christian philosophers, including Aquinas, came to see natural science as a means of interpreting scripture, this suspicion persisted until the 12th and 13th centuries. The Condemnation of 1277 , which forbade setting philosophy on

9797-458: Was created by ( Kaiser ) Emperor Franz Joseph I during an extensive reorganization of the museum collections, from 1851 to 1876, and opened to the public on August 10, 1889. Located in Vienna , the Museum was named in German as " K.k . Naturhistorisches Hofmuseum" (with "Hofmuseum" translated as "Court Museum"). In the mid-19th century, there was much interest in the natural sciences, and

9898-410: Was not until the 19th century that biology became a unified science. Once scientists discovered commonalities between all living things, it was decided they were best studied as a whole. Some key developments in biology were the discovery of genetics , evolution through natural selection , the germ theory of disease , and the application of the techniques of chemistry and physics at the level of

9999-504: Was seen by some detractors as heresy . By the 12th century, Western European scholars and philosophers came into contact with a body of knowledge of which they had previously been ignorant: a large corpus of works in Greek and Arabic that were preserved by Islamic scholars. Through translation into Latin, Western Europe was introduced to Aristotle and his natural philosophy. These works were taught at new universities in Paris and Oxford by

10100-541: Was the first to question Aristotle's physics teaching. Unlike Aristotle, who based his physics on verbal argument, Philoponus instead relied on observation and argued for observation rather than resorting to a verbal argument. He introduced the theory of impetus . John Philoponus' criticism of Aristotelian principles of physics served as inspiration for Galileo Galilei during the Scientific Revolution . A revival in mathematics and science took place during

10201-435: Was triggered by earlier work of astronomers such as Kepler . By the 19th century, astronomy had developed into formal science, with the introduction of instruments such as the spectroscope and photography , along with much-improved telescopes and the creation of professional observatories. The distinctions between the natural science disciplines are not always sharp, and they share many cross-discipline fields. Physics plays

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