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Impuzamugambi

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The Hutu ( / ˈ h uː t uː / ), also known as the Abahutu , are a Bantu ethnic group which is native to the African Great Lakes region. They mainly live in Rwanda , Burundi , and Uganda where they form one of the principal ethnic groups alongside the Tutsi and the Great Lakes Twa .

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38-702: The Impuzamugambi ( Kinyarwanda: [imhûːzɑmuɡɑmbi] , "those with the same goal" ) was a Hutu militia in Rwanda formed in 1992. Together with the Interahamwe militia, which formed earlier and had more members, the Impuzamugambi was responsible for many of the deaths of Tutsis and moderate Hutus during the Rwandan genocide of 1994. While the Interahamwe was led by prominent figures in

76-592: A Master of Arts in political science and Master of Arts in Law and Diplomacy in 1969. He attained his Doctor of Philosophy in government from Harvard University in 1974. His thesis was titled Politics and Class Formation in Uganda . Mamdani returned to Uganda in early 1972 and joined Makerere University as a teaching assistant at the same time conducting his doctoral research ; only to be expelled later that year by Idi Amin due to his ethnicity. He left Uganda for

114-668: A Bachelor of Arts in political science in 1967. He was among the many students in the northern US who made the bus journey south to Montgomery, Alabama , organized by the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) in March 1965, to participate in the civil rights movement . This was in Montgomery, during the time of but distinct from the Selma to Montgomery marches . He was jailed during

152-511: A campaign of genocide was conducted against the Hutu population in 1972, and an estimated 100,000 Hutus died. In 1993, Burundi's first democratically elected president, Melchior Ndadaye , who was Hutu, was believed to be assassinated by Tutsi officers, as was the person constitutionally entitled to succeed him. This sparked a counter-genocide in Burundi between Hutu political structures and

190-529: A civil war against Rwanda's Hutu government in 1990. A peace agreement was signed, but violence erupted again, culminating in the Rwandan genocide of 1994, when Hutu extremists killed an estimated 800,000 Rwandans, mostly Tutsis. About 30% of the Twa pygmy population of Rwanda were also killed by the Hutu extremists. At the same time, the Rwandan Patriotic Front took control of the country and

228-681: A refugee camp in the United Kingdom in early November just as the three-month deadline was approaching for people of Asian heritage to leave the country. He left England in mid-1973 after being recruited to the University of Dar es Salaam in Tanzania. In Dar es Salaam, he completed writing his thesis and was active with anti-Amin groups. In 1979, he attended the Moshi Conference as an observer and returned to Uganda after Amin

266-557: A scholarship along with 26 other Ugandan students to study in the United States. He was part of the 1963 group of the Kennedy Airlift , a scholarship program that brought hundreds of East Africans to universities in the United States and Canada between 1959 and 1963. The scholarships were part of the independence gift that the new nation had received. Mamdani joined the University of Pittsburgh in 1963 and graduated with

304-428: A shorter underclass, but with little relation to the gene pools that had existed a few centuries ago. The social categories are thus real, but there is little if any detectable genetic differentiation between Hutu and Tutsi. Tishkoff et al. (2009) found their mixed Hutu and Tutsi samples from Rwanda to be predominately of Bantu origin, with minor gene flow from Afro-Asiatic communities (17.7% Afro-Asiatic genes found in

342-401: A small portion of Hutu speak French , the other official language of Rwanda and Burundi, as a lingua franca , although the population is dwindling given the poor relations between Rwanda and France. The Belgian-sponsored Tutsi monarchy survived until 1959 when Kigeli V was exiled from the colony (then called Ruanda-Urundi ). In Burundi, Tutsis, who are the minority, maintained control of

380-404: A spectrum of physical variation in the peoples, Belgian authorities legally mandated ethnic affiliation in the 1920s, based on economic criteria. Formal and discrete social divisions were consequently imposed upon ambiguous biological distinctions. To some extent, the permeability of these categories in the intervening decades helped to reify the biological distinctions, generating a taller elite and

418-782: Is a Ugandan of Indian ancestry . He was born in Mumbai and grew up in Kampala . Both his parents were born in the neighbouring Tanganyika Territory (present day Tanzania ). He was educated at the Government Primary School in Dar es Salaam , Government Primary School in Masaka , K.S.I. Primary School in Kampala, Shimoni and Nakivubo Government Primary Schools in Kampala, and Old Kampala Senior Secondary School . He received

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456-620: Is an Indian-born Ugandan academic, author, and political commentator. He currently serves as the Chancellor of Kampala International University , Uganda. He was the director of the Makerere Institute of Social Research (MISR) from 2010 until February 2022, the Herbert Lehman Professor of Government and a Professor of Anthropology, Political Science and African Studies at Columbia University . Mamdani

494-487: Is still the ruling party as of 2020 . Burundi is also currently governed by a former rebel group, the Hutu CNDD–FDD . As of 2006 , violence between the Hutu and Tutsi had subsided, but the situation in both Rwanda and Burundi was still tense, and tens of thousands of Rwandans were still living outside the country (see Great Lakes refugee crisis ). Mahmood Mamdani Mahmood Mamdani , FBA (born 23 April 1946)

532-479: The CIA World Factbook stated that 84% of Rwandans and 85% of Burundians are Hutu, with Tutsis being the second largest ethnic group at 15% and 14% of residents of Rwanda and Burundi, respectively. However, these figures were omitted in 2017 and no new figures have been published since then. The Twa pygmies , the smallest of the two countries' principal populations, share language and culture with

570-588: The Y-chromosome suggest that the Hutu, like the Tutsi, are largely of Bantu extraction (83% E1b1a , 8% E2 ). Paternal genetic influences associated with the Horn of Africa and North Africa are few (3% E1b1b and 1% R1b ), and are ascribed to much earlier inhabitants who were assimilated. However, the Hutu have considerably fewer Nilo-Saharan paternal lineages (4.3% B) than the Tutsi (14.9% B). In general,

608-502: The Hutu and Tutsi. They are distinguished by a considerably shorter stature. The Hutu are believed to have first emigrated to the Great Lake region from Central Africa in the great Bantu expansion . Various theories have emerged to explain the purported physical differences between them and their fellow Bantu -speaking neighbors, the Tutsi. The Tutsi were pastoralists and are believed to have established aristocratic control over

646-508: The Hutu appear to share a close genetic kinship with neighboring Bantu populations, particularly the Tutsi. However, it is unclear whether this similarity is primarily due to extensive genetic exchanges between these communities through intermarriage or whether it ultimately stems from common origins: [...] generations of gene flow obliterated whatever clear-cut physical distinctions may have once existed between these two Bantu peoples – renowned to be height, body build, and facial features. With

684-539: The Hutu. Mahmood Mamdani states that the Belgian colonial power designated people as Tutsi or Hutu on the basis of cattle ownership, physical measurements and church records. The debate over the ethnic origins of the Hutu and Tutsi within Rwandan politics predates the Rwandan genocide , and it continues to the present day, with the government of Rwanda no longer using the distinction. Modern-day genetic studies of

722-552: The MRND, though it had a significantly more extreme ethnically Pro-Hutu and Anti-Tutsi agenda than the MRND. The smaller Impuzamugambi was less organized than the Interahamwe, but it was responsible for a large portion of genocidal deaths. Alongside killings, both groups employed rape as a tool of genocide . Like the Interahamwe, the Impuzamugambi was trained and equipped by the Rwandan Government Forces (RGF) and

760-544: The Presidential Guard of Rwanda's president and MRND leader, Juvénal Habyarimana . When the genocide started in April 1994, the Interahamwe and the Impuzamugambi acted in close collaboration and largely merged their structures and activities, though some distinction was still evident in differences in their clothing. Some génocidaires participated with both militias in the killings of Tutsis and moderate Hutu. After

798-663: The Tutsi military, in which an estimated 500,000 Burundians died. There were many mass killings of Tutsis and moderate Hutus; these events were deemed to be a genocide by the United Nations International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi. While Tutsis remained in control of Burundi, the conflict resulted in genocide in Rwanda as well. A Tutsi rebel group, the Rwandan Patriotic Front , invaded Rwanda from Uganda, which started

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836-812: The administration on his draft syllabus of a foundation course on Africa called "Problematizing Africa". This was dubbed the "Mamdani Affair". From 1998 to 2002, he served as president of the Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa . In December 2001, he gave a speech on "Making Sense of Violence in Postcolonial Africa" at the Nobel Centennial Symposia in Oslo, Norway. In 2008, in an open online poll, Mamdani

874-507: The genocide, incitement of genocide, and crimes against humanity . They were both sentenced to life imprisonment . The sentence against Barayagwiza was later reduced to 35 years due to a partial violation of due process . After deducting time already served, he would have stayed in prison for at least 27 years but later died. Hutu The Hutu is the largest of the three main population divisions in Burundi and Rwanda . Prior to 2017,

912-722: The government and military. In Rwanda, the political power was transferred from the minority Tutsi to the majority Hutu. In Rwanda, this led to the "Social revolution" and Hutu and Tutsis conflicts. Tens of thousands of Tutsis were killed, and many others fled to neighboring countries, such as Burundi, Uganda , and forming the Banyamulenge Tutsi ethnic group in the South Kivu region of the Belgian Congo . Later, exiled Tutsis from Burundi invaded Rwanda, prompting Rwanda to close its border to Burundi. In Burundi ,

950-580: The intersection between politics and culture, a comparative study of colonialism since 1452, the history of civil war and genocide in Africa, the Cold War and the War on Terror , and the history and theory of human rights. His current research "takes as its point of departure his 1996 book, Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Colonialism ". In Citizen and Subject , Mamdani argues that

988-619: The main period of genocide, members of both militias as well as large parts of the Hutu population fled from Rwanda to the east into the Democratic Republic of Congo . Under the leadership of the CDR, Hassan Ngeze and Jean Bosco Barayagwiza were greatly responsible for commanding the Impuzamugambi. Both were found guilty in 2003 by the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda of planning and leading

1026-653: The march and was allowed to make a phone call. Mamdani called the Ugandan Ambassador in Washington, D.C. , for assistance. The ambassador asked him why he was "interfering in the internal affairs of a foreign country", to which he responded by saying that this was not an internal affair but a freedom struggle and that they too had gotten their freedom only last year. Soon after he learnt about Karl Marx 's work from an FBI visit. He then joined The Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy and graduated in 1968 with

1064-576: The mixed Hutu–Tutsi population). Hutus speak Rwanda-Rundi as their native tongue, which is a member of the Bantu subgroup of the Niger–Congo language family. Rwanda-Rundi is subdivided into the Kinyarwanda and Kirundi dialects, which have been standardized as official languages of Rwanda and Burundi, respectively. It is also spoken as a mother tongue by the Tutsi and Twa. Additionally,

1102-402: The other it was characterised by indirect rule which was rural in nature and involved the incorporation of 'natives' into a 'state enforced customary order' enforced by a 'rural tribal authority' which he termed as 'decentralised despotism'. This state was 'Janus faced' and 'contained a duality: two forms of power under a single hegemonic authority'. In the post-colonial realm, the urban sphere

1140-474: The post-colonial state cannot be understood without a clear analysis of the institutional colonial state. The nature of the colonial state in Africa was a response to the dilemma of the 'native question' and argued that it took on the form of a 'Bifurcated State'. This was characterised by 'direct rule' on the one hand which was a form of 'urban civil power' and focused on the exclusion of natives from civil freedoms guaranteed to citizens in civil society. Whilst on

1178-686: The ruling party, the National Republican Movement for Democracy and Development ( Mouvement républicain national pour la démocratie et le développement , MRND), the Impuzamugambi was controlled by the leadership of the Coalition for the Defense of the Republic ( Coalition pour la Défense de la République , CDR) and recruited its members from the youth wing of the CDR. The CDR was a separate Hutu party which cooperated with

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1216-456: The sedentary Hutu and Twa. Through intermarriage with the Hutu, the Tutsi were gradually assimilated, culturally, linguistically, and racially. Others suggest that the two groups are related but not identical, and they also suggest that the differences between them were exacerbated by Europeans, or they were exacerbated by a gradual, natural split, as those who owned cattle became known as the Tutsi and those who did not own cattle became known as

1254-656: Was also a visiting professor at the University of Durban - Westville in South Africa (January to June in 1993), at the Nehru Memorial Museum & Library in New Delhi (January to June in 1995) and at Princeton University (1995–96). In 1996, he was appointed as the inaugural holder of the AC Jordan chair of African studies at the University of Cape Town . He left after having disagreements with

1292-695: Was overthrown following the Uganda–Tanzania War as a Frontier Interne of the World Council of Churches . He was posted with the Church of Uganda offices in Mengo and was assigned to research the former regime's foreign relations. His report was published as a book: Imperialism and Fascism in Uganda . In 1984, while attending a conference in Dakar , Senegal , he became stateless after his citizenship

1330-477: Was the generic form of a European colony in Africa, encompassing aspects of indirect rule and association . Mamdani is married to Mira Nair , an Indian film director and producer. They met in Kampala, Uganda, in 1989 when Nair was conducting research for her film, Mississippi Masala . She had read his book The Myth of Population Control while an undergraduate at university and From Citizen to Refugee just before their meeting. They married in 1991 and have

1368-711: Was to an extent deracialised but the rural one remained subject to quasi colonial control whether at the hands of conservative rulers for whom it provided their own power base or those of radical ones with centralised authoritarian projects of their own. In this way both experiences reproduced 'one part of the dual legacy of the bifurcated state and created their own distinctive version of despotism'. Mamdani analyses extensive historical case studies in South Africa and Uganda to argue that colonial rule tapped into authoritarian possibilities whose legacies often persist after independence. Challenging conventional perceptions of apartheid in South Africa as exceptional, he argues that apartheid

1406-491: Was voted as the ninth "top public intellectual " in the world on the list of Top 100 Public Intellectuals by Prospect Magazine (UK) and Foreign Policy (US). His essays have appeared in the London Review of Books , among other journals. Mamdani specialises in the study of African and international politics, colonialism and post‐colonialism, and the politics of knowledge production. His works explore

1444-575: Was withdrawn by the government under Milton Obote due to his criticism of its policies. He returned to Dar es Salaam and was a visiting professor at the University of Michigan , Ann Arbor for the spring semester in 1986. After Obote was deposed for the second time, Mamdani once again returned to Uganda in June 1986. He was the founding director of the Centre for Basic Research (CBR), Uganda's first research non-governmental organisation from 1987 to 2006. He

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